glossary.yaml

-   Accessibility: '


        Accessibility is "the quality or condition of being accessible (in various
        senses)," and "access" refers to "to obtain, acquire; to get hold of" or "to
        gain admission to" (source: Oxford English Dictionary online). "Accessibility"
        in design speak often refers to design for people with disabilities (see [Shawn
        Lawton Henry, et al. 2014](https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=2596695.2596719)).
        This workshop employs the term "accessibility" to refer to access to those
        folks as well as to people in different international contexts and/or who
        speak different languages, and to methods of open or non-proprietary design
        and sharing.

        '
-   Anaconda: '


        Anaconda is a distribution for Python (and other languages) with tools for
        data analysis.


        #


        - [Anaconda Documentation](https://docs.anaconda.com/anaconda/)'
-   append: "\n\n`append()` is a method that adds an element to the end of a list.\
        \ \n\n\n\nRead more about [append()](https://www.w3schools.com/python/ref_list_append.asp)\
        \ at w3schools.\n"
-   Attribute Table: '


        An *attribute* is a characteristic of a feature. Attributes can contain data
        of different types: strings (text), numerical values, dates, or booleans.
        Each column in the *Attribute Table* represents a different attribute.

        '
-   Attributes: '


        Attributes offer secondary information about an element in HTML. Each attribute
        is nestled within the element tag. For example, the HTML command `<a href="https://www.dhinstitutes.org/">Digital
        Humanities Research Institute</a>` contains a link to the Digital Humanities
        Research Institute website. Here, the `a` element denotes a hyperlink and
        the `href` denote an attribute that specifies the hyperlink''s destination.'
-   'Attribute type ': '


        Attributes can be stored as different data types, including strings (text),
        integer, double, dates, and booleans.

        '
-   The Belmont Report: '


        Published by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects
        of Biomedical and Behavioral Research in 1979, the Belmont Report ""identifies
        basic ethical principles and guidelines that address ethical issues arising
        from the conduct of research with human subjects" (source: [HHS.gov](https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html).

        '
-   Beneficence: '


        Beneficence is a core principle in *the Belmont Report* that stipulates that
        researchers should "(1) do not harm and (2) maximize possible benefits and
        minimize possible harms." A key concern when applying this principle is an
        *assessment of risks and benefits* (source: [The Belmont Report](https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html#xbasic).

        '
-   Big data: "\n\n\"Big data\" generally refers to digital projects that deal with\
        \ very large datasets from which different kinds of patterns or analyses are\
        \ computed. Oftentimes big data researchers do not obtain the informed consent\
        \ of each person represented by or linked to the obtained data. This can be\
        \ an ethical concern, given that \"even seemingly innocuous and anonymized\
        \ data have produced unanticipated ethical questions and detrimental impacts\"\
        \ (source: [Matthew Zook, et al. 2017](http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005399)).\
        \   \n"
-   Boolean: "\n\nA data type in Python that is either \"True\" or \"False\" and is\
        \ often used as a basic building block for logical operations. They are implied\
        \ in conditional statements (which check if expressions are true in order\
        \ to run a bit of code) and can be retruend by functions. \n\n\n\n- Read more\
        \ about [Booleans and logical operators](https://thomas-cokelaer.info/tutorials/python/boolean.html)\
        \ here. \n\n\n\n- Check out w3school's tutorial on using [Booleans](https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_booleans.asp).\
        \ \n"
-   branch: '


        Branches are not used in the Git session in this curriculum, but are a frequently
        used feature of Git. A branch is an alternative timeline of commits, usually
        used to add a new feature or some other substantive change to a repository.
        Once the feature or change is complete, the branch can be reintegrated with
        the main timeline, which is usually called "master." The process of reintegration
        is referred to as "merging".


        #


        - ["Git Branching - Branches in a Nutshell"](https://git-scm.com/book/en/v2/Git-Branching-Branches-in-a-Nutshell),
        in Scott Chacon and Ben Straub, _Pro Git_, 2nd edition (Apress, 2014)


        #


        - ["Git Branching - Basic Branching and Merging"](https://git-scm.com/book/en/v2/Git-Branching-Basic-Branching-and-Merging),
        _git-scm.com_

        '
-   Category: "\n\nA category is \"a term (meaning literally \u2018predication\u2019\
        \ or \u2018assertion\u2019) given to certain general classes of terms, things,\
        \ or notions\" (source: Oxford English Dictionary online). The construction\
        \ and reproduction of categories\u2014through e.g. library subject headings,\
        \ tags on websites, categorization methods informing algorithms, and spatial\
        \ divisions on a map\u2014are an important ethical consideration when doing\
        \ digital research or a digital project.\n"
-   Class: '


        Class is an attribute used in HTML and CSS to select and access specific elements.
        Class is especially useful in applying standard styling to repeating elements
        across a website. This helps create a consistent look to a website.'
-   Cloning: "\n\nCloning a repository means making a copy of a repository on GitHub,\
        \ to download and work on locally--on your local machine. \n\nCloning can\
        \ be especially useful when you're joining a group project that is hosted\
        \ on GitHub, and you want your changes to eventually be pushed and shared\
        \ with that same repository. \n\nCloning can also be used in conjunction with\
        \ forking. For example, you could fork the GitHub repository of this lesson\
        \ to your GitHub account, and then clone or download the repository to make\
        \ edits and admendations. Then you would push those changes to a repository\
        \ under your GtiHub account. Git and GitHub work to make sure attribution\
        \ of contributions and lineage are transparent. \n\n#\n\n- [Cloning a repository\
        \ from GitHub](https://docs.github.com/en/github/creating-cloning-and-archiving-repositories/cloning-a-repository-from-github)"
-   Color ramp: "\n\nprovides a range of color to the features of a map layer based\
        \ on an attribute from the layer. \n"
-   Command Line: '


        The command line is a text-based way of interacting with your computer. Another
        way of looking at it is that the command line is a program that accepts commands
        as text input and converts them into appropriate operating system functions.


        There are other words that can be used synonymously with "command line." Here
        are some of them:

        - _bash_ - the programming language used in the command line. (Yes, we tricked
        you, you''re already programming!) Short for "Born Again SHell," for reasons
        people on the internet will happily tell you about.

        - _the terminal_ - Particularly used to refer to the command line on macOS.
        This term made more sense when universities used mainframes and every computer
        was only a terminal.

        - _the shell_ - The part of an operating system that interacts with a human.
        Technically, anything you do in a graphical interface is also in a shell,
        but in practice this is just another synonym for the command line.

        - _cli_ - "command-line interface," this is a super technical term for the
        command line used to impress everyone around you.

