significantly cleanup and flesh out page on UB

src/what-unsafe-does.md

@@ -13,21 +13,24 @@ any of these things will cause the ever dreaded Undefined Behavior. Invoking
 Undefined Behavior gives the compiler full rights to do arbitrarily bad things
 to your program. You definitely *should not* invoke Undefined Behavior.
 
+
+
+## Fundamental Undefined Behaviour
+
 Unlike C, Undefined Behavior is pretty limited in scope in Rust. All the core
 language cares about is preventing the following things:
 
-* Dereferencing (using the `*` operator on) dangling, or unaligned pointers, or
-  wide pointers with invalid metadata (see below)
+* Dereferencing (using the `*` operator on) a raw pointer that is dangling, unaligned, or that has invalid metadata (if wide; see references below)
 * Breaking the [pointer aliasing rules][]
-* Unwinding into another language
+* Unwinding out of a function that doesn't have a rust-native [calling convention][]
 * Causing a [data race][race]
 * Executing code compiled with [target features][] that the current thread of execution does
   not support
 * Producing invalid values (either alone or as a field of a compound type such
   as `enum`/`struct`/array/tuple):
     * a `bool` that isn't 0 or 1
     * an `enum` with an invalid discriminant
-    * a null `fn` pointer
+    * a `fn` pointer that is null
     * a `char` outside the ranges [0x0, 0xD7FF] and [0xE000, 0x10FFFF]
     * a `!` (all values are invalid for this type)
     * a reference that is dangling, unaligned, points to an invalid value, or
@@ -37,14 +40,10 @@ language cares about is preventing the following things:
         * `dyn Trait` metadata is invalid if it is not a pointer to a vtable for
           `Trait` that matches the actual dynamic trait the reference points to
     * a `str` that isn't valid UTF-8
-    * an integer (`i*`/`u*`), floating point value (`f*`), or raw pointer read from
-      [uninitialized memory][]
+    * a non-padding byte that is [uninitialized memory][] (see discussion below)
     * a type with custom invalid values that is one of those values, such as a
       `NonNull` that is null. (Requesting custom invalid values is an unstable
-      feature, but some stable libstd types, like `NonNull`, make use of it.)
-
-"Producing" a value happens any time a value is assigned, passed to a
-function/primitive operation or returned from a function/primitive operation.
+      feature, but some stable stdlib types, like `NonNull`, make use of it.)
 
 A reference/pointer is "dangling" if it is null or not all of the bytes it
 points to are part of the same allocation (so in particular they all have to be
@@ -54,18 +53,97 @@ empty, "dangling" is the same as "non-null". Note that slices point to their
 entire range, so it's very important that the length metadata is never too
 large. If for some reason this is too cumbersome, consider using raw pointers.
 
-That's it. That's all the causes of Undefined Behavior baked into Rust. Of
-course, unsafe functions and traits are free to declare arbitrary other
-constraints that a program must maintain to avoid Undefined Behavior. For
-instance, the allocator APIs declare that deallocating unallocated memory is
-Undefined Behavior.
 
-However, violations of these constraints generally will just transitively lead to one of
-the above problems. Some additional constraints may also derive from compiler
-intrinsics that make special assumptions about how code can be optimized. For instance,
-Vec and Box make use of intrinsics that require their pointers to be non-null at all times.
 
