From b203da83e7e6ca2a1eec1533cb82f8ab9fac7b23 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: funkill2 Date: Thu, 10 Oct 2024 04:00:18 +0300 Subject: [PATCH] update original --- rustbook-en/.github/workflows/main.yml | 13 +- rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md | 4 +- .../2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md | 4 +- .../2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md | 4 +- .../src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md | 4 +- .../2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md | 4 +- .../ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md | 4 +- .../2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md | 4 +- .../src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md | 4 +- .../src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md | 4 +- .../2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md | 4 +- .../src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md | 4 +- .../src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md | 4 +- ...ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md | 4 +- .../2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md | 4 +- .../src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md | 4 +- .../src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md | 4 +- 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ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-27}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-27}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-27}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28}/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-30}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-30}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-30}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31}/hello_macro/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31}/hello_macro/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31}/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31}/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31}/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31}/hello_macro/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31}/hello_macro/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-33}/hello_macro/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-33}/hello_macro/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-33}/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-33}/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-33}/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-33}/hello_macro/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33 => ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-33}/hello_macro/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt (100%) rename 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ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-05-write-trait/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-05-write-trait/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-06-result-alias/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-06-result-alias/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.lock (100%) 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ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch19-advanced-features => ch20-advanced-features}/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-01 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-01}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-01 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-01}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-01 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-01}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-02 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-02}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-02 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-02}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-02 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-02}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-03 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-03}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-03 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-03}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-03 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-03}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-05 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-05}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-05 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-05}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-05 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-05}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-05 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-05}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-06 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-06}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-06 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-06}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-06 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-06}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-06 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-06}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-07 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-07}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-07 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-07}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-07 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-07}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-07 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-07}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-07 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-07}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-09 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-09}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-09 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-09}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-09 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-09}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-09 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-09}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-09 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-09}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-10 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-10}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-10 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-10}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-10 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-10}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-10 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-10}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-10 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-10}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-11 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-11}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-11 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-11}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-11 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-11}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-11 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-11}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-11 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-11}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-12 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-12}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-12 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-12}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-12 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-12}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-12 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-12}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-12 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-12}/output.txt (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-12 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-12}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-13 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-13}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-13 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-13}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-13 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-13}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-13 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-13}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-13 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-13}/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-13 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-13}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-14 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-14}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-14 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-14}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-14 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-14}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-14 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-14}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-14 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-14}/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-14 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-14}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-15 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-15}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-15 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-15}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-15 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-15}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-15 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-15}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-15 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-15}/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-15 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-15}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-16 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-16}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-16 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-16}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-16 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-16}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-16 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-16}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-16 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-16}/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-16 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-16}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-17 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-17}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-17 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-17}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-17 => 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ch21-web-server/listing-21-18}/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-18 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-18}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-19 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-19}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-19 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-19}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-19 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-19}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-19 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-19}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-19 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-19}/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-19 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-19}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-20 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-20}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-20 => 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ch21-web-server/listing-21-23}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-23 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-23}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-23 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-23}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-23 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-23}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-23 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-23}/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-23 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-23}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-24 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-24}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-24 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-24}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-24 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-24}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-24 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-24}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-24 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-24}/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-24 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-24}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-25 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-25}/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-25 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-25}/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-25 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-25}/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-25 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-25}/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-25 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-25}/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server/listing-20-25 => ch21-web-server/listing-21-25}/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => 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rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-07-final-code/404.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.lock (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.toml (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-07-final-code/hello.html (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs (100%) rename rustbook-en/listings/{ch20-web-server => ch21-web-server}/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs (100%) create mode 100644 rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter21.md create mode 100644 rustbook-en/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md create mode 100644 rustbook-en/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md create mode 100644 rustbook-en/packages/trpl/Cargo.lock create mode 100644 rustbook-en/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml create mode 100644 rustbook-en/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE create mode 100644 rustbook-en/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT create mode 100644 rustbook-en/packages/trpl/README.md create mode 100644 rustbook-en/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs create mode 100644 rustbook-en/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs create mode 100644 rustbook-en/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/ch17-00-async-await.md create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/ch17-04-streams.md create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md rename rustbook-en/src/{ch17-00-oop.md => ch18-00-oop.md} (100%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch17-01-what-is-oo.md => ch18-01-what-is-oo.md} (92%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch17-02-trait-objects.md => ch18-02-trait-objects.md} (79%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md => ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md} (85%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch18-00-patterns.md => ch19-00-patterns.md} (100%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md => ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md} (78%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch18-02-refutability.md => ch19-02-refutability.md} (80%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md => ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md} (78%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch19-00-advanced-features.md => ch20-00-advanced-features.md} (94%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md => ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md} (87%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch19-03-advanced-traits.md => ch20-03-advanced-traits.md} (79%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch19-04-advanced-types.md => ch20-04-advanced-types.md} (87%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md => ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md} (86%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch19-06-macros.md => ch20-06-macros.md} (90%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md => ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md} (100%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch20-01-single-threaded.md => ch21-01-single-threaded.md} (87%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch20-02-multithreaded.md => ch21-02-multithreaded.md} (85%) rename rustbook-en/src/{ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md => ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md} (81%) create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-01.svg create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-02.svg create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-03.svg create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-04.svg create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-05.svg create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-06.svg create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-07.svg create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-08.svg create mode 100644 rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-09.svg delete mode 100644 rustbook-en/tests/integration/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/.github/workflows/main.yml b/rustbook-en/.github/workflows/main.yml index 2b3ae3d5c..d17b7286a 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/.github/workflows/main.yml +++ b/rustbook-en/.github/workflows/main.yml @@ -24,8 +24,19 @@ jobs: rustup --version rustc -Vv mdbook --version + + # mdBook does not currently have particularly good support for “external” + # crates. To make the test suite work correctly with `trpl`, we must first + # build `trpl` itself (`mdbook` will not do it), and then explicitly pass + # its `deps` path as a library search path for `mdbook test`. That will make + # sure all the crates can be resolved when running the tests. + - name: Build `trpl` crate + run: | + cd packages/trpl + cargo build - name: Run tests - run: mdbook test + run: + mdbook test --library-path packages/trpl/target/debug/deps package_tests: name: Run package tests runs-on: ubuntu-latest diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md index c731bbc95..6ff4dc33e 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-00-oop.