        '
-   Commit: "\n\nWhen you commit your changes using Git, you are created a version\
        \ a file that can be referenced even after further changes to the file are\
        \ made and committed. \n\nMaking a commit involves 2 steps. \n- First, you\
        \ need to stage  the files, or tell Git, which files it should pay attention\
        \ to. Where are your changes? You use the command `git add` to point to them.\
        \ \n- Second, you create the version by committing the changes. You use the\
        \ command `git commit` to take the snapshot and add a label (the -m flag)\
        \ that can help you in returning to that version in the future.\n\nMaking\
        \ a commit is a lot like taking a photo. First, you have to decide who will\
        \ be in the photo and arrange your friends or family in front of the camera\
        \ (the staging process). Once everyone is present and ready, you take the\
        \ picture, entering that moment into the permanent record (the commit process).\n\
        \nBefore any of this can happen, you must initialize the Git folder, or put\
        \ it on Git's radar. This only needs to happen one time to a folder."
-   Concordance: '


        Nltk function that allows to see the characters on both sides of the word;
        an easy way to investigate the context of a certain word across a corpus.'
-   Consent: '


        To provide consent is to actively provide permission or agree to something.
        The more specific term *"informed consent"* is used to emphasize that in order
        to provide such permission, a person must be provided clear and correct information
        (not deception), and be able to comprehend such information. In the context
        of a research study, per *The Belmont Report* guidelines, a person must also
        be informed of their right to volunteer or not to participate in the study,
        and of their right to withdraw from the study at any point. Ideally, consent
        would also be enthusiastically given (see [The Belmont Report](belmont.md)
        page; also see [this image](https://github.com/DHRI-Curriculum/ethics/blob/master/images/consent_pp.png)
        from Planned Parenthood that reads "CONSENT: I [heart] FRIES: Freely given,
        Reversible, Informed, Enthusiastic, Specific."'
-   Corpus: '


        A collection of texts that are somehow related to each other. Plural: /corpora/'
-   CSS: "\n\nCSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is usually used in conjunction with HTML.\
        \ HTML tells the browser what the different parts of a document _are_. CSS\
        \ tells the browser what the parts of the document should _look like_. It\
        \ is essentially a set of rules that are applied when rendering an HTML document.\
        \ Its name\u2014Cascading Style Sheets\u2014refers to the fact that there\
        \ is an order of precedence in how the browswer applies CSS rules to a text. "
-   CSS Selectors: "\n\nCSS Selectors select HTML elements on which to apply particular\
        \ styling rules. For example, in the following CSS rule set, the `h1` selector\
        \ applies orange color and italics to all content in the `h1` element.\n\n\
        ```css\nh1 {\n    color: orange;\n    font-style: italic;\n}\n```\n"
-   CSV (file format): '


        CSV or Comma Separated Values uses---you guessed it!---commas to separate
        values. Each line (First Name, Last Name) is a new "record" and each column
        (separated by a comma) is a new "field." This data format stores tabular data
        in a clean way that facilitates the transfer between different data architectures.
        As data types go, it is very rudimentary (even predating computers!) and is
        easy to type, without needing special characters beyond a comma.


        ```

        First Name,Last Name

        Smally,McTiny

        Kitty,Kitty

        Foots,Smith

        Tiger,Jaws

        ```'
-   Data: "\n\nThere are many different perspectives towards what counts as data.\
        \ Some cites data as \"material or information\" for which \"an argument,\
        \ theory, test or hypothesis, or another research output is based\" upon ([Queensland\
        \ University of Technology](http://www.mopp.qut.edu.au/D/D_02_08.jsp)), while\
        \ others critiques the understanding of data as \"mere descriptions ofa priori\
        \ conditions\" ([Johanna Drucker](http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000091/000091.html)).\
        \ Data, in our case, are subjective (because of our interests and assumptions)\
        \ and are materials and/or information necessary to come to our conclusion.\
        \ \n\n#\n\n- Johanna Drucker's [Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display](http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000091/000091.html)\n\
        - Matthew Salganik's [Readymade v. Custommade Data](https://www.bitbybitbook.com/en/1st-ed/introduction/themes/)\n\
        - Catherine D'Ignazio and Lauren Klein's [The Numbers Don't Speak for Themselves](https://data-feminism.mitpress.mit.edu/)"
-   Database: '


        A database is a collection of data that is structured to allow for manipulation.

        '
-   Descriptive Analysis: '


        Descriptive analysis are techniques geared towards summarizing a data set,
        such as:


        - Mean

        - Median

        - Mode

        - Average

        - Standard deviation'
-   Dictionaries: '


        A collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed. In Python dictionaries
        are written with curly brackets, and they have keys and values.'
-   dir(): "\n\nThe `dir()` method returns a list of possible methods and attributes\
        \ of an object, such as a variable or string. Useful for seeing what kinds\
        \ of things you can do with that object. \n\n\n\n- Learn how to use [dir()](https://www.w3schools.com/python/ref_func_dir.asp)\
        \ on w3schools.\n"
-   Discourse: '


        Discourses, per Michel Foucault''s theorization, are competing ideologies
        (or individualized groups of statements), constructed by people and institutions
        in power over time, that become dominant amongst societies of people. Discourses
        produce knowledge in mediums that a society perceives as normative and generally
        does not question; in doing so, discourses pervasively shape how the people
        in that society think, act, and react (see Michel Foucault, _The Archaeology
        of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language_, 1969).'
-   '"The Distance Principle"': '


        The distance principle refers to "the extent to which Internet texts or data
        sets might connect to persons [even when] the conceptual or experiential distance
        between the researcher and author/participant [does not appear to be] close"
        (source:  [Annette Markam and Elizabeth Buchanon](https://www.academia.edu/8037870/Ethical_Concerns_in_Internet_Research).

        '
-   Elements: '


        Elements identify the different parts of a page, such as paragraphs, headings,
        titles, body text, images and more. Elements are demarcated by tags which
        enclose the content of an element (ex. `<head>` and `</head>` are tags that
        denote the head element of your page).'
-   Ethics: '


        Ethics are the moral principles that an individual aims to follow in practice
        to the best of their ability, research, and foresight.

        '
-   f-string: "\n\nAlso called \u201Cformatted string literals,\u201D f-strings are\
        \ ways of formating text so that expressions (like variables) can appear within\
        \ strings. They have an f at the beginning and curly braces containing expressions\
        \ that will be replaced with their values. \n\n\n\n- Read more about [f-strings](https://realpython.com/python-f-strings/#f-strings-a-new-and-improved-way-to-format-strings-in-python)\
        \ on Real Python.\n\n\n\n- See [examples for using f-strings](https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/formatted-string-literals-f-strings-python/)\
        \ on Geeks for Geeks.\n"
-   Feature: "\n\nA feature is a visual element on a map. For vector data it's the\
        \ points, lines and polygons. Each individual feature (each point, each line,\
        \ and each polygon) is represented as a row in the attribute table. \n"
-   "Filesystem\t": "\n\nA\_filesystem (or file system) is a set of methods and data\
        \ structures that an operating system (e.g., Windows, MacOS, Linux, etc.)\
        \ uses to  control how data is stored and retrieved on a disk (such as your\
        \ computer\u2019s hard drive, or even a USB pen drive). Some operating systems\
        \ include support for more than one file system. "
-   float: "\n\nA data type in Python that represents numbers with decimal points.\
        \ \n\n\n\n- Read more about [floats](https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/python-float-type-and-its-methods/)\
        \ on Geeks for Geeks.\n"
-   Forking: "\n\nForking is a proper function of the GitHub platform. It supports\
        \ collaboration by allowing you to copy someone else's repository to your\
        \ own account on GitHub while maintaining a trail of attribution and derivation.\
        \ \n\nOnce the files are forks, you can clone or download them, edit them,\
        \ and share your changes on GitHub. Git and GitHub help track and be transparent\
        \ about contributions or attribution. \n\n#\n\n- [About Forking](https://docs.github.com/en/github/collaborating-with-issues-and-pull-requests/about-forks).\
        \ GitHub Writing."
-   for-loop: "\n\nA for-loop is a way of going through an entire sequence of items,\
        \ like a list. A for-loop \"iterates\" over a sequence, which means it does\
        \ something to each item in that sequence. With for-loops we can carry out\
        \ a command for multiple items in a sequence. \n\n\n\n- Check out the [for-loop](https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_for_loops.asp)\
        \ description on w3schools.\n"
-   FTP: '


