memory-layout/memory-operations-and-GDB: Add reading and tasks

Add reading and tasks for lab 2 and modify config.yaml to render the new
content.

Signed-off-by: Adrian-George Dumitrache <[email protected]>

chapters/memory-layout/introduction-to-GDB/drills/tasks/inspect/README.md

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+# Data Inspection
+
+You will solve the exercise starting from the `inspect.c` file located in the `drills/tasks/inspect/support` directory.
+
+Given the following declarations:
+
+```c
+#include <stdio.h>
+
+int main() {
+    unsigned int a = 4127;
+    int b = -27714;
+    short c = 1475;
+    int v[] = {0xCAFEBABE, 0xDEADBEEF, 0x0B00B135, 0xBAADF00D, 0xDEADC0DE};
+
+    unsigned int *int_ptr = (unsigned int *) &v;
+
+    for (int i = 0 ; i < sizeof(v) / sizeof(*int_ptr) ; ++i) {
+        ++int_ptr;
+    }
+
+    return 0;
+}
+```
+
+Compile the source code and run the executable with GDB.
+Set a breakpoint at `main` and observe how the data is represented in memory.
+For this task, you will use the `print` and `examine` commands.
+
+> **NOTE:**
+>
+> - To display the value of a variable in hexadecimal, use `p/x variable_name`
+> - To display the value from a pointer, use `p *pointer_name`, and to inspect the data at a memory address, use `x memory_address`.

chapters/memory-layout/introduction-to-GDB/drills/tasks/inspect/support/.gitignore

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+/inspect

chapters/memory-layout/introduction-to-GDB/drills/tasks/inspect/support/Makefile

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+CC = gcc
+CFLAGS = -Wall -g
+LDFLAGS =
+
+TARGET_EXEC = inspect
+
+SRCS := $(shell find $(SRC_DIRS) -name "*.c")
+OBJS := $(SRCS:.c=.o)
+
+$(info OBJS is $(OBJS))
+$(info SRCS is $(SRCS))
+
+$(TARGET_EXEC): $(OBJS)
+	$(CC) $(OBJS) -o $@ $(LDFLAGS)
+
+.o: %.c
+	$(CC) $(CFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS) -c $< -o $@
+
+.PHONY: clean
+
+clean:
+	$(RM) -r *.o $(TARGET_EXEC)

chapters/memory-layout/introduction-to-GDB/drills/tasks/inspect/support/inspect.c

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+// SPDX-License-Identifier: BSD-3-Clause
+
+#include <stdio.h>
+
+int main(void)
+{
+	unsigned int a = 4127;
+	int b = -27714;
+	short c = 1475;
+	int v[] = {0xCAFEBABE, 0xDEADBEEF, 0x0B00B135, 0xBAADF00D, 0xDEADC0DE};
+
+	unsigned int *int_ptr = (unsigned int *) &v;
+
+	for (unsigned int i = 0 ; i < sizeof(v) / sizeof(*int_ptr) ; ++i)
+		++int_ptr;
+
+	(void) a;
+	(void) b;
+	(void) c;
+
+	return 0;
+}

chapters/memory-layout/introduction-to-GDB/guides/segfault/README.md

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+# GDB Tutorial: Debugging a Segfault
+
+You will solve the exercise starting from the `segfault.c` file located in the `drills/tasks/segfault/support` directory.
+
+Compile and run the source code from the skeleton (if you are not using the Makefile, make sure to compile with the -g flag).
+In short, the program takes a number n, allocates a vector of size n, and initializes it with the first n numbers from the Fibonacci sequence.
+However, after running the program, you see: Segmentation fault (core dumped).
+
+Start GDB with the executable:
+
+```bash
+gdb ./segfault
+```
+
+Once you have started GDB, all interaction happens through the GDB prompt.
+Run the program using the `run` command.
+What do you notice?
+GDB hangs at the input reads.
+
+Set a breakpoint at `main` using the `break main` command.
+You will see the message in the prompt:
+
+```c
+Breakpoint 1 at 0x7d3: file seg.c, line 21 /* The memory address should not be the same */
+```
+
+Next, we will step through the instructions one by one.
+To do this, use the `next` or `n` command (watch the GDB cursor to see the current instruction and repeat the process).
+You will notice that GDB hangs at `scanf`, so input a value for `n` and continue stepping through.
+If you have entered a large value for `n` and want to skip the iteration, use the `continue` command.
+Eventually, you will reach the line `v[423433] = 3;`, and GDB will display:
+
+```bash
+Program received signal SIGSEGV, Segmentation fault
+```
+
+Inspect the memory at `v[423433]` using `x &v[423433]` and you will receive the message:
+
+```c
+Cannot access memory at address 0x5555558f3e94 /* The memory address should not be the same */
+```
+
+What happened?
+We accessed a memory area with restricted access.