-Rust is otherwise quite permissive with respect to other dubious operations.
+## Invalid Values: Yes We Mean It
+
+Many have trouble accepting the consequences of invalid values, so they merit
+some extra discussion here so no one misses it. The claim being made here is a
+very strong and surprising one, so read carefully.
+
+A value is *produced* whenever it is assigned, passed to something, or returned
+from something. Keep in mind references get to assume their referents are valid,
+so you can't even create a reference to an invalid value.
+
+Additionally, [uninitialized memory][] is **always invalid**, so you can't assign it to
+anything, pass it to anything, return it from anything, or take a reference to it.
+Padding bytes aren't technically part of a value's memory, and so may be left
+uninitialized. For unions, this includes the padding bytes of *all* variants,
+as unlike enums, unions are never definitely set to any particular variant (Rust
+does not have the C++ notion of an "active member"). This makes unions
+are the preferred mechanism for working directly with uninitialized memory (see
+[MaybeUninit][] for details).
+
+In simple and blunt terms: you cannot ever even *suggest* the existence of an
+invalid value. No, it's not ok if you "don't use" or "don't read" the value.
+Invalid values are **instant Undefined Behaviour**. The only correct way to
+manipulate memory that could be invalid is with raw pointers using methods
+like write and copy. If you want to leave a local variable or struct field
+uninitialized (or otherwise invalid), you must use a union (like MaybeUninit)
+or enum (like Option) which clearly indicates at the type level that this
+memory may not be part of any value.
+
+
+
+
+## Other Sources of Undefined Behavior
+
+That's it. That's all the causes of Undefined Behavior baked into Rust.
+
+Well, ok, only sort of.
+
+While it's true that the language itself doesn't define that much Undefined
+Behavior, libraries may use unsafe functions and unsafe traits to define
+their own contracts with Undefined Behavior at stake. For instance, the raw
+allocator APIs declare that you aren't allowed to deallocate unallocated memory,
+and the Send trait declares that implementors must in fact be safe to move to
+another thread.
+
+Usually these constraints are in place because violating them will lead to one
+of Rust's Fundamental Undefined Behaviors, but that doesn't have to be the case.
+In particular, several standard library APIs are actually thin wrappers around
+*intrinsics* which tell the compiler it can make certain assumptions.
+
+It's useful to distinguish between these "intrinsic" sources of UB and
+the fundamental ones because the intrinsic ones *don't matter* unless someone
+actually invokes the relevant functions. The fundamental ones, on the other hand,
+are ever-present.
+
+With that said, some intrinsics, like the surprisingly strict [`ptr::offset`][],
+are *pretty* close to fundamental. 😅
+
+
+
+## Not Technically Fundamental Undefined Behavior
+
+There are a few things in Rust that aren't *technically* Fundamental Undefined Behavior,
+but which library authors can implicitly assume don't happen, with Undefined
+Behavior at stake. As such, it should be impossible to do these things in safe
+code, as they can very easily lead to Undefined Behavior.
+
+This section is non-exhaustive, although that may change in the future.
+
+It is *technically not* Undefined Behavior to run a value's destructor twice.
+Authors of destructors may however assume this doesn't happen. For instance, if
+you drop a Box twice it will almost certainly result in Undefined Behavior.
+Technically someone *could* explicitly support double-dropping their type, although
+it's hard to say why.
+
+It is *technically not* Undefined Behavior to reinterpret a bunch of
+bytes as a type whose fields you don't have public access to (assuming you
+don't create any Invalid Values). As [the next section][] discusses, it's very
+important for library authors to be able to rely on privacy and ownership as a
+sort of program integrity proof. For instance, if you reinterpret some random
+non-zero bytes as a Vec, this will almost certainly result in Undefined Behavior.
+It's very important that you *can* just create types from a bunch of bytes if
+done correctly (such as pairing ptr::read with ptr::write).
+
+
+
+
+## Completely Safe Behavior
+
+Rust can also be quite permissive of dubious operations.
 Rust considers it "safe" to:
 
 * Deadlock
@@ -78,9 +156,13 @@ Rust considers it "safe" to:
 
 However any program that actually manages to do such a thing is *probably*
 incorrect. Rust provides lots of tools to make these things rare, but
-these problems are considered impractical to categorically prevent.
+some things are just impractical to categorically prevent.
 
 [pointer aliasing rules]: references.html
 [uninitialized memory]: uninitialized.html
+[the next section]: working-with-unsafe.html
 [race]: races.html
 [target features]: ../reference/attributes/codegen.html#the-target_feature-attribute
+[MaybeUninit]: ../core/mem/union.MaybeUninit.html
+[calling convention]: ../reference/items/external-blocks.html#abi
+[`ptr::offset`]: ../core/primitive.pointer.html#method.offset