        FTP is a protocol used to share files from your computer (_a client_) to another
        computer called a server, and back again over the internet. '
-   Function: "\n\nFunctions are ways of doing things in Python. They take some input\
        \ and do something with it, and can return a value. For example, a function\
        \ can return the results of a calculation. If your function takes an argument,\
        \ it will go inside the parentheses. \n\nFunctions are first defined then\
        \ called to be executed. This allows you to first write the function but only\
        \ call it (execute its code) when you need to in Python.\n\nExample: \n\n\
        ```python\ndef multiply(a, b):\n    result = a * b\n    return \n\nmultiply(2,\
        \ 3)\n```\n\nThe first code block defines the function `multiply()` which\
        \ takes `a` & `b` as arguments. The function sets `result` to the caluclation\
        \ of `a` x `b`. It then returns the value of result. Finally, the function\
        \ is called with arguments `2` & `3`, which will be substituted for `a` and\
        \ `b` in the function definition. \n\n\n\n- More in-depth exploration of [functions](https://www.programiz.com/python-programming/function)\
        \ on Programiz.\n\n\n\n- Simple walk-through of [functions](https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_functions.asp)\
        \ on w3schools.\n"
-   Geocoding: '


        is a spatial process that uses a *geographic address locator* to match addresses
        with location coordinates and create a point layer. It turns a text file (e.g.
        CSV) into a vector file (e.g. points layer).

        '
-   Git: "\n\nGit is software used for version control\u2014that is, tracking the\
        \ state of files and changes you make to them over time. Git can be enabled\
        \ in a folder, and then used to save the state of the contents in that folder\
        \ at different points in the future, as designated by you.\n\nGit is also\
        \ useful for collaboration, as a repository can be shared across computers,\
        \ and its contents can be asynchonously developed and eventually merged with\
        \ the main project. \n\nIn this workshop, you'll use Git on your local machines\
        \ to track changes you make to a file. \n\n#\n\n- Perez-Riverol, Y. and colleagues.\
        \ (2016) _[Ten Simple Rules for Taking Advantage of Git and GitHub](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004947)._\
        \ PLOS Computational Biology.\n- Chacon, S. and Straub, B. [Pro Git](https://git-scm.com/book/en/v2).\
        \ Published by Apress.\n\n#\n\n- [An intro to Git: What it is and how to use\
        \ it](https://www.freecodecamp.org/news/what-is-git-and-how-to-use-it-c341b049ae61/)\n\
        \n#\n\n- [Atlassian's Git cheat sheet](https://www.atlassian.com/git/tutorials/atlassian-git-cheatsheet)\
        \ is a great resource, handy to have next to your computer as you're learning\
        \ how to use Git.\n"
-   GitHub: "\n\nGitHub is a online platform for hosting Git repositories. It functions\
        \ for some, predominantly programmers, as a social network for sharing and\
        \ collaborating on code-based projects. Users can share their own projects,\
        \ as well as search for others, which they can then often work on and contribute\
        \ to.\n\nDigital Humanists, librarians, and other academics are also finding\
        \ ways Git and GitHub are useful in writing projects and teaching. \n\nGitHub\
        \ also serves as a web-hosting platform, allowing users to create websites\
        \ from their repositories.\n\n#\n\n- Pe-Than, E.P.P., Dabbish, L. and Herbsleb,\
        \ J.D. (2019). [Collaborative Writing at Scale: A Case Study of Two Open-Text\
        \ Projects Done on GitHub](https://ci.acm.org/2019/assets/proceedings/CI_2019_paper_65.pdf).Collective\
        \ Intelligence.\n\n\n#\n\n- [Getting Started with GitHub](https://help.github.com/en/github/getting-started-with-github)\n\
        - Miyake, K. (2016). [Create Your (FREE) Website Using Github and Jekyll](https://digitalfellows.commons.gc.cuny.edu/2016/03/21/create-your-free-website-using-github-and-jekyll/).\
        \ Tagging the Tower blog.\n- Visconti, A. (2016). [Building a static website\
        \ with Jekyll and GitHub Pages](https://programminghistorian.org/en/lessons/building-static-sites-with-jekyll-github-pages).\
        \ Programming Historian."
-   "GUI\_": "\n\n\"Graphical User Interface,\u201D pronounced \"gooey.\u201D It\u2019\
        s a system of interactive visual components for computer software\u2026 basically,\
        \ anything on a computer that isn't in the command line. All familiar elements\
        \ of day-to-day computer tasks such as images, windows, prompts, buttons,\
        \ and progress bars are part of the GUI. The way most people interact with\
        \ computers. Some tasks can only be done in a GUI, while others can only be\
        \ done in the command line.\n"
-   Hegemony: "\n\nAntonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony refers to \u201Cthe ability\
        \ of a dominant group to create [majority] consent and agreement [around a\
        \ particular system of meanings] within a population without the use or threat\
        \ of force\u201D (source: Kenneth Guest, *Cultural Anthropology: A Toolkit\
        \ for a Global Age*, 2014, page 52). Hegemony is one way of understanding\
        \ how dominant forms of knowledge and power produce and reinforce each other.\n"
-   High Quality Data: "\n\nHigh quality data is often understood as valid, accurate,\
        \ complete, consistent, and uniformed. This is often achieved through the\
        \ cleaning process. \n\nMeasurements are valid when they conform to set constraints.\
        \ They are accurate when they represent the correct values (often requiring\
        \ cross-referencing trusted external sources). They are complete when they\
        \ represent everything that might be known and are consistent when observations\
        \ do not contradict each other. Measurements are uniform when the same unit\
        \ of measure is used in all relevant measurements.  "
-   HTML: '


        HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is a markup language used to write web-based
        documents. It enables us to provide web browsers with information about the
        _content_ of a document. We can, for example, indicate that some part of our
        document is a paragraph, image, heading, or link. The browser uses this information
        when displaying the document for users.'
-   Human subjects: "\n\nA human subject refers to \"a living individual about whom\
        \ an investigator (whether professional or student) conducting research obtains\
        \ (1) data through intervention or interaction with the individual, or (2)\
        \ identifiable private information\" (source: [HHS.gov](https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/regulations/45-cfr-46/index.html)).\
        \ However, according to [the AoIR Ethics Working Committee's 2012 report](http://aoir.org/reports/ethics2.pdf),\
        \ \"The definition of \u2018human subject\u2019 has become, unfortunately,\
        \ a litmus test for whether or not one needs to undergo ethical review before\
        \ conducting research... \u2018human subject\u2019 has never been a good fit\
        \ for describing many internet-based research environments.\"\n"
-   ID: '