chapters/memory-layout/introduction-to-GDB/guides/segfault/support/.gitignore

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+/segfault

chapters/memory-layout/introduction-to-GDB/guides/segfault/support/Makefile

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+CC = gcc
+CFLAGS = -Wall -g
+LDFLAGS =
+
+TARGET_EXEC = segfault
+
+SRCS := $(shell find $(SRC_DIRS) -name "*.c")
+OBJS := $(SRCS:.c=.o)
+
+$(info OBJS is $(OBJS))
+$(info SRCS is $(SRCS))
+
+$(TARGET_EXEC): $(OBJS)
+	$(CC) $(OBJS) -o $@ $(LDFLAGS)
+
+.o: %.c
+	$(CC) $(CFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS) -c $< -o $@
+
+.PHONY: clean
+
+clean:
+	$(RM) -r *.o $(TARGET_EXEC)

chapters/memory-layout/introduction-to-GDB/guides/segfault/support/segfault.c

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+// SPDX-License-Identifier: BSD-3-Clause
+
+#include <stdio.h>
+#include <stdlib.h>
+
+int nth_fibo(const int n)
+{
+	if (n == 1 || n == 2)
+		return 1;
+
+	int first = 1, second = 1, nth_fib = 0;
+
+	for (int i = 3 ; i <= n ; ++i) {
+		nth_fib = first + second;
+		first = second;
+		second = nth_fib;
+	}
+
+	return nth_fib;
+}
+
+int main(void)
+{
+	int n;
+
+	scanf("%d", &n);
+	int *v = malloc(n * sizeof(*v));
+
+	for (int i = 0 ; i < n; ++i)
+		v[i] = nth_fibo(i);
+
+	v[423433] = 3;
+	free(v);
+
+	return 0;
+}

chapters/memory-layout/introduction-to-GDB/reading/README.md

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+# GNU Debugger (GDB)
+
+## Starting GDB
+
+GDB is a powerful tool for debugging programs.
+It allows you to inspect the state of a program at a certain point in its execution, set breakpoints, and step through the code, among other things.
+To start GDB, you need to run the following command:
+
+```bash
+gdb [program_name]
+```
+
+## Running the Program
+
+To run the program being debugged, there are two available commands:
+
+- `r` or `run` - this command will run the program
+- `start` - unlike `run`, this command will start the program but immediately stop after entering `main`
+
+## Breakpoints
+
+The essential element of GDB is the breakpoint.
+Essentially, setting a breakpoint at a certain instruction causes the program's execution to halt every time it reaches that point.
+Setting a breakpoint is done with the following command:
+
+```gdb
+break [location]
+```
+
+where *location* can represent the name of a function, the line number of the code, or even a memory address, in which case the address must be preceded by the symbol *.
+For example: `break \*0xCAFEBABE`
+
+## Stepping through instructions
+
+- `si` or `stepi` - executes the current instruction
+- `ni` or `nexti` - similar to `stepi`, but if the current instruction is a function call, the debugger will not enter the function
+- `c` or `continue` - continues program execution until the next breakpoint or until it finishes
+- `finish` - continues program execution until leaving the current function
+
+## Inspecting Memory
+
+- `p` or `print` var - displays the value of `var`.
+Print is a very flexible command, allowing dereferencing of pointers, displaying addresses of variables, and indexing through arrays using *, & and [].
+The print command can be followed by the /f parameter specifying the display format (x for hex, d for decimal, s for string).
+- `x` or `examine` - Inspects the content at the given address.
+The usage of this command is as follows:
+
+```text
+x/nfu address
+```
+
+where:
+
+- n is the number of displayed elements
+- f is the display format (x for hex, d for decimal, s for string, and i for instructions)
+- u is the size of each element (b for 1 byte, h for 2, w for 4, and g for 8 bytes)
+
+We recommend the article [Debugging](https://ocw.cs.pub.ro/courses/programare/tutoriale/debugging) for further understanding of how to use GDB both in the CLI and through an IDE.
+
+## pwndbg
+
+[pwndbg](https://github.com/pwndbg/pwndbg) is a GDB plugin that provides a number of useful features for debugging and exploiting binaries.
+It makes GDB easier to use and infinitely more powerful. It will become more useful as we progress through the lab sessions.
+
+Cheatsheet [gdb + pwndbg](https://cheatography.com/superkojiman/cheat-sheets/gdb-pwndbg/); pwndbg [features](https://github.com/pwndbg/pwndbg/blob/dev/FEATURES.md)
+
+```pwndbg
+pwndbg> show context-sections
+'regs disasm code ghidra stack backtrace expressions'
+# for smaller terminals
+pwndbg> set context-sections 'regs code stack'
+# display memory area in hex + ASCII
+pwndbg> hexdump $ecx
+# display stack
+pwndbg> stack
+# permanently display memory dump of 8 bytes
+pwndbg> ctx-watch execute "x/8xb &msg"
+
+# recommended settings in .gdbinit
+set context-sections 'regs code expressions'
+set show-flags on
+set dereference-limit 1
+```