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-00-oop.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-00-oop.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-00-oop.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md index ed1ec4013..28835201b 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-01-what-is-oo.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-01-what-is-oo.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md index 1999647aa..b83ab904e 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-02-trait-objects.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-02-trait-objects.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 1b74425fe..c161b3dec 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md index f3da1f40d..213bac305 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-00-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-00-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md index ccf388406..f2dfa71a3 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md index a3e2bcff7..3eddb4dcd 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-02-refutability.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-02-refutability.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md index 0e0929e7b..44c73500e 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md index b34d6b9b6..16c72a906 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-00-advanced-features.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-00-advanced-features.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md index 34b569fee..7316eb44a 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md index 4219b208b..88ca1a55b 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md index fecbd52dc..c7c24439f 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md index 1bf045090..c46fd485e 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md index bf019c5d6..838a0b832 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-06-macros.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-06-macros.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md index f9b9e5c2d..cac558489 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md index 30d0884ad..e1b4200be 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-01-single-threaded.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-01-single-threaded.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md index e8b592ad2..7d54d56bc 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-02-multithreaded.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-02-multithreaded.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md index 928d199be..f4879c4ac 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md +++ b/rustbook-en/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/Cargo.lock index d54e8284e..493ab8e68 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/Cargo.lock +++ b/rustbook-en/Cargo.lock @@ -318,9 +318,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "windows-targets" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "6f0713a46559409d202e70e28227288446bf7841d3211583a4b53e3f6d96e7eb" +checksum = "9b724f72796e036ab90c1021d4780d4d3d648aca59e491e6b98e725b84e99973" dependencies = [ "windows_aarch64_gnullvm", "windows_aarch64_msvc", @@ -334,51 +334,51 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "windows_aarch64_gnullvm" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "7088eed71e8b8dda258ecc8bac5fb1153c5cffaf2578fc8ff5d61e23578d3263" +checksum = "32a4622180e7a0ec044bb555404c800bc9fd9ec262ec147edd5989ccd0c02cd3" [[package]] name = "windows_aarch64_msvc" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "9985fd1504e250c615ca5f281c3f7a6da76213ebd5ccc9561496568a2752afb6" +checksum = "09ec2a7bb152e2252b53fa7803150007879548bc709c039df7627cabbd05d469" [[package]] name = "windows_i686_gnu" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "88ba073cf16d5372720ec942a8ccbf61626074c6d4dd2e745299726ce8b89670" +checksum = "8e9b5ad5ab802e97eb8e295ac6720e509ee4c243f69d781394014ebfe8bbfa0b" [[package]] name = "windows_i686_gnullvm" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "87f4261229030a858f36b459e748ae97545d6f1ec60e5e0d6a3d32e0dc232ee9" +checksum = "0eee52d38c090b3caa76c563b86c3a4bd71ef1a819287c19d586d7334ae8ed66" [[package]] name = "windows_i686_msvc" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "db3c2bf3d13d5b658be73463284eaf12830ac9a26a90c717b7f771dfe97487bf" +checksum = "240948bc05c5e7c6dabba28bf89d89ffce3e303022809e73deaefe4f6ec56c66" [[package]] name = "windows_x86_64_gnu" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "4e4246f76bdeff09eb48875a0fd3e2af6aada79d409d33011886d3e1581517d9" +checksum = "147a5c80aabfbf0c7d901cb5895d1de30ef2907eb21fbbab29ca94c5b08b1a78" [[package]] name = "windows_x86_64_gnullvm" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "852298e482cd67c356ddd9570386e2862b5673c85bd5f88df9ab6802b334c596" +checksum = "24d5b23dc417412679681396f2b49f3de8c1473deb516bd34410872eff51ed0d" [[package]] name = "windows_x86_64_msvc" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "bec47e5bfd1bff0eeaf6d8b485cc1074891a197ab4225d504cb7a1ab88b02bf0" +checksum = "589f6da84c646204747d1270a2a5661ea66ed1cced2631d546fdfb155959f9ec" [[package]] name = "xattr" diff --git a/rustbook-en/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/Cargo.toml index 2bddb66f9..20fc14643 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/Cargo.toml +++ b/rustbook-en/Cargo.toml @@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ exclude = [ "linkchecker", # linkchecker is part of the CI workflow "listings", # these are intentionally distinct from the workspace "tmp", # listings are built here when updating output via tools/update-rustc.sh + "packages/trpl", # manages its own dependencies as a standalone crate # These are used as path dependencies in `rust-lang/rust` (since we are not # publishing them to crates.io), so they cannot be part of this workspace, diff --git a/rustbook-en/README.md b/rustbook-en/README.md index 9648db0ae..b4426bd49 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/README.md +++ b/rustbook-en/README.md @@ -73,7 +73,8 @@ $ start chrome.exe .\book\index.html # Windows (Cmd) To run the tests: ```bash -$ mdbook test +$ cd packages/trpl +$ mdbook test --library-path packages/trpl/target/debug/deps ``` ## Contributing diff --git a/rustbook-en/book.toml b/rustbook-en/book.toml index 800adcf0f..2f3319bdb 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/book.toml +++ b/rustbook-en/book.toml @@ -10,6 +10,26 @@ additional-css = ["ferris.css", "theme/2018-edition.css", "theme/semantic-notes. additional-js = ["ferris.js"] git-repository-url = "https://github.com/rust-lang/book" +[output.html.redirect] +"ch17-00-oop.html" = "ch18-00-oop.html" +"ch17-01-what-is-oo.html" = "ch18-01-what-is-oo.html" +"ch17-02-trait-objects.html" = "ch18-02-trait-objects.html" +"ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html" = "ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html" +"ch18-00-patterns.html" = "ch19-00-patterns.html" +"ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html" = "ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html" +"ch18-02-refutability.html" = "ch19-02-refutability.html" +"ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html" = "ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html" +"ch19-00-advanced-features.html" = "ch20-00-advanced-features.html" +"ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html" = "ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html" +"ch19-03-advanced-traits.html" = "ch20-03-advanced-traits.html" +"ch19-04-advanced-types.html" = "ch20-04-advanced-types.html" +"ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html" = "ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html" +"ch19-06-macros.html" = "ch20-06-macros.html" +"ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html" = "ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html" +"ch20-01-single-threaded.html" = "ch21-01-single-threaded.html" +"ch20-02-multithreaded.html" = "ch21-02-multithreaded.html" +"ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html" = "ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html" + # Do not sync this preprocessor; it is for the HTML renderer only. [preprocessor.trpl-note] diff --git a/rustbook-en/ci/dictionary.txt b/rustbook-en/ci/dictionary.txt index e2f5f670f..33d56857f 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/ci/dictionary.txt +++ b/rustbook-en/ci/dictionary.txt @@ -53,6 +53,7 @@ bool boolean Boolean Booleans +booleans Bors BorrowMutError BoxMeUp @@ -107,6 +108,7 @@ deallocate deallocated deallocating deallocation +debounce debuginfo decl decrementing @@ -143,10 +145,12 @@ DisplayBacktrace DivAssign DraftPost DSTs +durations ebook ebooks Edsger egular +ElementRef else's emoji encodings @@ -177,6 +181,7 @@ filesystem's filesystems filmmaking Firefox +FirstAwaitPoint FnMut FnOnce formatter @@ -185,6 +190,8 @@ FrenchToast FromIterator FromResidual frontend +FuturesUnordered +GetAwaitPoint getrandom getter getters @@ -195,6 +202,7 @@ grapheme Grapheme growable gzip +handoff hardcode hardcoded hardcoding @@ -239,7 +247,9 @@ inline instantiation internet interoperate +IntoFuture IntoIterator +intra InvalidDigit invariants ioerror @@ -254,6 +264,7 @@ isize iter iterator's JavaScript +JoinAll JoinHandle Kay's kinded @@ -286,12 +297,15 @@ lval macOS Matsakis mathematic +mdbook memoization metadata Metadata metaprogramming mibbit Mibbit +microcontroller +microcontrollers millis minigrep mixup @@ -305,10 +319,12 @@ monomorphized MoveMessage Mozilla mpsc +MSRV msvc MulAssign multibyte multithreaded +multithreading mutex mutex's Mutex @@ -316,6 +332,7 @@ mutexes Mutexes MutexGuard mutext +MyAsyncStateMachine MyBox myprogram namespace @@ -356,7 +373,9 @@ OurError OutlinePrint overloadable overread +PageTitleFuture PanicPayload +parallelizable param parameterize ParseIntError @@ -369,6 +388,7 @@ PlaceholderType polymorphism PoolCreationError portia +postfix powershell PowerShell powi @@ -394,6 +414,8 @@ RangeTo RangeFull README READMEs +ReadFinished +ReceiverStream rect recurse recv @@ -436,6 +458,7 @@ sampleproject screenshot searchstring SecondaryColor +SecondAwaitPoint SelectBox semver SemVer @@ -453,6 +476,7 @@ SliceIndex Smalltalk snuck someproject +SomeType someusername SPDX spdx @@ -468,6 +492,7 @@ stdlib stdout steveklabnik's stringify +StreamExt Stroustrup Stroustrup's struct @@ -500,6 +525,7 @@ TcpListener TcpStream templating test's +TextAwaitPoint TextField That'd there'd @@ -512,6 +538,8 @@ tlborm tlsv TODO TokenStream +Tokio +tokio toml TOML toolchain @@ -536,6 +564,7 @@ uncomment Uncomment uncommenting unevaluated +unhandled Uninstalling uninstall unittests @@ -554,6 +583,7 @@ username USERPROFILE usize UsState +util utils vals variable's diff --git a/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-01.dot b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-01.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ed2d969f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-01.dot @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + + // makes ordering between subgraphs work + newrank = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + subgraph cluster_task_a { + label = "Task A"; + + A1; + A2; + A3; + A4; + + A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> A4 -> A0 [style = invis;]; + + // for vertical alignment purposes only + A0 [style = invis;]; + + // Makes the heights line up between the boxes. + A4 -> A0 [style = invis;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_task_b { + label = "Task B"; + + B0 [style = invis;]; + + B1; + B2; + B3; + + B0 -> B1 -> B2 -> B3 [style = invis;]; + } + + A1 -> B1 -> A2 -> B2 -> A3 -> A4 -> B3; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-02.dot b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-02.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3e4116a7d --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-02.dot @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + // The graphs end up with the correct order, i.e. Task 1 *above* Task 2, when + // this is first. + subgraph cluster_ColleagueB { + label = "Task B"; + B1 -> B2 -> B3; + + B0 [style = invis;]; + B3 -> B0 [style = invis;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_ColleagueA { + newrank = true; + label = "Task A"; + A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> A4; + } +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-03.dot b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-03.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d5a4971c --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-03.dot @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + // The graphs end up with the correct order, i.e. Task 1 *above* Task 2, when + // this is first. + subgraph cluster_ColleagueB { + label = "Task A"; + A1; + A2; + A0_1 [style = invis;]; + A3; + + A1 -> A2; + A2 -> A0_1 [arrowhead = "tee"; headport = "A0_1:c"; headclip = false;]; + A0_1; + A0_1 -> A3 [dir = both; arrowtail = "tee"; tailclip = false;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_ColleagueA { + newrank = true; + label = "Task B"; + B1 -> B2 -> B3 -> B4; + } + + B3 -> A3; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-04.dot b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-04.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6c63b7bde --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-04.dot @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = RL; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + fut1 [label = < + + + + +
fut1
0
1
>;]; + + edge [tailclip = "false";]; + fut1:source:c -> fut1:target [dir = forward;]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-05.dot b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-05.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..afcf8e77a --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-05.dot @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = RL; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + // Group the two together, which results in the desired alignment. + subgraph { + // But don't show the frame! + style = "invis"; + + fut1 [label = < + + + + +
fut1
?
?
?
>;]; + + fut2 [label = < + + + + +
fut2
0
1
>;]; + + edge [tailclip = "false"; dir = forward]; + fut2:source:c -> fut1:target:e; + } +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-06.dot b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-06.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e036a385c --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-06.dot @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + dpi = 300.0; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + pinned_box [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_box { + label = ""; + peripheries = 0; + + subgraph cluster_box_internal { + peripheries = 1; + label = "b1"; + shape = box; + style = solid; + pin [shape = "point";]; + } + } + + subgraph cluster_deref { + style = bold; + label = "pinned"; + + box [label = < + + + + + +
fut
0
...
1
>;]; + } + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pinned_box -> pin [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + pin -> box [headport = "target";]; + box -> box [tailport = "source:c"; headport = "internal";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-07.dot b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-07.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..11b79574c --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-07.dot @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + newrank = true; + dpi = 300.0; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + + subgraph cluster_not_fut { + peripheries = 0; + + pin [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_boxes { + peripheries = 0; + rank = same; + + subgraph cluster_box_1 { + subgraph cluster_box_2_internal { + label = "b1"; + shape = box; + style = solid; + style = filled; + peripheries = 1; + box1 [shape = "point";style = "invis";]; + } + } + + subgraph cluster_box_2 { + subgraph cluster_box_2_internal { + label = "b2"; + shape = box; + style = solid; + peripheries = 1; + box2 [shape = "point";]; + } + } + } + } + subgraph cluster_target { + style = bold; + label = "pinned"; + + fut [label = < + + + + + +