        ID is an attribute used in HTML and CSS to create unique identifiers. IDs
        facilitate fine-grained styling of websites by allowing us to select and access
        unique elements.'
-   if-Statement: "\n\n\nIf-statements check whether a statement meets a certain condition,\
        \ and are used to write code that \"makes decisions\". They start with `if`\
        \ followed by a condition which is evaluated to be either true or false. If\
        \ it's true, the block after the colon (`:`) is run. If it's false, the block\
        \ under the `else:` is run. \n\n```python\nweather = \"sunny\"\n\nif weather\
        \ == \"sunny\":\n    print(\"Bring your shades\")\nelif weather == \"rainy\"\
        :\n\tprint(\"Bring your umbrella\")\nelse:\n    print(\"I don't know what\
        \ you should bring! I'm just a little program...\")\n```\n\n\n\n- More detailed\
        \ explanation of [if-statements and conditionals](https://realpython.com/python-conditional-statements/)\
        \ on Real Python.\n\n\n\n- Quick explanation of [if-statements](https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_conditions.asp)\
        \ from w3schools.\n"
-   Impact approach: '


        An impact approach to doing ethical research is based on the assumption that
        all research has impacts and thus a researcher should be critical and intentional
        with what sorts of impacts they aim for or expect to result, and take personal
        responsibility for the effects of their research methods (source: [Annette
        Markham 2016](http://annettemarkham.com/2016/05/okcupid-data-release-fiasco-its-time-to-rethink-ethics-education/)).
        Markham focuses on three levels of impact: direct impacts on people, the ramifications
        of (re)producing categories, and social, political and economic effects.

        '
-   Inferential Analysis: '


        Inferential analysis are techniques geared towards testing a hypothesis about
        a population, based on your data set, such as:


        - Extrapolation

        - P-Value calculation

        '
-   input(): "\n\nThe `input()` function asks the user for an input. It prompts the\
        \ user to enter input through the keyboard and saves it. This function enables\
        \ programs to respond to user input. For example, it can ask for the user's\
        \ name and print the name The input function can take a prompt within the\
        \ parenthesis, which it will use to prompt the user to enter the input. \n\
        \nFor example: \n\n```pycon\n>>> name = input(\"Enter your name here: \")\n\
        Enter your name here: Filipa\n>>> name\n'Filipa'\n```\n\n\n\n- Detailed article\
        \ on [`input()`](https://stackabuse.com/getting-user-input-in-python/) from\
        \ Stack Abuse.\n\n\n\n- Check out the [`input()`](https://www.w3schools.com/python/ref_func_input.asp)\
        \ tutorial on w3schools. \n"
-   Institutional Review Board (IRB): '


        An institutional body (a designated group of people) that is intended to provide
        oversight, administrative support, and educational training to ensure that
        research with human subjects done by researchers of that institution complies
        with federal and state regulations, and university or institutional policy.
        Every university or research institution must, legally, have its own or an
        affiliated IRB.

        '
-   integer: "\n\nAn integer is a data type, like string, list, boolean, and float.\
        \ It signifies any value that is a whole number. You can check if a value\
        \ is an integer with the `type()` function, passing the value as an argument\
        \ within the parenthesis. \n\n"
-   'Spatial join by attribute ': '


        is based on adding the attributes from one layer to another based on a shared
        attribute or variable.

        '
-   Spatial Join by location: '


        is when you have two shapefiles that you want to combine based on where the
        features are located on the map. For example if you have a map of US states
        and you want to add information about its cities, you can run a spatial join
        by location.

        '
-   JSON (file format): "\n\nJSON or JavaScript Object Notation, also uses a nesting\
        \ structure, but with the addition of \"key/value\" pairs, like the firstName\
        \ key which is tied to the `Smally` value (at least for the first cat!). JSON\
        \ is popular with web applications that save and send data from your browser\
        \ to web servers, because it uses the main language of web browsers, JavaScript,\
        \ to work with data.\n\n```json\n{\n    \"Cats\": [ \n        {\n        \
        \    \"firstName\": \"Smally\",\n            \"lastName\": \"McTiny\"\n  \
        \      }, \n        {\n            \"firstName\": \"Kitty\",\n           \
        \ \"lastName\": \"Kitty\"\n        },\n        {\n            \"firstName\"\
        : \"Foots\",\n            \"lastName\":\"Smith\"\n        }, \n        {\n\
        \            \"firstName\": \"Tiger\",\n            \"lastName\":\"Jaws\"\n\
        \        } \n    ]\n} \n```"
-   Jupyter Notebook: '


        The Jupyter Notebook is an open-source web application that allows you to
        create and share documents that contain live code, equations, visualizations
        and narrative text.


        #


        - [Jupyter Notebook Documentation](https://jupyter.org/documentation)


        #


        - [Jupyter Notebook Tips and Tricks](https://www.dataquest.io/blog/jupyter-notebook-tips-tricks-shortcuts/)'
-   Justice: '


        A core principe in *the Belmont Report* that stipulates that researchers should
        justly distribute the burdens and benefits of the research studey: "(1) to
        each person an equal share, (2) to each person according to individual need,
        (3) to each person according to individual effort, (4) to each person according
        to societal contribution, and (5) to each person according to merit." A key
        concern when applying this principle is the *selection of subjects*, that
        is, the fair recruitment and selection of research subjects (source: [The
        Belmont Report](https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html#xbasic).

        '
-   Layers: '


        Layers are "containers" of the data in QGIS. On the map view, layers can be
        imagined as transparent film sheets that are laid one over another. With the
        exception of raster layers, each layer contains an Attribute Table, that is,
        a series of features that in turn have their own attributes. Vector layers
        can only contain one type of vectors, be it: points, lines or polygons.

        '
-   Lemmatization: '


        A process of collapsing words in an attempt to reduce the number of words,
        and get a realistic understanding of the meaning of a text. Lemmatization
        references the word and finds the appropriate root and can therefore take
        longer than other processes of collapsing words. See "stemming" in this glossary
        for another process of collapsing words in a corpus.'
-   len(): "\n\n`len()` is a function that calculates the length of the object within\
        \ the parenthesis. For a string, it will count the number of characters: `len(\"\
        hello\")` will return `5`, and `len(\"hi there\")` will return `8`, because\
        \ it counts blank spaces. For a list, `len()` will count the number of list\
        \ items: \n\n```pycon\n>>> groceries = [\"berries\", \"bananas\", \"oat milk\"\
        , \"eggs\", \"spinach\", \"bell peppers\", \"ice cream\", \"frozen pizza\"\
        , \"floss\", \"hand soap\"]\n>>> len(groceries)\n10\n```\n\n\n\n- Read more\
        \ about [`len()`](https://www.programiz.com/python-programming/methods/built-in/len)\
        \ and more things it can calculate.\n\n\n\n- Check out [`len()`](https://www.w3schools.com/python/ref_func_len.asp)\
        \ on w3schools.\n"
-   Lexical Density: "\n\nThe number of unique words per total words; a good metric\
        \ to approximate lexical diversity\u2014the range of vocabulary an author\
        \ uses."
-   Library: '


        A Python library is a reusable piece of code / sets of instructions that you
        use in your script.