chapters/memory-layout/memory-operations/demos/array-vs-pointer/.gitignore

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+/array_vs_pointer

chapters/memory-layout/memory-operations/demos/array-vs-pointer/Makefile

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+CC = gcc
+CFLAGS = -Wall -g
+LDFLAGS =
+
+TARGET_EXEC = array_vs_pointer
+
+SRCS := $(shell find $(SRC_DIRS) -name "*.c")
+OBJS := $(SRCS:.c=.o)
+
+$(info OBJS is $(OBJS))
+$(info SRCS is $(SRCS))
+
+$(TARGET_EXEC): $(OBJS)
+	$(CC) $(OBJS) -o $@ $(LDFLAGS)
+
+.o: %.c
+	$(CC) $(CFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS) -c $< -o $@
+
+.PHONY: clean
+
+clean:
+	$(RM) -r *.o $(TARGET_EXEC)

chapters/memory-layout/memory-operations/demos/array-vs-pointer/array_vs_pointer.c

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+// SPDX-License-Identifier: BSD-3-Clause
+
+#include <stdio.h>
+
+char v[] = "ana are mere";
+char *p = "ana are mere";
+
+int main(void)
+{
+	printf("sizeof(v): %zu\n", sizeof(v));
+	printf("sizeof(p): %zu\n", sizeof(p));
+
+	printf("v[1]: %c\n", v[1]);
+	printf("p[1]: %c\n", p[1]);
+
+	v[1] = 'd';
+	// p[1] = 'd'; /* this seg faults */
+
+	return 0;
+}

chapters/memory-layout/memory-operations/drills/tasks/delete_first/README.md

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+# Deleting the First Occurrence of a Pattern from a String
+
+You will solve the exercise starting from the `delete-first.c` file located in the `drills/tasks/delete-first/support` directory.
+
+Given a string and a pattern, implement the `delete_first(char *s, char *pattern)` function that returns the string obtained by removing the first occurrence of the pattern in `s`.
+
+> **NOTE:** For `s = "Ana are mere"` and `pattern = "re"`, the function should return the string "Ana a mere".
+>
+> **IMPORTANT:** Warning
+>
+> ```c
+> char *s = "Ana are mere" // allocates the string in a read-only memory area (immutable content);
+> char s[] = "Ana are mere" // allocates the string in a read-write memory area (modifiable content);
+> ```

chapters/memory-layout/memory-operations/drills/tasks/delete_first/solution/.gitignore

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+/delete_first

chapters/memory-layout/memory-operations/drills/tasks/delete_first/solution/Makefile

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+../support/Makefile

chapters/memory-layout/memory-operations/drills/tasks/delete_first/solution/delete_first.c

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+// SPDX-License-Identifier: BSD-3-Clause
+
+#include <stdio.h>
+#include <string.h>
+#include <stdlib.h>
+#include <assert.h>
+
+char *delete_first(char *s, char *pattern)
+{
+	char *found = strstr(s, pattern);
+
+	/**
+	 * Handle the case where the pattern does not appear in the
+	 * string of characters.
+	 */
+	if (!found)
+		return strdup(s);
+
+	/* number of characters before the first occurrence of the pattern */
+	int nbefore = found - s;
+	/* number of characters to be removed */
+	int nremoved = strlen(pattern);
+	/* Allocate exactly what we need. */
+	char *result = malloc(strlen(s) + 1 - nremoved);
+
+	/* Check if the allocation worked */
+	if (result == NULL) {
+		perror("malloc");
+		exit(1);
+	}
+
+	/* Construct the result */
+	strncpy(result, s, nbefore);
+	strcpy(result + nbefore, found + nremoved);
+
+	return result;
+}
+
+int main(void)
+{
+	/**
+	 * Replace *s with s[], because *s allocated the string in a
+	 * read-only memory area (.rodata), and the delete_first() function
+	 * needs to modify the string s
+	 */
+	char s[] = "Ana are mere";
+	char *pattern = "re";
+
+	printf("%s\n", delete_first(s, pattern));
+
+	return 0;
+}

chapters/memory-layout/memory-operations/drills/tasks/delete_first/support/.gitignore

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+/delete_first