fut
0
...
1
>;]; + } + + + box1 -> box2 [rankdir = TB; style = invis;]; + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pin -> box1 [style = "invis";]; + pin -> box2 [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + box2 -> fut [headport = "target";]; + fut -> fut [tailport = "source:c"; headport = "internal";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-08.dot b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-08.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8e9897f46 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-08.dot @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + newrank = true; + outputorder = in; + compound = true; + labelloc = "c"; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + pinned_box [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + + subgraph cluster_deref { + style = dashed; + label = "String"; + + pin [shape = "point";]; + + fut [label = < + + + + + + +
5usizehello
>;]; + } + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pinned_box -> pin [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + pin -> fut [headport = "target";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-09.dot b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-09.dot new file mode 100644 index 000000000..de7300751 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/dot/trpl17-09.dot @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + newrank = true; + outputorder = in; + compound = true; + labelloc = "c"; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + pinned_box [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_both { + peripheries = 0; + + + + string1 [label = < + + + + + + + + + +
s1
5usizehello
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_deref { + style = dashed; + label = "String"; + peripheries = 1; + + pin [shape = "point";]; + + string2 [label = < + + + + + + + + + + + +
s2
7usizegoodbye
>;]; + } + } + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pinned_box -> pin [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + pin -> string2 [headport = "target";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/associated-types.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/associated-types.md index 626048e9e..be7803498 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/associated-types.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/associated-types.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md index aa634112b..7e667e50c 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/ffi.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/ffi.md index 2adaff9d8..a8c3f818e 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/ffi.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/ffi.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#calling-rust-functions-from-other-languages) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#calling-rust-functions-from-other-languages) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/macros.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/macros.md index 6bafdc1e4..eb9871ca4 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/macros.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/macros.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md index 921a2a685..a13f44437 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#default-generic-type-parameters-and-operator-overloading) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#default-generic-type-parameters-and-operator-overloading) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/patterns.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/patterns.md index d722d397e..7bc6949b2 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/patterns.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/patterns.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md index 9778383d8..3b683a975 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html?highlight=procedural#procedural-macros-for-generating-code-from-attributes) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html?highlight=procedural#procedural-macros-for-generating-code-from-attributes) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md index c149da868..a4cc68d47 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md index 871bad614..a04d16b4b 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-02-trait-objects.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-02-trait-objects.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md index 7ac51ff19..d79974e55 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/unsafe.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/unsafe.md index be816dfd3..187fef52e 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/unsafe.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/unsafe.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md index 4ec43ecad..5fb51b1fd 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md +++ b/rustbook-en/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait) instead. 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--- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +$ cargo run "http://www.rust-lang.org" +The title for http://www.rust-lang.org was + Rust Programming Language diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..23b2ea99f --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use trpl::Html; + +// ANCHOR: run +fn main() { + let args: Vec = std::env::args().collect(); + + trpl::run(async { + let url = &args[1]; + match page_title(url).await { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + }) +} +// ANCHOR_END: run + +async fn page_title(url: &str) -> Option { + let response_text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + Html::parse(&response_text) + 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b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-05/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: all +use trpl::{Either, Html}; + +fn main() { + let args: Vec = std::env::args().collect(); + + trpl::run(async { + let title_fut_1 = page_title(&args[1]); + let title_fut_2 = page_title(&args[2]); + + let (url, maybe_title) = + match trpl::race(title_fut_1, title_fut_2).await { + Either::Left(left) => left, + Either::Right(right) => right, + }; + + println!("{url} returned first"); + match maybe_title { + Some(title) => println!("Its page title is: '{title}'"), + None => println!("Its title could not be parsed."), + } + }) +} + +async fn page_title(url: &str) -> (&str, Option) { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + let title = Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()); + (url, title) +} +// ANCHOR_END: all diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/Cargo.lock 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file mode 100644 index 000000000..349041d3e --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d5a2e56e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: here + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1500)).await; + } + }; + + trpl::join3(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut).await; + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f09d29189 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1817 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] 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file mode 100644 index 000000000..349041d3e --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0bb425d36 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + trpl::join!(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut); + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f09d29189 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1817 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" +version = 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file mode 100644 index 000000000..349041d3e --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..249ffd0f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f09d29189 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1817 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + 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val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..973206db6 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1817 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual 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file mode 100644 index 000000000..349041d3e --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b928fb602 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +$ diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1888a5356 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{future::Future, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures: Vec>> = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + }); +} diff --git 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+use std::{ + future::Future, + pin::{pin, Pin}, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }); + + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }); + + let tx_fut = pin!(async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }); + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures: Vec>>> = + vec![Box::pin(tx1_fut), Box::pin(rx_fut), Box::pin(tx_fut)]; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + }); +} diff --git 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dependency of package `async_await v0.1.0 (/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18)` + +Caused by: + failed to load source for dependency `trpl` + +Caused by: + Unable to update /Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/packages/trpl + +Caused by: + failed to read `/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml` + +Caused by: + No such file or directory (os error 2) diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..41820fc8a --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{ + future::Future, + pin::{pin, Pin}, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + // ANCHOR: here + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + // ANCHOR_END: here + // ANCHOR: here + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + let tx_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + let futures: Vec>> = + vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + }); +} diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock 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+use std::{thread, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: here + let one_ms = Duration::from_millis(1); + + let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'a' finished."); + }; + + let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'b' finished."); + }; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::race(a, b).await; + }); +} + +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); +} diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f09d29189 --- /dev/null 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file mode 100644 index 000000000..349041d3e --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..31ce58d9e --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::{Duration, Instant}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: here + let one_ns = Duration::from_nanos(1); + let start = Instant::now(); + async { + for _ in 1..1000 { + trpl::sleep(one_ns).await; + } + } + .await; + let time = Instant::now() - start; + 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trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_millis(10)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } + } + }); +} + +// ANCHOR: declaration +async fn timeout( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result { + // Here is where our implementation will go! +} +// ANCHOR_END: declaration diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0be7d2c88 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1860 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" +version = "0.21.0" +source = 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std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +// ANCHOR: messages +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} +// ANCHOR_END: messages diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-36/Cargo.lock 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std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +// ANCHOR: intervals +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + tx.send(count).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} +// ANCHOR_END: intervals diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..72e870c80 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1817 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" +version = "0.22.0" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "6e4503c46a5c0c7844e948c9a4d6acd9f50cccb4de1c48eb9e291ea17470c678" +dependencies = [ + "gimli", +] + +[[package]] +name = "adler" +version = "1.0.2" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "f26201604c87b1e01bd3d98f8d5d9a8fcbb815e8cedb41ffccbeb4bf593a35fe" + +[[package]] +name = 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std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: main + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals(); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals); + // ANCHOR_END: main + + while let Some(result) = merged.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = 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file mode 100644 index 000000000..e094f067f --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..57ed7bed4 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: throttle + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(100)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + // ANCHOR_END: throttle + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + 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std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }); +} + +// ANCHOR: errors +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { + eprintln!("Could not send interval {count}: {send_error}"); + break; + }; + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} +// ANCHOR_END: errors diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..72e870c80 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1817 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" 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file mode 100644 index 000000000..e094f067f --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f1f3d4b0c --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, thread, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }); +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +// ANCHOR: threads +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + // This is *not* 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`cargo run` diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..127328314 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: enum +enum PageTitleFuture<'a> { + Initial { url: &'a str }, + GetAwaitPoint { url: &'a str }, + TextAwaitPoint { response: trpl::Response }, +} +// ANCHOR_END: enum diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d30b928a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 000000000..67729afc8 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..10a18bc48 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +$ cargo run +error: a bin target must be available for `cargo run` diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..09a980c04 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_>, + ) -> Poll>; +} + +// ANCHOR: here +trait StreamExt: Stream { + async fn next(&mut self) -> Option + where + Self: Unpin; + + // other methods... +} +// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/output.txt b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/output.txt rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/output.txt diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/lib.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/lib.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from 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a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock rename to 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rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt similarity index 96% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt index 6ce3dfc58..0ed34b716 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt +++ b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ error[E0005]: refutable pattern in local binding | ^^^^^^^ pattern `None` not covered | = note: `let` bindings require an "irrefutable pattern", like a `struct` or an `enum` with only one variant - = note: for more information, visit https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch18-02-refutability.html + = note: for more information, visit https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch19-02-refutability.html = note: the matched value is of type `Option` help: you might want to use `let else` to handle the variant that isn't matched | diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/output.txt b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/output.txt similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/output.txt rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/output.txt diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/src/main.rs b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/src/main.rs rename to 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rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/src/main.rs rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/src/main.