        '
-   list: "\n\nA list is a data type, like string, integer, float, and Boolean. A\
        \ list holds items in a sequence, separated by commas and contained within\
        \ square brackets. They can hold different types of data, like strings, integers,\
        \ floats, etc. Items within a list can be accessed by list indexing or slicing.\
        \ \n\n\n\n- Read more about how to use [lists](https://www.programiz.com/python-programming/list)\
        \ on Programiz. \n"
-   list indexing: "\n\nList indexing is a foundational tool for working with lists.\
        \ It allows one to access items from a list by specifying the item according\
        \ to its location within the list. The item location is represented the number\
        \ within brackets. In a list index, the count starts at 0, so the first item\
        \ is accessed by `list[0]` and the second item by `list[1]`, the third item\
        \ by `list[2]`, and so on. \n\n\n\n- Check out this article about [list indexing](https://towardsdatascience.com/the-basics-of-indexing-and-slicing-python-lists-2d12c90a94cf)\
        \ on Medium, which also covers slicing lists.\n"
-   lower(): "\n\n`lower()` is a string method for making all of the letters within\
        \ a string into lowercase letters. It uses the dot syntax `.` for creating\
        \ the expression. For example, \"HEllO\" can be transformed into lowercase\
        \ by running `\"HELLO\".lower()`, which will return the string `'hello'`.\
        \ \n\n\n\n- Read about `lower()` and related methods like `upper()`, `isupper()`\
        \ and `islower()` on [Geeks for Geeks](https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/isupper-islower-lower-upper-python-applications/).\n\
        \n\n\n- See how to use [`.lower()`](https://www.w3schools.com/python/ref_string_lower.asp)\
        \ on w3schools.\n"
-   Machine Learning: '


        Machine Learning is the study of computer algorithms that improve automatically
        through experience.


        '
-   Markdown: "\n\nMarkdown is the language used to format the plain text files in\
        \ your Git-enabled repository. Its also called a markup language, like HTML.\
        \ Both languages add markers to plain text to style and organize the text\
        \ of a document.\n\nIn HTML:\n\n```html \n<h1> Heading 1 </h1>\n```\n\nIn\
        \ Markdown:\n\n```md\n\n```\n\nWhereas you use HTML and CSS with WordPress,\
        \ you use Markdown with Git and GitHub. Markdown has fewer options for marking\
        \ text than HTML. It was designed to be human-readable, meaning easy to write\
        \ and edit. \n\n#\n\n- Coll, S. (2017). [Markdown for Students and Academics](https://www.simondcoll.com/markdown-students-academics/).\n\
        - Ovadia, S. (2014). [Internet Connection: Markdown for Librarians and Academics](https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=lg_pubs)\n\
        \n#\n\n- [Mastering Markdown](https://guides.github.com/features/mastering-markdown/).\
        \ GitHub Guides.\n\n#\n\n- Adam Pritchard's [Markdown Cheatsheet](https://github.com/adam-p/markdown-here/wiki/Markdown-Cheatsheet)\
        \ is a great resource if you need a quick overview of what features are available\
        \ in Markdown.\n- The Markdown Guide, a free and open-source reference guide\
        \ to Markdown, features a [Markdown Cheat Sheet](https://www.markdownguide.org/cheat-sheet)\
        \ on their website.\n"
-   Markup: '


        Markup languages allow you to format things, whether they''re documents, posters,
        or websites. HTML is a markup language, as is LaTeX.


        #


        - [WP-Amelia, Mark-Up Languages](https://wpamelia.com/markup-languages/)

        - [W3C HTML homepage](https://www.w3.org/html/)

        '
-   Matplotlib: '


        Matplotlib is a comprehensive library for creating static, animated, and interactive
        visualizations in Python.


        #


        - [Matplotlib User''s Guide](https://matplotlib.org/users/index.html)


        '
-   Merge conflict: "\n\nIf, when attempting to merge, there is a line that has been\
        \ changed by both parties, you will experience a merge conflict. This means\
        \ that Git needs your manual intervention to decide which of the two changes\
        \ will be the canonical or accepted change. A merge conflict is resolved by\
        \ editing the conflicting files with a text editor, then adding and committing\
        \ to resolve the merge.  \n"
-   Merging: "\n\nIf you've advanced the timeline of a repository by making commits,\
        \ and someone else has advanced the timeline of a remote version of the repository,\
        \ when you attempt to pull in the remote changes you will be prompted to merge\
        \ the two timelines. In most cases this is an automatic process that reconciles\
        \ the two timelines.  \n"
-   Metadata: '


        Any data that describes your book: title, subtitle, author bio, book description,
        price, publication date, ISBN, etc.'
-   Method: "\n\nA method in Python is similar to a function, in that it allows us\
        \ to do things with data. However, a method is attached to what we call an\
        \ *object*, which is a representation of data. Accordingly, a method operates\
        \ as a function that is specifically available for that object. \n\nMethods\
        \ are accessed through the dot syntax `.`.  For example, the method `lower()`\
        \ can be attached to a string object like so: `\"HELLO\".lower()` and will\
        \ return the string `'hello'`. \n\n\n\n- Read about [the difference between\
        \ a method and a function](https://www.tutorialspoint.com/difference-between-method-and-function-in-python)\
        \ on Tutorials Point.\n\n- If you know something about [classes](https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_classes.asp)\
        \ and are ready to jump deeper into Object Oriented Programming, you can learn\
        \ more about [methods and classes](https://data-flair.training/blogs/python-method/)\
        \ on Data Flair. \n"
-   Modules: "\n\nA module is a python file (like a script) that contains a number\
        \ of functions and expressions that you want to include in your program. Programmers\
        \ often import modules written by other programmers and use them like building\
        \ blocks for their applications. \n\nIn order to use modules, you need to\
        \ add them to your script with `import` and then indicate which function you\
        \ want to use with the dot syntax `.`. For example, we might use the function\
        \ `choice` from the [`random`](https://docs.python.org/3/library/random.html)\
        \ module, to generate random numbers. \n\n```pycon\n>>> import random\n>>>\
        \ numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]\n>>> random.choice(numbers)\n1\n>>>\
        \ random.choice(numbers)\n3\n>>> random.choice(numbers)\n3\n>>> random.choice(numbers)\n\
        1\n>>> random.choice(numbers)\n4\n>>> random.choice(numbers)\n9\n```\n\n\n\
        \n- An in depth explanation of [modules](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html)\
        \ from the Python docs. \n\n\n\n- A step-by-step tutorial on w3schools that\
        \ demonstrates [how modules are composed](https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_modules.asp).\
        \ \n"
-   The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research: '


        A commission created as a result of the National Research Act of 1974, "charged
        with identifying the basic ethical principles that should underlie the conduct
        of biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects and developing
        guidelines to assure that such research is conducted in accordance with those
        principles" (source: [HHS.gov](https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html).

        '
-   NLTK: '


        The Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK) is platform for Python for working with
        human language data.