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.lock diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml b/rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml rename to rustbook-en/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.toml diff --git a/rustbook-en/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/src/main.rs 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For +example, if you used a video editor to create a video of a family celebration, +exporting it could take anywhere from minutes to hours. Similarly, downloading a +video shared by someone in your family might take a long time. It would be nice +if we could do something else while we are waiting for those long-running +processes to complete. + +The video export will use as much CPU and GPU power as it can. If you only had +one CPU core, and your operating system never paused that export until it +completed, you couldn’t do anything else on your computer while it was running. +That would be a pretty frustrating experience, though. Instead, your computer’s +operating system can—and does!—invisibly interrupt the export often enough to +let you get other work done along the way. + +The file download is different. It does not take up very much CPU time. Instead, +the CPU needs to wait on data to arrive from the network. While you can start +reading the data once some of it is present, it might take a while for the rest +to show up. Even once the data is all present, a video can be quite large, so it +might take some time to load it all. Maybe it only takes a second or two—but +that’s a very long time for a modern processor, which can do billions of +operations every second. It would be nice to be able to put the CPU to use for +other work while waiting for the network call to finish—so, again, your +operating system will invisibly interrupt your program so other things can +happen while the network operation is still ongoing. + +> Note: The video export is the kind of operation which is often described as +> “CPU-bound” or “compute-bound”. It’s limited by the speed of the computer’s +> ability to process data within the *CPU* or *GPU*, and how much of that speed +> it can use. The video download is the kind of operation which is often +> described as “IO-bound,” because it’s limited by the speed of the computer’s +> *input and output*. It can only go as fast as the data can be sent across the +> network. + +In both of these examples, the operating system’s invisible interrupts provide a +form of concurrency. That concurrency only happens at the level of a whole +program, though: the operating system interrupts one program to let other +programs get work done. In many cases, because we understand our programs at a +much more granular level than the operating system does, we can spot lots of +opportunities for concurrency that the operating system cannot see. + +For example, if we’re building a tool to manage file downloads, we should be +able to write our program in such a way that starting one download does not lock +up the UI, and users should be able to start multiple downloads at the same +time. Many operating system APIs for interacting with the network are +*blocking*, though. That is, these APIs block the program’s progress until the +data that they are processing is completely ready. + +> Note: This is how *most* function calls work, if you think about it! However, +> we normally reserve the term “blocking” for function calls which interact with +> files, the network, or other resources on the computer, because those are the +> places where an individual program would benefit from the operation being +> *non*-blocking. + +We could avoid blocking our main thread by spawning a dedicated thread to +download each file. However, we would eventually find that the overhead of those +threads was a problem. It would also be nicer if the call were not blocking in +the first place. Last but not least, it would be better if we could write in the +same direct style we use in blocking code. Something similar to this: -[TOC] +``` +let data = fetch_data_from(url).await; +println!("{data}"); +``` + +That is exactly what Rust’s async abstraction gives us. Before we see how this +works in practice, though, we need to take a short detour into the differences +between parallelism and concurrency. + +### Parallelism and Concurrency + +In the “Fearless Concurrency” chapter on page XX, we treated parallelism and +concurrency as mostly interchangeable. Now we need to distinguish between them +more precisely, because the differences will show up as we start working. + +Consider the different ways a team could split up work on a software project. We +could assign a single individual multiple tasks, or we could assign one task per +team member, or we could do a mix of both approaches. + +When an individual works on several different tasks before any of them is +complete, this is *concurrency*. Maybe you have two different projects checked +out on your computer, and when you get bored or stuck on one project, you switch +to the other. You’re just one person, so you can’t make progress on both tasks +at the exact same time—but you can multi-task, making progress on multiple +tasks by switching between them. + +Concurrent work flow + +Figure 17-1: A concurrent workflow, switching between Task A and Task B. + +When you agree to split up a group of tasks between the people on the team, with +each person taking one task and working on it alone, this is *parallelism*. Each +person on the team can make progress at the exact same time. + +Concurrent work flow + +Figure 17-2: A parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B +independently. -# Object-Oriented Programming Features - -Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a way of modeling programs. Objects as a -programmatic concept were introduced in the programming language Simula in the -1960s. Those objects influenced Alan Kay’s programming architecture in which -objects pass messages to each other. To describe this architecture, he coined -the term *object-oriented programming* in 1967. Many competing definitions -describe what OOP is, and by some of these definitions Rust is object oriented -but by others it is not. In this chapter, we’ll explore certain characteristics -that are commonly considered object oriented and how those characteristics -translate to idiomatic Rust. We’ll then show you how to implement an -object-oriented design pattern in Rust and discuss the trade-offs of doing so -versus implementing a solution using some of Rust’s strengths instead. - -## Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages - -There is no consensus in the programming community about what features a -language must have to be considered object oriented. Rust is influenced by many -programming paradigms, including OOP; for example, we explored the features -that came from functional programming in Chapter 13. Arguably, OOP languages -share certain common characteristics, namely objects, encapsulation, and -inheritance. Let’s look at what each of those characteristics means and whether -Rust supports it. - -### Objects Contain Data and Behavior - -The book *Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software* by -Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides (Addison-Wesley, -1994), colloquially referred to as *The Gang of Four* book, is a catalog of -object-oriented design patterns. It defines OOP in this way: - -Object-oriented programs are made up of objects. An *object* packages both data -and the procedures that operate on that data. The procedures are typically -called *methods* or *operations*. - -Using this definition, Rust is object oriented: structs and enums have data, -and `impl` blocks provide methods on structs and enums. Even though structs and -enums with methods aren’t *called* objects, they provide the same -functionality, according to the Gang of Four’s definition of objects. - -### Encapsulation That Hides Implementation Details - -Another aspect commonly associated with OOP is the idea of *encapsulation*, -which means that the implementation details of an object aren’t accessible to -code using that object. Therefore, the only way to interact with an object is -through its public API; code using the object shouldn’t be able to reach into -the object’s internals and change data or behavior directly. This enables the -programmer to change and refactor an object’s internals without needing to -change the code that uses the object. - -We discussed how to control encapsulation in Chapter 7: we can use the `pub` -keyword to decide which modules, types, functions, and methods in our code -should be public, and by default everything else is private. For example, we -can define a struct `AveragedCollection` that has a field containing a vector -of `i32` values. The struct can also have a field that contains the average of -the values in the vector, meaning the average doesn’t have to be computed on -demand whenever anyone needs it. In other words, `AveragedCollection` will -cache the calculated average for us. Listing 17-1 has the definition of the -`AveragedCollection` struct. - -Filename: src/lib.rs - -``` -pub struct AveragedCollection { - list: Vec, - average: f64, +With both of these situations, you might have to coordinate between different +tasks. Maybe you *thought* the task that one person was working on was totally +independent from everyone else’s work, but it actually needs something finished +by another person on the team. Some of the work could be done in parallel, but +some of it was actually *serial*: it could only happen in a series, one thing +after the other, as in Figure 17-3. + +Concurrent work flow + +Figure 17-3: A partially parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently until task A3 is blocked on the results of task B3. + +Likewise, you might realize that one of your own tasks depends on another of +your tasks. Now your concurrent work has also become serial. + +Parallelism and concurrency can intersect with each other, too. If you learn +that a colleague is stuck until you finish one of your tasks, you’ll probably +focus all your efforts on that task to “unblock” your colleague. You and your +coworker are no longer able to work in parallel, and you’re also no longer able +to work concurrently on your own tasks. + +The same basic dynamics come into play with software and hardware. On a machine +with a single CPU core, the CPU can only do one operation at a time, but it can +still work concurrently. Using tools such as threads, processes, and async, the +computer can pause one activity and switch to others before eventually cycling +back to that first activity again. On a machine with multiple CPU cores, it can +also do work in parallel. One core can be doing one thing while another core +does something completely unrelated, and those actually happen at the same +time. + +When working with async in Rust, we’re always dealing with concurrency. +Depending on the hardware, the operating system, and the async runtime we are +using—more on async runtimes shortly!—that concurrency may also use parallelism +under the hood. + +Now, let’s dive into how async programming in Rust actually works! In the rest +of this chapter, we will: + +* see how to use Rust’s `async` and `await` syntax +* explore how to use the async model to solve some of the same challenges we + looked at in Chapter 16 +* look at how multithreading and async provide complementary solutions, which + you can even use together in many cases + +## Futures and the Async Syntax + +The key elements of asynchronous programming in Rust are *futures* and Rust’s +`async` and `await` keywords. + +A *future* is a value which may not be ready now, but will become ready at some +point in the future. (This same concept shows up in many languages, sometimes +under other names such as “task” or “promise”.) Rust provides a `Future` trait +as a building block so different async operations can be implemented with +different data structures, but with a common interface. In Rust, we say that +types which implement the `Future` trait are futures. Each type which +implements `Future` holds its own information about the progress that has been +made and what “ready” means. + +The `async` keyword can be applied to blocks and functions to specify that they +can be interrupted and resumed. Within an async block or async function, you can +use the `await` keyword to wait for a future to become ready, called *awaiting a +future*. Each place you await a future within an async block or function is a +place that async block or function may get paused and resumed. The process of +checking with a future to see if its value is available yet is called *polling*. + +Some other languages also use `async` and `await` keywords for async +programming. If you’re familiar with those languages, you may notice some +significant differences in how Rust does things, including how it handles the +syntax. That’s for good reason, as we’ll see! + +Most of the time when writing async Rust, we use the `async` and `await` +keywords. Rust compiles them into equivalent code using the `Future` trait, much +as it compiles `for` loops into equivalent code using the `Iterator` trait. +Because Rust provides the `Future` trait, though, you can also implement it for +your own data types when you need to. Many of the functions we’ll see +throughout this chapter return types with their own implementations of `Future`. +We’ll return to the definition of the trait at the end of the chapter and dig +into more of how it works, but this is enough detail to keep us moving forward. + +That may all feel a bit abstract. Let’s write our first async program: a little +web scraper. We’ll pass in two URLs from the command line, fetch both of them +concurrently, and return the result of whichever one finishes first. This +example will have a fair bit of new syntax, but don’t worry. We’ll explain +everything you need to know as we go. + +### Our First Async Program + +To keep this chapter focused on learning async, rather than juggling parts of +the ecosystem, we have created the `trpl` crate (`trpl` is short for “The Rust +Programming Language”). It re-exports all the types, traits, and functions +you’ll need, primarily from the `futures` and `tokio` crates, available on +*https://crates.io*. + +* The `futures` crate is an official home for Rust experimentation for async + code, and is actually where the `Future` type was originally designed. + +* Tokio is the most widely used async runtime in Rust today, especially (but + not only!) for web applications. There are other great runtimes out there, + and they may be more suitable for your purposes. We use Tokio under the hood + for `trpl` because it’s well-tested and widely used. + +In some cases, `trpl` also renames or wraps the original APIs to let us stay +focused on the details relevant to this chapter. If you want to understand what +the crate does, we encourage you to check out its source code at +*https://github.com/rust-lang/book/tree/main/packages/trpl*. +You’ll be able to see what crate each re-export comes from, and we’ve left +extensive comments explaining what the crate does. + +Create a new binary project named `hello-async` and add the `trpl` crate as a +dependency: + +``` +$ cargo new hello-async +$ cd hello-async +$ cargo add trpl +``` + +Now we can use the various pieces provided by `trpl` to write our first async +program. We’ll build a little command line tool which fetches two web pages, +pulls the `` element from each, and prints out the title of whichever +finishes that whole process first. + +Let’s start by writing a function that takes one page URL as a parameter, makes +a request to it, and returns the text of the title element: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::Html; + +async fn page_title(url: &str) -> Option<String> { + let response = trpl::get(url).await; + let response_text = response.text().await; + Html::parse(&response_text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title_element| title_element.inner_html()) } ``` -Listing 17-1: An `AveragedCollection` struct that maintains a list of integers -and the average of the items in the collection +Listing 17-1: Defining an async function to get the title element from an HTML page + +In Listing 17-1, we define a function named `page_title`, and we mark it with +the `async` keyword. Then we use the `trpl::get` function to fetch whatever URL +is passed in, and, and we await the response by using the `await` keyword. Then +we get the text of the response by calling its `text` method and once again +awaiting it with the `await` keyword. Both of these steps are asynchronous. For +`get`, we need to wait for the server to send back the first part of its +response, which will include HTTP headers, cookies, and so on. That part of the +response can be delivered separately from the body of the request. Especially if +the body is very large, it can take some time for it all to arrive. Thus, we +have to wait for the *entirety* of the response to arrive, so the `text` method +is also async. + +We have to explicitly await both of these futures, because futures in Rust are +*lazy*: they don’t do anything until you ask them to with `await`. (In fact, +Rust will show a compiler warning if you don’t use a future.) This should +remind you of our discussion of iterators back in the “Processing a Series of +Items with