        #


        - [The NLTK Documentation](http://www.nltk.org/)'
-   Objects: "\n\nEven though you probably don't know it, you've been using objects\
        \ in Python all along. Nearly everything in Python is made out of objects,\
        \ which are representations of values. For example, the string `\"hello\"\
        ` is an object. So is the variable `greeting` that stores `\"hello\"`. Integers,\
        \ floats, and lists are also objects. \n\nTo help you do more complex things\
        \ with objects, you can learn *object-oriented-programming*, which is an approach\
        \ toward programming that centralizes objects. This approach deploys what\
        \ we call *classes* to define and create new objects, as well as *inheritance*\
        \ to build new objects from old ones. This is definitely intermediate stuff,\
        \ so make sure you have a grasp on basic concepts like data types, variables,\
        \ loops, and conditionals before moving onto object-oriented-programming.\
        \ \n\n\n\n- [This thread](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/56310092/what-is-an-object-in-python)\
        \ from Stack Overflow does a good job what objects are from a beginner's point\
        \ of view. \n\n\n\n- If you want to get your feet wet with a little object-oriented-programming,\
        \ check out this [objects and classes](https://www.learnpython.org/en/Classes_and_Objects)\
        \ tutorial on w3schools.\n"
-   Open Data Formats: '


        Open data formats are file formats that are available to anyone, free of charge,
        which allows for accessibility, future-proofing, and preservation. These file
        formats also allow for easy reusability and aids research reproduction and
        accountability. They are not limited by intellectual property rights or copyrights.
        This is distinct from proprietary formats. Some examples of open data formats
        are `.csv`, `.pdf`, and `.json`.


        #


        - Library of Congress [Recommended Formats Statement](https://www.loc.gov/preservation/resources/rfs/)

        - Stanford University''s [best practices for file formats](https://library.stanford.edu/research/data-management-services/data-best-practices/best-practices-file-formats)

        '
-   Origin: "\n\nIn Git, the default remote repository. When you clone a remote repository\u2014\
        that is, make a local reposotry based on it\u2014the remote repository is\
        \ automatically added as \"origin.\"\n"
-   part-of-speech (POS) tagging: '


        A way to identify the category of words in a given text. For a list of POS
        classification, see the [Penn Tree Bank Tag Set](https://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/penn_treebank_pos.html)


        '
-   "Path\_": "\n\nA list of folders on your system that are checked for programs\
        \ to generate the list of commands available on the command line. For example,\
        \ since the folder\_`/bin`\_is typically on the path, putting an executable\
        \ program in that folder will make it available as a command.\n"
-   Personhood: '


        Personhood is "the quality or condition of being a person; [especially] personal
        identity, selfhood" (Oxford English Dictionary online). When doing internet
        or digital research, it is important to consider how a person''s data, avatar,
        images, videos, audio files, social media and other forms of digital information
        may be understood as an expression of their personhood (source: [the AoIR
        Ethics Working Committee''s 2012 report](http://aoir.org/reports/ethics2.pdf).

        '
-   Phatic Language: '


        Phatic language is language primarily for communicating social closeness.
        Phatic words stand in contrast to semantic words, which contribute meaning
        to the utterance.

        '
-   Policing the crisis: '


        Stuart Hall et al.''s concept of "policing the crisis" refers to the unnatural
        process by which certain actions (by certain people) become and continue to
        be understood, reported, policed, and sanctioned as a type of "crime." The
        police, the judicial system, and mainstream media "are actively and continuously
        part of [this] whole process" (source: Stuart Hall et al., Policing the Crisis,
        2013 [1978], page 54.

        '
-   Polygon: '


        a figure with three or more sides. In GIS, it usually refers to complex areas
        outlining lakes, city blocks, a set of buildings, or other complex features
        of the map, that can be outlined using interconnected points. A polygon can
        have an unlimited amount of points. The more points (or "higher the resolution"),
        the smoother the polygon will look to the human eye.

        '
-   pop(): '


        `pop()` is a method that removes the last item from a list.




        - Check out these examples for using [`pop()`](https://www.w3schools.com/python/ref_list_pop.asp)
        from w3schools.

        '
-   print(): '


        `print()` is a function that "prints" or displays whatever is inside the parentheses
        in the terminal window.


        For example, running `print("Hello World!")` will output the string `''Hello
        World''` to the terminal window.




        - See the possibilities with [`print()`](https://www.w3schools.com/python/ref_func_print.asp)
        on w3schools.

        '
-   Programming Language: '


        Programming languages are used to transform data, by creating scripts that
        organize an output of data based on a particular input of data. Examples of
        programming languages include python and javascript.'
-   Proprietary Data Formats: "\n\nProprietary data file formats are file formats\
        \ that rely on dedicated, licensed softwares and/or systems. These file formats\
        \ are often copyrighted, patented, or have other restrictions placed on them,\
        \ and often require a fee or a paid-for software to open. These file formats\
        \ are usually discouraged in research projects, especially those with intentions\
        \ to share with a wider public(s) and audience. This is distinct from open\
        \ data formats. Some examples of it include .xslx, .doc, and .3ds. \n\n#\n\
        \n- Library of Congress [Recommended Formats Statement](https://www.loc.gov/preservation/resources/rfs/)\n\
        - Stanford University's [best practices for file formats](https://library.stanford.edu/research/data-management-services/data-best-practices/best-practices-file-formats)"
-   Pull Request: "\n\nA pull request is a set of proposed changes to a repository.\
        \ If you wish to contribute to an open-source project, the most common method\
        \ is by proposing changes through pull requests.  \n"
-   Pull: "\n\nAccepting and taking changes that were made to a remote repository,\
        \ possibly by someone else, and updating your local repository to match. \
        \ \n"
-   Push: "\n\nWhen you push your files, or use the command `git push master origin`,\
        \ you are communicating with GitHub to update the connected project folder\
        \ stored there. You are pushing the changes, say, to your syllabus.md file\
        \ stored on their servers which you access via your gitHub.com. \n\n#\n\n\
        - [Pushing commits to a remote repository](https://docs.github.com/en/github/using-git/pushing-commits-to-a-remote-repository).\
        \ GitHub Writing."
-   Qualitative Analysis: '


        Qualitative analysis are techniques geared towards understanding a phenomenon,
        rather than predicting and testing hypotheses, such as:


        - Grounded Theory/Computational Grounded Theory

        - Content Analysis

        - Text Analysis


        #


        - [Computational Grounded Theory: A Methodological Framework](https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BxI6W5IIG74FeEtGbjQ0WF9uM0U/view)'
-   random: "\n\nThe random module or random library allows one to generate random\
        \ output. The module is useful for to choose a random element from a list,\
        \ or number from a range, or between two potential values (like True or False).\
        \ \n\n\n\n- For a thorough description of the [random module](https://docs.python.org/3/library/random.html),\
        \ check out the official documentation.\n\n\n\n- For step-by-step demonstration\
        \ of [how to use random](https://www.pythonforbeginners.com/random/how-to-use-the-random-module-in-python),\
        \ check out this tutorial from Python For Beginners. \n"
-   Raster: '


        images of a specific location that represent visually continuous data such
        as temperature and elevation at a given resolution. Higher resolutions mean
        more precision but also larger file size. Raster layers have no Attribute
        Table; the values are stored within the image and represented as different
        hues or colors. Raster images can also be used for reference or aesthetic
        purposes (e.g. satellite photos).

        '
-   '"Raw" Data': "\n\n\"Raw\" data is yet to be processed, meaning it has yet to\
        \ be manipulated by a human or computer. Received or collected data could\
        \ be in any number of formats, locations, etc.. It could be in any of the\
        \ forms listed in the previous section.  \n\nBut \"raw\" data is a relative\
        \ term, inasmuch as when one person finishes processing data and presents\
        \ it as a finished product, another person may take that product and work\
        \ on it further, and for them that data is \"raw\" data. \n\n#\n\n- Johanna\
        \ Drucker's [Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display](http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000091/000091.html)\n"
-   Regular Expressions: '


        A powerful way to match text in a document, with a sequence of characters
        that define a search pattern.