Iterators” section of Chapter 13 on page XX. Iterators do nothing +unless you call their `next` method—whether directly, or using `for` loops or +methods such as `map` which use `next` under the hood. With futures, the same +basic idea applies: they do nothing unless you explicitly ask them to. This +laziness allows Rust to avoid running async code until it’s actually needed. + +> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw when using `thread::spawn` in +> the “Creating a New Thread with `spawn`” section of Chapter 16 on page XX, +> where the closure we passed to another thread started running immediately. +> It’s also different from how many other languages approach async! But it’s +> important for Rust. We’ll see why that is later. + +Once we have `response_text`, we can then parse it into an instance of the +`Html` type using `Html::parse`. Instead of a raw string, we now have a data +type we can use to work with the HTML as a richer data structure. In particular, +we can use the `select_first` method to find the first instance of a given CSS +selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `<title>` +element in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching +element, `select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the +`Option::map` method, which lets us work with the item in the `Option` if it’s +present, and do nothing if it isn’t. (We could also use a `match` expression +here, but `map` is more idiomatic.) In the body of the function we supply to +`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title_element` to get its content, which is +a `String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. + +Notice that Rust’s `await` keyword goes after the expression you’re awaiting, +not before it. That is, it’s a *postfix keyword*. This may be different from +what you might be used to if you have used async in other languages. Rust chose +this because it makes chains of methods much nicer to work with. As a result, we +can change the body of `page_url_for` to chain the `trpl::get` and `text` +function calls together with `await` between them, as shown in Listing 17-2: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` + let response_text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; +``` + +Listing 17-2: Chaining with the `await` keyword + +With that, we have successfully written our first async function! Before we add +some code in `main` to call it, let’s talk a little more about what we’ve +written and what it means. -The struct is marked `pub` so that other code can use it, but the fields within -the struct remain private. This is important in this case because we want to -ensure that whenever a value is added or removed from the list, the average is -also updated. We do this by implementing `add`, `remove`, and `average` methods -on the struct, as shown in Listing 17-2. +When Rust sees a block marked with the `async` keyword, it compiles it into a +unique, anonymous data type which implements the `Future` trait. When Rust sees +a function marked with `async`, it compiles it into a non-async function whose +body is an async block. An async function’s return type is the type of the of +the anonymous data type the compiler creates for that async block. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Thus, writing `async fn` is equivalent to writing a function which returns a +*future* of the return type. When the compiler sees a function definition such +as the `async fn page_title` in Listing 17-1, it’s equivalent to a non-async +function defined like this: ``` -impl AveragedCollection { - pub fn add(&mut self, value: i32) { - self.list.push(value); - self.update_average(); +use std::future::Future; +use trpl::Html; + +fn page_title(url: &str) -> impl Future<Output = Option<String>> + '_ { + async move { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()) } +} +``` - pub fn remove(&mut self) -> Option<i32> { - let result = self.list.pop(); - match result { - Some(value) => { - self.update_average(); - Some(value) - } - None => None, - } - } +Let’s walk through each part of the transformed version: + +* It uses the `impl Trait` syntax we discussed back in the “Traits as + Parameters” section in Chapter 10 on page XX. +* The returned trait is a `Future`, with an associated type of `Output`. Notice + that the `Output` type is `Option<String>`, which is the same as the the + original return type from the `async fn` version of `page_title`. +* All of the code called in the body of the original function is wrapped in an + `async move` block. Remember that blocks are expressions. This whole block is + the expression returned from the function. +* This async block produces a value with the type `Option<String>`, as described + above. That value matches the `Output` type in the return type. This is just + like other blocks you have seen. +* The new function body is an `async move` block because of how it uses the + `url` parameter. (We’ll talk about `async` vs. `async move` much more later + in the chapter.) +* The new version of the function has a kind of lifetime we haven’t seen before + in the output type: `'_`. Because the function returns a `Future` which refers + to a reference—in this case, the reference from the `url` parameter—we need to + tell Rust that we mean for that reference to be included. We don’t have to + name the lifetime here, because Rust is smart enough to know there is only one + reference which could be involved, but we *do* have to be explicit that the + resulting `Future` is bound by that lifetime. + +Now we can call `page_title` in `main`. To start, we’ll just get the title for +a single page. In Listing 17-3, we follow the same pattern we used for getting +command line arguments back in the “Accepting Command Line Arguments” section +of Chapter 12 on page XX. Then we pass the first URL `page_title`, and await +the result. Because the value produced by the future is an `Option<String>`, we +use a `match` expression to print different messages to account for whether the +page had a `<title>`. - pub fn average(&self) -> f64 { - self.average - } +Filename: src/main.rs - fn update_average(&mut self) { - let total: i32 = self.list.iter().sum(); - self.average = total as f64 / self.list.len() as f64; +``` +async fn main() { + let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); + let url = &args[1]; + match page_title(url).await { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), } } ``` -Listing 17-2: Implementations of the public methods `add`, `remove`, and -`average` on `AveragedCollection` - -The public methods `add`, `remove`, and `average` are the only ways to access -or modify data in an instance of `AveragedCollection`. When an item is added to -`list` using the `add` method or removed using the `remove` method, the -implementations of each call the private `update_average` method that handles -updating the `average` field as well. - -We leave the `list` and `average` fields private so there is no way for -external code to add or remove items to or from the `list` field directly; -otherwise, the `average` field might become out of sync when the `list` -changes. The `average` method returns the value in the `average` field, -allowing external code to read the `average` but not modify it. - -Because we’ve encapsulated the implementation details of the struct -`AveragedCollection`, we can easily change aspects, such as the data structure, -in the future. For instance, we could use a `HashSet<i32>` instead of a -`Vec<i32>` for the `list` field. As long as the signatures of the `add`, -`remove`, and `average` public methods stayed the same, code using -`AveragedCollection` wouldn’t need to change. If we made `list` public instead, -this wouldn’t necessarily be the case: `HashSet<i32>` and `Vec<i32>` have -different methods for adding and removing items, so the external code would -likely have to change if it were modifying `list` directly. - -If encapsulation is a required aspect for a language to be considered object -oriented, then Rust meets that requirement. The option to use `pub` or not for -different parts of code enables encapsulation of implementation details. - -### Inheritance as a Type System and as Code Sharing - -*Inheritance* is a mechanism whereby an object can inherit elements from -another object’s definition, thus gaining the parent object’s data and behavior -without you having to define them again. - -If a language must have inheritance to be object oriented, then Rust is not -such a language. There is no way to define a struct that inherits the parent -struct’s fields and method implementations without using a macro. - -However, if you’re used to having inheritance in your programming toolbox, you -can use other solutions in Rust, depending on your reason for reaching for -inheritance in the first place. - -You would choose inheritance for two main reasons. One is for reuse of code: -you can implement particular behavior for one type, and inheritance enables you -to reuse that implementation for a different type. You can do this in a limited -way in Rust code using default trait method implementations, which you saw in -Listing 10-14 when we added a default implementation of the `summarize` method -on the `Summary` trait. Any type implementing the `Summary` trait would have -the `summarize` method available on it without any further code. This is -similar to a parent class having an implementation of a method and an -inheriting child class also having the implementation of the method. We can -also override the default implementation of the `summarize` method when we -implement the `Summary` trait, which is similar to a child class overriding the -implementation of a method inherited from a parent class. - -The other reason to use inheritance relates to the type system: to enable a -child type to be used in the same places as the parent type. This is also -called *polymorphism*, which means that you can substitute multiple objects for -each other at runtime if they share certain characteristics. - -> ### Polymorphism -> -> To many people, polymorphism is synonymous with inheritance. But it’s -actually a more general concept that refers to code that can work with data of -multiple types. For inheritance, those types are generally subclasses. -> -> Rust instead uses generics to abstract over different possible types and -trait bounds to impose constraints on what those types must provide. This is -sometimes called *bounded parametric polymorphism*. - -Inheritance has recently fallen out of favor as a programming design solution -in many programming languages because it’s often at risk of sharing more code -than necessary. Subclasses shouldn’t always share all characteristics of their -parent class but will do so with inheritance. This can make a program’s design -less flexible. It also introduces the possibility of calling methods on -subclasses that don’t make sense or that cause errors because the methods don’t -apply to the subclass. In addition, some languages will only allow single -inheritance (meaning a subclass can only inherit from one class), further -restricting the flexibility of a program’s design. - -For these reasons, Rust takes the different approach of using trait objects -instead of inheritance. Let’s look at how trait objects enable polymorphism in -Rust. - -## Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types - -In Chapter 8, we mentioned that one limitation of vectors is that they can -store elements of only one type. We created a workaround in Listing 8-9 where -we defined a `SpreadsheetCell` enum that had variants to hold integers, floats, -and text. This meant we could store different types of data in each cell and -still have a vector that represented a row of cells. This is a perfectly good -solution when our interchangeable items are a fixed set of types that we know -when our code is compiled. - -However, sometimes we want our library user to be able to extend the set of -types that are valid in a particular situation. To show how we might achieve -this, we’ll create an example graphical user interface (GUI) tool that iterates -through a list of items, calling a `draw` method on each one to draw it to the -screen—a common technique for GUI tools. We’ll create a library crate called -`gui` that contains the structure of a GUI library. This crate might include -some types for people to use, such as `Button` or `TextField`. In addition, -`gui` users will want to create their own types that can be drawn: for -instance, one programmer might add an `Image` and another might add a -`SelectBox`. - -We won’t implement a full-fledged GUI library for this example but will show -how the pieces would fit together. At the time of writing the library, we can’t -know and define all the types other programmers might want to create. But we do -know that `gui` needs to keep track of many values of different types, and it -needs to call a `draw` method on each of these differently typed values. It -doesn’t need to know exactly what will happen when we call the `draw` method, -just that the value will have that method available for us to call. - -To do this in a language with inheritance, we might define a class named -`Component` that has a method named `draw` on it. The other classes, such as -`Button`, `Image`, and `SelectBox`, would inherit from `Component` and thus -inherit the `draw` method. They could each override the `draw` method to define -their custom behavior, but the framework could treat all of the types as if -they were `Component` instances and call `draw` on them. But because Rust -doesn’t have inheritance, we need another way to structure the `gui` library to -allow users to extend it with new types. - -### Defining a Trait for Common Behavior - -To implement the behavior we want `gui` to have, we’ll define a trait named -`Draw` that will have one method named `draw`. Then we can define a vector that -takes a *trait object*. A trait object points to both an instance of a type -implementing our specified trait and a table used to look up trait methods on -that type at runtime. We create a trait object by specifying some sort of -pointer, such as a `&` reference or a `Box<T>` smart pointer, then the `dyn` -keyword, and then specifying the relevant trait. (We’ll talk about the reason -trait objects must use a pointer in “Dynamically Sized Types and the Sized -Trait” on page XX.) We can use trait objects in place of a generic or concrete -type. Wherever we use a trait object, Rust’s type system will ensure at compile -time that any value used in that context will implement the trait object’s -trait. Consequently, we don’t need to know all the possible types at compile -time. +Listing 17-3: Calling the `page_title` function from `main` with a +user-supplied argument -We’ve mentioned that, in Rust, we refrain from calling structs and enums -“objects” to distinguish them from other languages’ objects. In a struct or -enum, the data in the struct fields and the behavior in `impl` blocks are -separated, whereas in other languages, the data and behavior combined into one -concept is often labeled an object. However, trait objects *are* more like -objects in other languages in the sense that they combine data and behavior. -But trait objects differ from traditional objects in that we can’t add data to -a trait object. Trait objects aren’t as generally useful as objects in other -languages: their specific purpose is to allow abstraction across common -behavior. +Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. The only place we can use the `await` +keyword is in async functions or blocks, and Rust won’t let us mark the +special `main` function as `async`. -Listing 17-3 shows how to define a trait named `Draw` with one method named -`draw`. +``` +error[E0752]: `main` function is not allowed to be `async` + --> src/main.rs:6:1 + | +6 | async fn main() { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `main` function is not allowed to be `async` +``` + +The reason `main` can’t be marked `async` is that async code needs a *runtime*: +a Rust crate which manages the details of executing asynchronous code. A +program’s `main` function can *initialize* a runtime, but it’s not a runtime +*itself*. (We’ll see more about why this is a bit later.) Every Rust program +that executes async code has at least one place where it sets up a runtime and +executes the futures. + +Most languages which support async bundle a runtime with the language. Rust does +not. Instead, there are many different async runtimes available, each of which +makes different tradeoffs suitable to the use case they target. For example, a +high-throughput web server with many CPU cores and a large amount of RAM has +very different different needs than a microcontroller with a single core, a +small amount of RAM, and no ability to do heap allocations. The crates which +provide those runtimes also often supply async versions of common functionality +such as file or network I/O. + +Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we’ll use the `run` function +from the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and runs it to +completion. Behind the scenes, calling `run` sets up a runtime to use to run the +future passed in. Once the future completes, `run` returns whatever value the +future produced. + +We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `run`. Once it +completed, we would be able to match on the resulting `Option<String>`, the way +we tried to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter +(and most async code in the real world!), we’ll be doing more than just one +async function call, so instead we’ll pass an `async` block and explicitly +await the result of calling `page_title`, as in Listing 17-4. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub trait Draw { - fn draw(&self); +fn main() { + let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); + + trpl::run(async { + let url = &args[1]; + match page_title(url).await { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + }) } ``` -Listing 17-3: Definition of the `Draw` trait +Listing 17-4: Awaiting an async block with `trpl::run` + +When we run this, we get the behavior we might have expected initially: -This syntax should look familiar from our discussions on how to define traits -in Chapter 10. Next comes some new syntax: Listing 17-4 defines a struct named -`Screen` that holds a vector named `components`. This vector is of type -`Box<dyn Draw>`, which is a trait object; it’s a stand-in for any type inside a -`Box` that implements the `Draw` trait. +``` +$ cargo run "http://www.rust-lang.org" +The title for http://www.rust-lang.org was + Rust Programming Language +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +Phew: we finally have some working async code! This now compiles, and we can run +it. Before we add code to race two sites against each other, let’s briefly turn +our attention back to how futures work. + +Each *await point*—that is, every place where the code uses the `await` +keyword—represents a place where control gets handed back to the runtime. To +make that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async +block, so that the runtime can kick off some other work and then come back when +it’s ready to try advancing this one again. This is an invisible state machine, +as if you wrote an enum in this way to save the current state at each `await` +point: ``` -pub struct Screen { - pub components: Vec<Box<dyn Draw>>, +enum PageTitleFuture<'a> { + Initial { url: &'a str }, + GetAwaitPoint { url: &'a str }, + TextAwaitPoint { response: trpl::Response }, } ``` -Listing 17-4: Definition of the `Screen` struct with a `components` field -holding a vector of trait objects that implement the `Draw` trait - -On the `Screen` struct, we’ll define a method named `run` that will call the -`draw` method on each of its `components`, as shown in Listing 17-5. +Writing the code to transition between each state by hand would be tedious and +error-prone, especially when adding more functionality and more states to the +code later. Instead, the Rust compiler creates and manages the state machine +data structures for async code automatically. If you’re wondering: yep, the +normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all apply. Happily, +the compiler also handles checking those for us, and has good error messages. +We’ll work through a few of those later in the chapter! + +Ultimately, something has to execute that state machine. That something is a +runtime. (This is why you may sometimes come across references to *executors* +when looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for +executing the async code.) + +Now we can understand why the compiler stopped us from making `main` itself an +async function back in Listing 17-3. If `main` were an async function, something +else would need to manage the state machine for whatever future `main` returned, +but `main` is the starting point for the program! Instead, we call the +`trpl::run` function in `main`, which sets up a runtime and runs the future +returned by the `async` block until it returns `Ready`. + +> Note: some runtimes provide macros to make it so you *can* write an async +> main function. Those macros rewrite `async fn main() { ... }` to be a normal +> `fn main` which does the same thing we did by hand in Listing 17-5: call a +> function which runs a future to completion the way `trpl::run` does. + +Let’s put these pieces together and see how we can write concurrent code, by +calling `page_title` with two different URLs passed in from the command line +and racing them. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Screen { - pub fn run(&self) { - for component in self.components.iter() { - component.draw(); +use trpl::{Either, Html}; + +fn main() { + let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); + + trpl::run(async { + let title_fut_1 = page_title(&args[1]); + let title_fut_2 = page_title(&args[2]); + + let (url, maybe_title) = + match trpl::race(title_fut_1, title_fut_2).await { + Either::Left(left) => left, + Either::Right(right) => right, + }; + + println!("{url} returned first"); + match maybe_title { + Some(title) => println!("Its page title is: '{title}'"), + None => println!("Its title could not be parsed."), } - } + }) +} + +async fn page_title(url: &str) -> (&str, Option<String>) { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + let title = Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()); + (url, title) } ``` -Listing 17-5: A `run` method on `Screen` that calls the `draw` method on each -component +Listing 17-5: Calling `page_title` for two URLs to see which returns first + +In Listing 17-5, we begin by calling `page_title` for each of the user-supplied +URLs. We save the futures produced by calling `page_title` as `title_fut_1` and +`title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t do anything yet, because futures are lazy, +and we haven’t yet awaited them. Then we pass the futures to `trpl::race`, +which returns a value to indicate which of the futures passed to it finishes +first. -This works differently from defining a struct that uses a generic type -parameter with trait bounds. A generic type parameter can only be substituted -with one concrete type at a time, whereas trait objects allow for multiple -concrete types to fill in for the trait object at runtime. For example, we -could have defined the `Screen` struct using a generic type and a trait bound, -as in Listing 17-6. +> Note: Under the hood, `race` is built on a more general function, `select`, +> which you will encounter more often in real-world Rust code. A `select` +> function can do a lot of things that `trpl::race` function can’t, but it also +> has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Either future can legitimately “win,” so it doesn’t make sense to return a +`Result`. Instead, `race` returns a type we haven’t seen before, +`trpl::Either`. The `Either` type is somewhat similar to a `Result`, in that it +has two cases. Unlike `Result`, though, there is no notion of success or +failure baked into `Either`. Instead, it uses `Left` and `Right` to indicate +“one or the other”. ``` -pub struct Screen<T: Draw> { - pub components: Vec<T>, +enum Either<A, B> { + Left(A), + Right(B), } +``` -impl<T> Screen<T> -where - T: Draw, -{ - pub fn run(&self) { - for component in self.components.iter() { - component.draw(); +The `race` function returns `Left` if the first argument finishes first, with +that future’s output, and `Right` with the second future argument’s output if +*that* one finishes first. This matches the order the arguments appear when +calling the function: the first argument is to the left of the second argument. + +We also update `page_title` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if +the page which returns first does not have a `<title>` we can resolve, we can +still print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by +updating our `println!` output to indicate both which URL finished first and +what the `<title>` was for the web page at that URL, if any. + +You have built a small working web scraper now! Pick a couple URLs and run the +command line tool. You may discover that some sites are reliably faster than +others, while in other cases which site “wins” varies from run to run. More +importantly, you’ve learned the basics of working with futures, so we can now +dig into even more of the things we can do with async. + +## Concurrency With Async + +In this section, we’ll apply async to some of the same concurrency challenges +we tackled with threads in Chapter 16. Because we already talked about a lot of +the key ideas there, in this section we’ll focus on what’s different between +threads and futures. + +In many cases, the APIs for working with concurrency using async are very +similar to those for using threads. In other cases, they end up being shaped +quite differently. Even when the APIs *look* similar between threads and async, +they often have different behavior—and they nearly always have different +performance characteristics. + +### Counting + +The first task we tackled in the “Creating a New Thread with spawn” section of +Chapter 16 on page XX was counting up on two separate threads. Let’s do the +same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies a `spawn_task` function which looks +very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and a `sleep` function which is an +async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can use these together to +implement the same counting example as with threads, in Listing 17-6. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + trpl::spawn_task(async { + for i in 1..10 { + println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }); + + for i in 1..5 { + println!("hi number {i} from the second task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } - } + }); } ``` -Listing 17-6: An alternate implementation of the `Screen` struct and its `run` -method using generics and trait bounds +Listing 17-6: Using `spawn_task` to count with two + +As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::run`, so +that our top-level function can be async. -This restricts us to a `Screen` instance that has a list of components all of -type `Button` or all of type `TextField`. If you’ll only ever have homogeneous -collections, using generics and trait bounds is preferable because the -definitions will be monomorphized at compile time to use the concrete types. +> Note: From this point forward in the chapter, every example will include this +> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::run` in `main`, so we’ll often skip it +> just as we do with `main`. Don’t forget to include it in your code! -On the other hand, with the method using trait objects, one `Screen` instance -can hold a `Vec<T>` that contains a `Box<Button>` as well as a -`Box<TextField>`. Let’s look at how this works, and then we’ll talk about the -runtime performance implications. +Then we write two loops within that block, each with a `trpl::sleep` call in it, +which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next +message. We put one loop in the body of a `trpl::spawn_task` and the other in a +top-level `for` loop. We also add an `await` after the `sleep` calls. -### Implementing the Trait +This does something similar to the thread-based implementation—including the +fact that you may see the messages appear in a different order in your own +terminal when you run it. + +``` +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +``` -Now we’ll add some types that implement the `Draw` trait. We’ll provide the -`Button` type. Again, actually implementing a GUI library is beyond the scope -of this book, so the `draw` method won’t have any useful implementation in its -body. To imagine what the implementation might look like, a `Button` struct -might have fields for `width`, `height`, and `label`, as shown in Listing 17-7. +This version stops as soon as the for loop in the body of the main async block +finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the main +function ends. If you want to run all the way to the completion of the task, you +will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to complete. With +threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread was done running. +In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, because the task +handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so we also unwrap it +after awaiting it. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub struct Button { - pub width: u32, - pub height: u32, - pub label: String, +let handle = trpl::spawn_task(async { + for i in 1..10 { + println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}); + +for i in 1..5 { + println!("hi number {i} from the second task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } -impl Draw for Button { - fn draw(&self) { - // code to actually draw a button +handle.await.unwrap(); +``` + +Listing 17-7: Using `await` with a join handle to run a task to completion + +This updated version runs till *both* loops finish. + +``` +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +So far, it looks like async and threads give us the same basic outcomes, just +with different syntax: using `await` instead of calling `join` on the join +handle, and awaiting the `sleep` calls. + +The bigger difference is that we didn’t need to spawn another operating system +thread to do this. In fact, we don’t even need to spawn a task here. Because +async blocks compile to anonymous futures, we can put each loop in an async +block and have the runtime run them both to completion using the `trpl::join` +function. + +In the “Waiting for All Threads to Finish Using `join` Handles” section of +Chapter 16 on page XX, we showed how to use the `join` method on the +`JoinHandle` type returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The `trpl::join` +function is similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, it produces +a single new future whose output is a tuple with the output of each of the +futures you passed in once *both* complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we use +`trpl::join` to wait for both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do *not* await +`fut1` and `fut2`, but instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We +ignore the output, because it’s just a tuple with two unit values in it. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let fut1 = async { + for i in 1..10 { + println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } -} +}; + +let fut2 = async { + for i in 1..5 { + println!("hi number {i} from the second task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; + +trpl::join(fut1, fut2).await; +``` + +Listing 17-8: Using `trpl::join` to await two anonymous futures + +When we run this, we see both futures run to completion: + +``` +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +Here, you’ll see the exact same order every time, which is very different from +what we saw with threads. That is because the `trpl::join` function is *fair*, +meaning it checks each future equally often, alternating between them, and never +lets one race ahead if the other is ready. With threads, the operating system +decides which thread to check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the +runtime decides which task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated +because an async runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as +part of how it manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work +for a runtime—but it’s still possible!) Runtimes don’t have to guarantee +fairness for any given operation, and runtimes often offer different APIs to let +you choose whether you want fairness or not. + +Try some of these different variations on awaiting the futures and see what they +do: + +* Remove the async block from around either or both of the loops. +* Await each async block immediately after defining it. +* Wrap only the first loop in an async block, and await the resulting future + after the body of second loop. + +For an extra challenge, see if you can figure out what the output will be in +each case *before* running the code! + +### Message Passing + +Sharing data between futures will also be familiar: we’ll use message passing +again, but this with async versions of the types and functions. We’ll take a +slightly different path than we did in the “Using Message Passing to Transfer +Data Between Threads” section of Chapter 16 on page XX, to illustrate some of +the key differences between thread-based and futures-based concurrency. In +Listing 17-9, we’ll begin with just a single async block—*not* spawning a +separate task as we spawned a separate thread. + +Filename: src/main.rs + ``` +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); -Listing 17-7: A `Button` struct that implements the `Draw` trait +let val = String::from("hi"); +tx.send(val).unwrap(); -The `width`, `height`, and `label` fields on `Button` will differ from the -fields on other components; for example, a `TextField` type might have those -same fields plus a `placeholder` field. Each of the types we want to draw on -the screen will implement the `Draw` trait but will use different code in the -`draw` method to define how to draw that particular type, as `Button` has here -(without the actual GUI code, as mentioned). The `Button` type, for instance, -might have an additional `impl` block containing methods related to what -happens when a user clicks the button. These kinds of methods won’t apply to -types like `TextField`. +let received = rx.recv().await.unwrap(); +println!("Got: {received}"); +``` -If someone using our library decides to implement a `SelectBox` struct that has -`width`, `height`, and `options` fields, they would implement the `Draw` trait -on the `SelectBox` type as well, as shown in Listing 17-8. +Listing 17-9: Creating an async channel and assigning the two halves to `tx` +and `rx` + +Here, we use `trpl::channel`, an async version of the multiple-producer, +single-consumer channel API we used with threads back in the “Using Message +Passing to Transfer Data Between Threads” section of Chapter 16 on page XX. The +async version of the API is only a little different from the thread-based +version: it uses a mutable rather than an immutable receiver `rx`, and its +`recv` method produces a future we need to await rather than producing the +value directly. Now we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. +Notice that we don’t have to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely +need to await the `rx.recv` call. + +The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until +it receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it +is async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either +a message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we +don’t await the `send` call, because it doesn’t block. It doesn’t need to, +because the channel we’re sending it into is unbounded. + +> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a `trpl::run` +> call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the code *outside* it +> will block on the `run` function returning. That is the whole point of the +> `trpl::run` function: it lets you *choose* where to block on some set of async +> code, and thus where to transition between sync and async code. In most async +> runtimes, `run` is actually named `block_on` for exactly this reason. + +Notice two things about this example: First, the message will arrive right away! +Second, although we use a future here, there’s no concurrency yet. Everything +in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were no futures +involved. + +Let’s address the first part by sending a series of messages, and sleep in +between them, as shown in Listing 17-10: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use gui::Draw; +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + +let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), +]; + +for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; +} -struct SelectBox { - width: u32, - height: u32, - options: Vec<String>, +while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); } +``` + +Listing 17-10: Sending and receiving multiple messages over the async channel +and sleeping with an `await` between each message + +In addition to sending the messages, we need to receive them. In this case, we +could do that manually, by just doing `rx.recv().await` four times, because we +know how many messages are coming in. In the real world, though, we’ll +generally be waiting on some *unknown* number of messages. In that case, we need +to keep waiting until we determine that there are no more messages. + +In Listing 16-10, we used a `for` loop to process all the items received from a +synchronous channel. However, Rust doesn’t yet have a way to write a `for` loop +over an *asynchronous* series of items. Instead, we need to use a new kind of +loop we haven’t seen before, the `while let` conditional loop. A `while let` +loop is the loop version of the `if let` construct we saw back in the “Concise +Control Flow with `if let`” section in Chapter 6 on page XX. The loop will +continue executing as long as the pattern it specifies continues to match the +value. + +The `rx.recv` call produces a `Future`, which we await. The runtime will pause +the `Future` until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve +to `Some(message)`, as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, +regardless of whether *any* messages have arrived, the future will instead +resolve to `None` to indicate that there are no more values, and we should stop +polling—that is, stop awaiting. + +The `while let` loop pulls all of this together. If the result of calling +`rx.recv().await` is `Some(message)`, we get access to the message and we can +use it in the loop body, just as we could with `if let`. If the result is +`None`, the loop ends. Every time the loop completes, it hits the await point +again, so the runtime pauses it again until another message arrives. + +The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. Unfortunately, +there are still a couple problems. For one thing, the messages do not arrive at +half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, two seconds (2,000 milliseconds) +after we start the program. For another, this program also never exits! Instead, +it waits forever for new messages. You will need to shut it down using <span +class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. + +Let’s start by understanding why the messages all come in at once after the full +delay, rather than coming in with delays in between each one. Within a given +async block, the order that `await` keywords appear in the code is also the +order they happen when running the program. + +There’s only one async block in Listing 17-10, so everything in it runs +linearly. There’s still no concurrency. All the `tx.send` calls happen, +interspersed with all of the `trpl::sleep` calls and their associated await +points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the `await` +points on the `recv` calls. + +To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between receiving +each message, we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async +blocks. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately using `trpl::join`, +just as in the counting example. Once again, we await the result of calling +`trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the individual futures +in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential flow—exactly what we’re +trying *not* to do. + +Filename: src/main.rs -impl Draw for SelectBox { - fn draw(&self) { - // code to actually draw a select box +``` +let tx_fut = async { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } -} +}; + +let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } +}; + +trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; +``` + +Listing 17-11: Separating `send` and `recv` into their own `async` blocks and +awaiting the futures for those blocks + +With the updated code in Listing 17-11, the messages get printed at +500-millisecond intervals, rather than all in a rush after two seconds. + +The program still never exits, though, because of the way `while let` loop +interacts with `trpl::join`: + +* The future returned from `trpl::join` only completes once *both* futures + passed to it have completed. +* The `tx` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last + message in `vals`. +* The `rx` future won’t complete until the `while let` loop ends. +* The `while let` loop won’t end until awaiting `rx.recv` produces `None`. +* Awaiting `rx.recv` will only return `None` once the other end of the channel + is closed. +* The channel will only close if we call `rx.close` or when the sender side, + `tx`, is dropped. +* We don’t call `rx.close` anywhere, and `tx` won’t be dropped until the + outermost async block passed to `trpl::run` ends. +* The block can’t end because it is blocked on `trpl::join` completing, which + takes us back to the top of this list! + +We could manually close `rx` by calling `rx.close` somewhere, but that doesn’t +make much sense. Stopping after handling some arbitrary number of messages would +make the program shut down, but we could miss messages. We need some other way +to make sure that `tx` gets dropped *before* the end of the function. + +Right now, the async block where we send the messages only borrows `tx` because +sending a message doesn’t require ownership, but if we could move `tx` into +that async block, it would be dropped once that block ends. In the “Capturing +References or Moving Ownership” section of Chapter 13 on page XX, we learned +how to use the `move` keyword with closures, and in the “Using `move` Closures +with Threads” section of Chapter 16 on page XX, we saw that we often need to +move data into closures when working with threads. The same basic dynamics +apply to async blocks, so the `move` keyword works with async blocks just as it +does with closures. + +In Listing 17-12, we change the async block for sending messages from a plain +`async` block to an `async move` block. When we run *this* version of the code, +it shuts down gracefully after the last message is sent and received. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + +let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; + +let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + eprintln!("received '{value}'"); + } +}; + +trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; ``` -Listing 17-8: Another crate using `gui` and implementing the `Draw` trait on a -`SelectBox` struct +Listing 17-12: A working example of sending and receiving messages between +futures which correctly shuts down when complete + +This async channel is also a multiple-producer channel, so we can call `clone` +on `tx` if we want to send messages from multiple futures. In Listing 17-13, we +clone `tx`, creating `tx1` outside the first async block. We move `tx1` into +that block just as we did before with `tx`. Then, later, we move the original +`tx` into a *new* async block, where we send more messages on a slightly slower +delay. We happen to put this new async block after the async block for receiving +messages, but it could go before it just as well. The key is the order of the +futures are awaited in, not the order they are created in. -Our library’s user can now write their `main` function to create a `Screen` -instance. To the `Screen` instance, they can add a `SelectBox` and a `Button` -by putting each in a `Box<T>` to become a trait object. They can then call the -`run` method on the `Screen` instance, which will call `draw` on each of the -components. Listing 17-9 shows this implementation. +Both of the async blocks for sending messages need to be `async move` blocks, so +that both `tx` and `tx1` get dropped when those blocks finish. Otherwise we’ll +end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. Finally, we switch from +`trpl::join` to `trpl::join3` to handle the additional future. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use gui::{Button, Screen}; +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + +let tx1 = tx.clone(); +let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; -fn main() { - let screen = Screen { - components: vec![ - Box::new(SelectBox { - width: 75, - height: 10, - options: vec![ - String::from("Yes"), - String::from("Maybe"), - String::from("No"), - ], - }), - Box::new(Button { - width: 50, - height: 10, - label: String::from("OK"), - }), - ], - }; - - screen.run(); -} +let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } +}; + +let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1500)).await; + } +}; + +trpl::join3(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut).await; ``` -Listing 17-9: Using trait objects to store values of different types that -implement the same trait +Listing 17-13: Using multiple producers with async blocks + +Now we see all the messages from both sending futures. Because the sending +futures use slightly different delays after sending, the messages are also +received at those different intervals. -When we wrote the library, we didn’t know that someone might add the -`SelectBox` type, but our `Screen` implementation was able to operate on the -new type and draw it because `SelectBox` implements the `Draw` trait, which -means it implements the `draw` method. +``` +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'the' +received 'messages' +received 'future' +received 'for' +received 'you' +``` -This concept—of being concerned only with the messages a value responds to -rather than the value’s concrete type—is similar to the concept of *duck -typing* in dynamically typed languages: if it walks like a duck and quacks like -a duck, then it must be a duck! In the implementation of `run` on `Screen` in -Listing 17-5, `run` doesn’t need to know what the concrete type of each -component is. It doesn’t check whether a component is an instance of a `Button` -or a `SelectBox`, it just calls the `draw` method on the component. By -specifying `Box<dyn Draw>` as the type of the values in the `components` -vector, we’ve defined `Screen` to need values that we can call the `draw` -method on. +This is a good start, but it limits us to just a handful of futures: two with +`join`, or three with `join3`. Let’s see how we might work with more futures. -The advantage of using trait objects and Rust’s type system to write code -similar to code using duck typing is that we never have to check whether a -value implements a particular method at runtime or worry about getting errors -if a value doesn’t implement a method but we call it anyway. Rust won’t compile -our code if the values don’t implement the traits that the trait objects need. +## Working With Any Number of Futures -For example, Listing 17-10 shows what happens if we try to create a `Screen` -with a `String` as a component. +When we switched from using two futures to three in the previous section, we +also had to switch from using `join` to using `join3`. It would be annoying to +have to call a different function every time we changed the number of futures we +wanted to join. Happily, we have a macro form of `join` to which we can pass an +arbitrary number of arguments. It also handles awaiting the futures itself. +Thus, we could rewrite the code from Listing 17-13 to use `join!` instead of +`join3`, as in Listing 17-14: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use gui::Screen; +trpl::join!(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut); +``` -fn main() { - let screen = Screen { - components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], - }; +Listing 17-14: Using `join!` to wait for multiple futures - screen.run(); -} +This is definitely a nice improvement over needing to swap between `join` and +`join3` and `join4` and so on! However, even this macro form only works when we +know the number of futures ahead of time. In real-world Rust, though, pushing +futures into a collection and then waiting on some or all the futures in that +collection to complete is a common pattern. + +To check all the futures in some collection, we’ll need to iterate over and +join on *all* of them. The `trpl::join_all` function accepts any type which +implements the `Iterator` trait, which we learned about back in “The Iterator +Trait and the next Method” section of Chapter 13 on page XX, so it seems like +just the ticket. Let’s try putting our futures in a vector, and replace `join!` +with `join_all`. + +``` +let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + +trpl::join_all(futures).await; ``` -Listing 17-10: Attempting to use a type that doesn’t implement the trait -object’s trait +Listing 17-15: Storing anonymous futures in a vector and calling `join_all` -We’ll get this error because `String` doesn’t implement the `Draw` trait: +Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. Instead, we get this error: ``` -error[E0277]: the trait bound `String: Draw` is not satisfied - --> src/main.rs:5:26 - | -5 | components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Draw` is -not implemented for `String` - | - = note: required for the cast to the object type `dyn Draw` -``` - -This error lets us know that either we’re passing something to `Screen` that we -didn’t mean to pass and so should pass a different type, or we should implement -`Draw` on `String` so that `Screen` is able to call `draw` on it. - -### Trait Objects Perform Dynamic Dispatch - -Recall in “Performance of Code Using Generics” on page XX our discussion on the -monomorphization process performed by the compiler when we use trait bounds on -generics: the compiler generates nongeneric implementations of functions and -methods for each concrete type that we use in place of a generic type -parameter. The code that results from monomorphization is doing *static -dispatch*, which is when the compiler knows what method you’re calling at -compile time. This is opposed to *dynamic dispatch*, which is when the compiler -can’t tell at compile time which method you’re calling. In dynamic dispatch -cases, the compiler emits code that at runtime will figure out which method to -call. - -When we use trait objects, Rust must use dynamic dispatch. The compiler doesn’t -know all the types that might be used with the code that’s using trait objects, -so it doesn’t know which method implemented on which type to call. Instead, at -runtime, Rust uses the pointers inside the trait object to know which method to -call. This lookup incurs a runtime cost that doesn’t occur with static -dispatch. Dynamic dispatch also prevents the compiler from choosing to inline a -method’s code, which in turn prevents some optimizations. However, we did get -extra flexibility in the code that we wrote in Listing 17-5 and were able to -support in Listing 17-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. - -## Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern - -The *state pattern* is an object-oriented design pattern. The crux of the -pattern is that we define a set of states a value can have internally. The -states are represented by a set of *state objects*, and the value’s behavior -changes based on its state. We’re going to work through an example of a blog -post struct that has a field to hold its state, which will be a state object -from the set “draft,” “review,” or “published.” - -The state objects share functionality: in Rust, of course, we use structs and -traits rather than objects and inheritance. Each state object is responsible -for its own behavior and for governing when it should change into another -state. The value that holds a state object knows nothing about the different -behavior of the states or when to transition between states. - -The advantage of using the state pattern is that, when the business -requirements of the program change, we won’t need to change the code of the -value holding the state or the code that uses the value. We’ll only need to -update the code inside one of the state objects to change its rules or perhaps -add more state objects. - -First we’re going to implement the state pattern in a more traditional -object-oriented way, then we’ll use an approach that’s a bit more natural in -Rust. Let’s dig in to incrementally implement a blog post workflow using the -state pattern. - -The final functionality will look like this: - -1. A blog post starts as an empty draft. -1. When the draft is done, a review of the post is requested. -1. When the post is approved, it gets published. -1. Only published blog posts return content to print, so unapproved posts can’t -accidentally be published. - -Any other changes attempted on a post should have no effect. For example, if we -try to approve a draft blog post before we’ve requested a review, the post -should remain an unpublished draft. - -Listing 17-11 shows this workflow in code form: this is an example usage of the -API we’ll implement in a library crate named `blog`. This won’t compile yet -because we haven’t implemented the `blog` crate. +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:43:37 + | +8 | let tx1_fut = async move { + | _______________________- +9 | | let vals = vec![ +10 | | String::from("hi"), +11 | | String::from("from"), +... | +19 | | } +20 | | }; + | |_________- the expected `async` block +21 | +22 | let rx_fut = async { + | ______________________- +23 | | while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { +24 | | println!