        #


        - [Interactive tutorial for Regular Expressions](https://regexone.com/)'
-   Remote: '


        *remote* - An adjective describing a computer that is somewhere else. A "remote
        machine" is a machine you do not have physical access to, but might have access
        through a means such as the internet. In Git, a remote is a repository that
        is not on your computer, but is connected to your local repository. You can
        add new remotes with the `git remote add` command, and change them with the
        `gitremote set-url` command.

        '
-   REPL: "\n\nREPL stands for Read, Eval, Print, Loop. It is also known as the Python\
        \ Interpreter or Interactive Shell, and it refers to a Python environment\
        \ that processes your code as soon as you press enter. First, it **Reads**\
        \ your code, then **Evaluates** what you wrote, then **Prints** the result\
        \ (if there is a result), and finally **Loops** back to the initial prompt,\
        \ allowing the user to start the loop again. \n\nThe REPL is useful for testing\
        \ code on the fly, seeing if it works or what will happen. Since the REPL\
        \ doesn't save your data after each session, though, you need a text editor\
        \ to write and save longer scripts. Think of the REPL as a sandbox or playpen\
        \ for exploring Python commands and expressions in the moment. \n\nTo use\
        \ the REPL, just type `python` into your interpreter. You'll know you're there\
        \ when you see the three `>>>`. To get out of the REPL, press `control-d`\
        \ or type `quit()`. \n\n\n\nSee this beginner's tutorial on the [REPL](https://pythonprogramminglanguage.com/repl/)\
        \ from Learn Python.\n\n\n\nCheck out this intermediate article on the [REPL](https://codewith.mu/en/tutorials/1.0/repl)\
        \ and what it can do on Code With Mu.\n"
-   Repository: '


        Git uses the term repository to refer to a folder that is being tracked. Colloquially,
        this term is often shortened to "repo".




        - [About Repositories](https://docs.github.com/en/github/creating-cloning-and-archiving-repositories/about-repositories).
        Writing on GitHub.

        '
-   requests: "\n\nThe requests module or requests library allows users to make requests\
        \ to web pages. It is a useful tool for web scraping, and though it's relatively\
        \ easy to get started, the learning curve can be steep. \n\nTo use requests,\
        \ import the module into your script, then set up a response object. In the\
        \ parenthesis, include the URL of the webpage you want to scrape, enclosed\
        \ by single quotes.\n\n```pycon\nimport requests\nx = requests.get('<websiteURL>')\n\
        ```\n\n\n\n- Read the [official docs](https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/)\
        \ for the requests module.\n\n\n\n- Follow the [quickstart tutorial](https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/user/quickstart/)\
        \ on the official docs.\n"
-   Resolution: '


        the scale at which the data is aggregated and displayed. For raster data this
        will be the size of the pixel. For vector data it is referring to the scale
        or mapping unit (e.g. neighborhood level, city level, state level, etc).

        '
-   Respect for persons: '


        A core principle in *the Belmont Report* that stipulates that "individuals
        should be treated as autonomous agents, and second, that persons with diminished
        autonomy are entitled to protection." A key concern when applying this principle
        is *informed consent* (source: [The Belmont Report](https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html#xbasic).

        '
-   Root: "\n\nThe root is the top-level directory of a [filesystem](filesystem.md).\
        \ Staying with the tree metaphor to represent a hierarchical structure, if\
        \ the root is the starting point, the folders are the tree\u2019s branches,\
        \ and thee files are the leaves. Please note that \u201Croot\u201D is also\
        \ often used as a synonym for the administrative user on a system. "
-   Root Element: "\n\nThe root element is used in HTML to denote the outermost element\
        \ that organizes all the content of an HTML document. For example, in the\
        \ code below, `<html lang=\"en\">` denotes the opening tag of the root element\
        \ and `</html>` denotes the closing tag of the root element. \n\n```html\n\
        <!DOCTYPE html>\n<html lang=\"en\">\n\n  <head>\n      ...\n  </head>\n\n\
        \  <body>\n      ...\n  </body>\n\n</html>\n```"
-   Scripts: "\n\nA Python script is a file that contains Python code. The filename\
        \ needs to have the extension `.py`. Generally, in order to run the file,\
        \ the user needs to call the script from the Python interpreter. \n\n\n\n\
        - Check out [how to run a Python script](https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/how-to-run-a-python-script/)\
        \ on Geeks for Geeks.\n"
-   'Shapefile ': '



        There are two types of geographic data--vector data (points, lines, and polygons)
        and raster data (pixels). The most common way that vector data is stored is
        in the format of a shapefile. Therefore, a shapefile is a file type that stores
        vector data.

        '
-   '"Situated ethics"': '


        "Situated ethics," here, refers to the notion that a person''s understandings
        of and commitments to ethics or morality are greatly linked to their own experiences,
        positionalities, and political orientations. Note that this understanding
        of "situated ethics" is an application of Donna Haraway''s idea of "situated
        knowledges" (1988) to the arena of ethical perspectives.

        '
-   sort(): '


        `stort()` is a method that sorts the items from a list in alphabetical order.




        - Check out these examples for using [`sort()`](https://www.w3schools.com/python/ref_list_sort.asp)
        from w3schools.

        '
-   Spatial Join: "\n\na GIS operation that affixes data from one feature layer's\
        \ attribute table to another from a spatial perspective. Spatial joins begin\
        \ by selecting a target feature and comparing it spatially to other feature\
        \ layers. \n\nThere are two types of spatial joins--*spatial join by attribute*\
        \ and *spatial join by location*. Both of them are ways that the mapping software\
        \ will let you add data from one map layer or file to another map layer. A\
        \ *spatial join by attribute* is used when you want to join non-spatial data,\
        \ such as a text file, to spatial data, such as a shapefile. A *spatial join\
        \ by location* is used when you want to join two layers of spatial data (e.g.\
        \ a points layer to a polygon layer). \n"
-   SQL: '


        SQL stands for Structured Query Language, and is a programming language for
        interacting with data in a relational database.

        '
-   SQLite: '


        SQLite is one implementation of SQL, which requres less work, operates on
        regular text files and does not require a server connection unlike other implementations
        such as PostgreSQL and MySQL.

        '
-   Stemming: '


        A process of collapsing words in an attempt to reduce the number of words,
        and get a realistic understanding of the meaning of a text. Stemming cuts
        off affixes to find the root (or the stem) of the word. See "lemmatization"
        in this glossary for another process of collapsing words in a corpus.'
-   Stop Words: '


        Words that appear frequently in a language, often adding grammatical structure,
        but little semantic content.'
-   string: '


        A data type in Python that represents a sequence of alphanumeric and/or special
        characters enclosed within single or double quotes.


        For example, the following are all strings:


        `"hello world!"`

        `"The answer is 3"`

        `"!!!"`




        - Read more about [strings](https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_strings.asp)
        on w3schools.

        '
-   Surveillance: '


        Surveillance refers to "the watch or guard kept over a person, etc., [especially]
        over a suspected person, a prisoner, or the like; often, spying, supervision"
        or "supervision for the purpose of direction or control" (source: Oxford English
        Dictionary online). Surveillance, per my understanding, includes research
        (including *"big data"* research) of people''s personal digital data that
        is conducted without their informed consent, as well as businesses'' or governments''
        uses of various programs and devices to record or listen to people''s behaviors,
        data, voices etc.

        '
-   Syntax Errors: "\n\nAlong with traceback errors, syntax errors are a common type\
        \ of error in Python code. It appears when Python is unable to understand\
        \ a line of code, meaning that there is a mistake. Often, syntax errors point\
        \ to typos, indentation, or incomplete expressions, like missing quotation\
        \ marks or parentheses. \n\nWhen a syntax error occurs, the interpreter will\
        \ display a caret pointing to the area where the error occured. It will also\
        \ display the message: `SyntaxError: invalid syntax`. Take a close look at\
        \ the display message to get more information about your error, and help you\
        \ with debugging.\n\n\n\n- See a fuller description of [syntax errors](https://geek-university.com/python/syntax-and-logical-errors/)\
        \ on Geek University. \n\n- To see [a comprehensive list of possible errors](https://www.tutorialsteacher.com/python/error-types-in-python),\
        \ check out this resource on Tutorials Teacher.\n"
-   Tag: '


        Tags are used in HTML to apply elements. Tags are contained within `<   >`
        symbols.  '
-   Text Normalization: '


        The process of taking a list of words and transforming it into a more uniform
        sequence.'
-   "Text editor\_": '


        A program for creating and editing plain text files. Unlike word processors
        such as LibreOffice and Word, which create complex documents in the form of
        archives that include formatting information and other metadata, a plain text
        editor creates a single file. Programmers tend to use plain text files because
        computers can work with them easily. Sublime Text, Nano, and VI are examples
        of text editors.

        '
-   Tidy Data: '


        Tidy data are a way of processing and organizing data in to a data structure
        that follows these rules:


        1. Each variable is in a column.

        2. Each observation is a row.

        3. Each value is a cell.


        #


        - [Tidy Data](https://www.jstatsoft.org/article/view/v059i10)'
-   Token: '


        An instance of a type (see "type" in this glossary).'
-   Tokenizing: '


        A process of breaking text into individual linguistic units. This process
        often involves removing punctuation and making all words lowercase. '
-   Traceback Errors: "\n\nAlong with syntax errors, traceback errors are a common\
        \ type of error in Python code. It appears during the execution of the code,\
        \ when Python is unable to continue, meaning that there is a problem with\
        \ the flow of your program. Often, traceback errors point to undefined variables\
        \ or functions.\n\nWhen a traceback error occurs, the interpreter will give\
        \ you a little more information about the error. If it's a name error, that\
        \ means that something is not defined properly. If it's a type error, that\
        \ means that an operation or function is of the wrong type. Take a close look\
        \ at the display message to get more information about your error, and help\
        \ you with debugging.\n\n\n\n- See a fuller description of [traceback errors](https://realpython.com/python-traceback/)\
        \ on Real Python. \n\n- To see [a comprehensive list of possible errors](https://www.tutorialsteacher.com/python/error-types-in-python),\
        \ check out this resource on Tutorials Teacher.\n"
-   Tuples: '


        A collection which is ordered and unchangeable. In Python tuples are written
        with parenthesis.'
-   type(): '


        **Python**


        `type()` is a function that evaluates the data type of the object within the
        parenthesis. For a string `"hello world"`, it will return: `<str>`; for an
        integer `5`, it will return `<int>` and so on.


        **Text analysis**


        In our text analysis workshop, `type` means unique vocabulary items in a corpus.
        (Ex: "Whale" and "whale" are different *types*.)




        - Read more about [`type()`](https://www.programiz.com/python-programming/methods/built-in/type)
        as a Python command, and more things it can calculate.

        '
-   Universal design: '


        Universal design refers to "the process of creating products that are usable
        by people with the widest possible range of abilities, operating within the
        widest possible range of situations" (source: [Shawn Lawton Henry, et al.
        2014](https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=2596695.2596719)).

        '
-   Variables: "\n\nA variable is a name that is assigned to a value, and it stores\
        \ data for future use. Variable assignment uses a single `=`. The name given\
        \ is on the left of the `=`, the value is on the right of the `=`.\t\n\nAssignment\
        \ looks like this:\n\n```python\nx = 3\nname = \"Patrick\"\nname2 = \"Ignatz\"\
        \ngrocery_list = [\"tomato\", \"limes\", \"chocolate\"]\n```\n\n\n\n- Learn\
        \ more about [variables](https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_variables.asp)\
        \ on w3schools.\n"
-   Vector: '


        A scalable point, line or polygon that can be easily created, edited, or deleted
        using GIS. Does not have a specific resolution. In QGIS, vectors are contained
        in vector layers, that can only contain a single type of vectors. Each vector
        represents a single feature, although some features may be represented by
        more than one vector (e.g. the vector of the United States includes the mainland
        U.S. polygon but also polygons for Alaska and Hawaii).

        '
-   Version Control: "\n\nVersion control is a system that records changes to a file\
        \ or set of files over time so that you can recall specific versions later.\
        \ It allows you to revert selected files back to a previous state, revert\
        \ the entire project back to a previous state, compare changes over time,\
        \ see who last modified something that might be causing a problem, who introduced\
        \ an issue and when, and more. \n\nUsing a version control software like Git\
        \ generally means that if you screw things up or lose files, you can easily\
        \ recover. In addition, you get all this for very little overhead.\n\n#\n\n\
        - Bryan, J. (2017). _[Excuse me, do you have a moment to talk about version\
        \ control?](https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.3159v2)_ PeerJ Preprints.\n\
        \n#\n\n- [Getting Started - About Version Control](https://git-scm.com/book/en/v2/Getting-Started-About-Version-Control).\
        \ Git documentation. \n"
-   Web Hosting: '


        Web Hosting refers to servers that make HTML '
-   while loops: "\n\nLike for loops, while loops are a way of going through items\
        \ in a list. The difference is that while loops will continue to execute as\
        \ long as a certain condition is true. To get out of the loop, use the break\
        \ command, or type `control-c` or `quit()` in the interpreter. Otherwise,\
        \ the loop will keep going.\n\n```python\nwhile True:\n    print(\"Oh no!\
        \ I'm stuck...\")\n```\n\n\n\n- Check out this demonstration of [while loops](https://www.w3schools.com/python/python_while_loops.asp)\
        \ on w3schools.\n"
-   XML (file format): "\n\nXML or eXstensible Markup Language is a file format that\
        \ uses a nested structure where the \"tags\" like `<Cat>` contain other tags\
        \ inside them, like `<firstName>`. This format is good for organizing the\
        \ layout of a document in a tree-like format, just like HTML, where we want\
        \ to nest elements like a sentence within a paragraph, for example. XML does\
        \ not carry any information about how to be displayed and can be used in a\
        \ variety of presentation scenarios. \n\n```xml\n<Cats> \n    <Cat> \n   \
        \     <firstName>Smally</firstName> \n        <lastName>McTiny</lastName>\
        \ \n    </Cat> \n    <Cat> \n        <firstName>Kitty</firstName> \n     \
        \   <lastName>Kitty</lastName> \n    </Cat> \n    <Cat> \n        <firstName>Foots</firstName>\
        \ \n        <lastName>Smith</lastName> \n    </Cat> \n    <Cat> \n       \
        \ <firstName>Tiger</firstName> \n        <lastName>Jaws</lastName> \n    </Cat>\
        \ \n</Cats> \n```"