("received '{value}'"); +25 | | } +26 | | }; + | |_________- the found `async` block +... +43 | let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + | ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block + | + = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` + found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:22:22: 26:10}` + = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type + = help: consider pinning your async block and and casting it to a trait object +``` + +This might be surprising. After all, none of them return anything, so each +block produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. However, `Future` is a trait, not a +concrete type. The concrete types are the individual data structures generated +by the compiler for async blocks. You can’t put two different hand-written +structs in a `Vec`, and the same thing applies to the different structs +generated by the compiler. + +To make this work, we need to use *trait objects*, just as we did in the +“Returning Errors from the run function” section in Chapter 12 on page XX. +(We’ll cover trait objects in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets +us treat each of the anonymous futures produced by these types as the same +type, because all of them implement the `Future` trait. + +> Note: In the “Using an Enum to Store Multiple Types” section of Chapter 8 on +> page XX, we discussed another way to include multiple types in a `Vec`: using +> an enum to represent each of the different types which can appear in the +> vector. We can’t do that here, though. For one thing, we have no way to name +> the different types, because they are anonymous. For another, the reason we +> reached for a vector and `join_all` in the first place was to be able to work +> with a dynamic collection of futures where we don’t know what they will all +> be until runtime. + +We start by wrapping each of the futures in the `vec!` in a `Box::new`, as shown +in Listing 17-16. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use blog::Post; +let futures = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; -fn main() { - 1 let mut post = Post::new(); +trpl::join_all(futures).await; +``` - 2 post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); - 3 assert_eq!("", post.content()); +Listing 17-16: Trying to use `Box::new` to align the types of the futures in a +`Vec` - 4 post.request_review(); - 5 assert_eq!("", post.content()); +Unfortunately, this still doesn’t compile. In fact, we have the same basic +error we did before, but we get one for both the second and third `Box::new` +calls, and we also get new errors referring to the `Unpin` trait. We will come +back to the `Unpin` errors in a moment. First, let’s fix the type errors on the +`Box::new` calls, by explicitly annotating the type of the `futures` variable: - 6 post.approve(); - 7 assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); -} +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let futures: Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>> = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; ``` -Listing 17-11: Code that demonstrates the desired behavior we want our `blog` -crate to have +Listing 17-17: Fixing the rest of the type mismatch errors by using an explicit +type declaration -We want to allow the user to create a new draft blog post with `Post::new` [1]. -We want to allow text to be added to the blog post [2]. If we try to get the -post’s content immediately, before approval, we shouldn’t get any text because -the post is still a draft. We’ve added `assert_eq!` in the code for -demonstration purposes [3]. An excellent unit test for this would be to assert -that a draft blog post returns an empty string from the `content` method, but -we’re not going to write tests for this example. +The type we had to write here is a little involved, so let’s walk through it: -Next, we want to enable a request for a review of the post [4], and we want -`content` to return an empty string while waiting for the review [5]. When the -post receives approval [6], it should get published, meaning the text of the -post will be returned when `content` is called [7]. +* The innermost type is the future itself. We note explicitly that the output of + the future is the unit type `()` by writing `Future<Output = ()>`. +* Then we annotate the trait with `dyn` to mark it as dynamic. +* The entire trait reference is wrapped in a `Box`. +* Finally, we state explicitly that `futures` is a `Vec` containing these items. -Notice that the only type we’re interacting with from the crate is the `Post` -type. This type will use the state pattern and will hold a value that will be -one of three state objects representing the various states a post can be -in—draft, review, or published. Changing from one state to another will be -managed internally within the `Post` type. The states change in response to the -methods called by our library’s users on the `Post` instance, but they don’t -have to manage the state changes directly. Also, users can’t make a mistake -with the states, such as publishing a post before it’s reviewed. +That already made a big difference. Now when we run the compiler, we only have +the errors mentioning `Unpin`. Although there are three of them, notice that +each is very similar in its contents. -### Defining Post and Creating a New Instance in the Draft State +``` +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:24 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | -------------- ^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | | + | required by a bound introduced by this call + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `join_all` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:105:14 + | +102 | pub fn join_all<I>(iter: I) -> JoinAll<I::Item> + | -------- required by a bound in this function +... +105 | I::Item: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `join_all` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:9 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` + +That is a *lot* to digest, so let’s pull it apart. The first part of the message +tell us that the first async block (`src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10`) does not +implement the `Unpin` trait, and suggests using `pin!` or `Box::pin` to resolve +it. Later in the chapter, we’ll dig into a few more details about `Pin` and +`Unpin`. For the moment, though, we can just follow the compiler’s advice to get +unstuck! In Listing 17-18, we start by updating the type annotation for +`futures`, with a `Pin` wrapping each `Box`. Second, we use `Box::pin` to pin +the futures themselves. -Let’s get started on the implementation of the library! We know we need a -public `Post` struct that holds some content, so we’ll start with the -definition of the struct and an associated public `new` function to create an -instance of `Post`, as shown in Listing 17-12. We’ll also make a private -`State` trait that will define the behavior that all state objects for a `Post` -must have. +Filename: src/main.rs -Then `Post` will hold a trait object of `Box<dyn State>` inside an `Option<T>` -in a private field named `state` to hold the state object. You’ll see why the -`Option<T>` is necessary in a bit. +``` +let futures: Vec<Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>> = + vec![Box::pin(tx1_fut), Box::pin(rx_fut), Box::pin(tx_fut)]; +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +Listing 17-18: Using `Pin` and `Box::pin` to make the `Vec` type check + +If we compile and run this, we finally get the output we hoped for: ``` -pub struct Post { - state: Option<Box<dyn State>>, - content: String, -} +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'messages' +received 'the' +received 'for' +received 'future' +received 'you' +``` -impl Post { - pub fn new() -> Post { - Post { - 1 state: Some(Box::new(Draft {})), - 2 content: String::new(), - } - } -} +Phew! + +There’s a bit more we can explore here. For one thing, using `Pin<Box<T>>` +comes with a small amount of extra overhead from putting these futures on the +heap with `Box`—and we’re only doing that to get the types to line up. We don’t +actually *need* the heap allocation, after all: these futures are local to this +particular function. As noted above, `Pin` is itself a wrapper type, so we can +get the benefit of having a single type in the `Vec`—the original reason we +reached for `Box`—without doing a heap allocation. We can use `Pin` directly +with each future, using the `std::pin::pin` macro. -trait State {} +However, we must still be explicit about the type of the pinned reference; +otherwise Rust will still not know to interpret these as dynamic trait objects, +which is what we need them to be in the `Vec`. We therefore `pin!` each future +when we define it, and define `futures` as a `Vec` containing pinned mutable +references to the dynamic `Future` type, as in Listing 17-19. -struct Draft {} +Filename: src/main.rs -impl State for Draft {} ``` +let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- +}); -Listing 17-12: Definition of a `Post` struct and a `new` function that creates -a new `Post` instance, a `State` trait, and a `Draft` struct +let rx_fut = pin!(async { + // --snip-- +}); -The `State` trait defines the behavior shared by different post states. The -state objects are `Draft`, `PendingReview`, and `Published`, and they will all -implement the `State` trait. For now, the trait doesn’t have any methods, and -we’ll start by defining just the `Draft` state because that is the state we -want a post to start in. +let tx_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- +}); -When we create a new `Post`, we set its `state` field to a `Some` value that -holds a `Box` [1]. This `Box` points to a new instance of the `Draft` struct. -This ensures that whenever we create a new instance of `Post`, it will start -out as a draft. Because the `state` field of `Post` is private, there is no way -to create a `Post` in any other state! In the `Post::new` function, we set the -`content` field to a new, empty `String` [2]. +let futures: Vec<Pin<&mut dyn Future<Output = ()>>> = + vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; +``` -### Storing the Text of the Post Content +Listing 17-19: Using `Pin` directly with the `pin!` macro to avoid unnecessary +heap allocations -We saw in Listing 17-11 that we want to be able to call a method named -`add_text` and pass it a `&str` that is then added as the text content of the -blog post. We implement this as a method, rather than exposing the `content` -field as `pub`, so that later we can implement a method that will control how -the `content` field’s data is read. The `add_text` method is pretty -straightforward, so let’s add the implementation in Listing 17-13 to the `impl -Post` block. +We got this far by ignoring the fact that we might have different `Output` +types. For example, in Listing 17-20, the anonymous future for `a` implements +`Future<Output = u32>`, the anonymous future for `b` implements +`Future<Output = &str>`, and the anonymous future for `c` implements +`Future<Output = bool>`. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Post { - --snip-- - pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { - self.content.push_str(text); - } -} + let a = async { 1u32 }; + let b = async { "Hello!" }; + let c = async { true }; + + let (a_result, b_result, c_result) = trpl::join!(a, b, c); + println!("{a_result}, {b_result}, {c_result}"); ``` -Listing 17-13: Implementing the `add_text` method to add text to a post’s -`content` +Listing 17-20: Three futures with distinct types + +We can use `trpl::join!` to await them, because it allows you to pass in +multiple future types and produces a tuple of those types. We *cannot* use +`trpl::join_all`, because it requires the futures passed in all to have the same +type. Remember, that error is what got us started on this adventure with `Pin`! -The `add_text` method takes a mutable reference to `self` because we’re -changing the `Post` instance that we’re calling `add_text` on. We then call -`push_str` on the `String` in `content` and pass the `text` argument to add to -the saved `content`. This behavior doesn’t depend on the state the post is in, -so it’s not part of the state pattern. The `add_text` method doesn’t interact -with the `state` field at all, but it is part of the behavior we want to -support. +This is a fundamental tradeoff: we can either deal with a dynamic number of +futures with `join_all`, as long as they all have the same type, or we can deal +with a set number of futures with the `join` functions or the `join!` macro, +even if they have different types. This is the same as working with any other +types in Rust, though. Futures are not special, even though we have some nice +syntax for working with them, and that is a good thing. -### Ensuring the Content of a Draft Post Is Empty +### Racing futures -Even after we’ve called `add_text` and added some content to our post, we still -want the `content` method to return an empty string slice because the post is -still in the draft state, as shown at [3] in Listing 17-11. For now, let’s -implement the `content` method with the simplest thing that will fulfill this -requirement: always returning an empty string slice. We’ll change this later -once we implement the ability to change a post’s state so it can be published. -So far, posts can only be in the draft state, so the post content should always -be empty. Listing 17-14 shows this placeholder implementation. +When we “join” futures with the `join` family of functions and macros, we +require *all* of them to finish before we move on. Sometimes, though, we only +need *some* future from a set to finish before we move on—kind of similar to +racing one future against another. -Filename: src/lib.rs +In Listing 17-21, we once again use `trpl::race` to run two futures, `slow` and +`fast`, against each other. Each one prints a message when it starts running, +pauses for some amount of time by calling and awaiting `sleep`, and then prints +another message when it finishes. Then we pass both to `trpl::race` and wait for +one of them to finish. (The outcome here won’t be too surprising: `fast` wins!) +Unlike when we used `race` back in the “Our First Async Program” section of this +chapter on page XX, we just ignore the `Either` instance it returns here, +because all of the interesting behavior happens in the body of the async blocks. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Post { - --snip-- - pub fn content(&self) -> &str { - "" - } +let slow = async { + println!("'slow' started."); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await; + println!("'slow' finished."); +}; + +let fast = async { + println!("'fast' started."); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'fast' finished."); +}; + +trpl::race(slow, fast).await; +``` + +Listing 17-21: Using `race` to get the result of whichever future finishes first + +Notice that if you flip the order of the arguments to `race`, the order of the +“started” messages changes, even though the `fast` future always completes +first. That’s because the implementation of this particular `race` function is +not fair. It always runs the futures passed as arguments in the order they’re +passed. Other implementations *are* fair, and will randomly choose which future +to poll first. Regardless of whether the implementation of race we’re using is +fair, though, *one* of the futures will run up to the first `await` in its body +before another task can start. + +Recall from the “Our First Async Program” section of this chapter on page XX +that at each await point, Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the task and +switch to another one if the future being awaited isn’t ready. The inverse is +also true: Rust *only* pauses async blocks and hands control back to a runtime +at an await point. Everything between await points is synchronous. + +That means if you do a bunch of work in an async block without an await point, +that future will block any other futures from making progress. You may sometimes +hear this referred to as one future *starving* other futures. In some cases, +that may not be a big deal. However, if you are doing some kind of expensive +setup or long-running work, or if you have a future which will keep doing some +particular task indefinitely, you’ll need to think about when and where to +hand control back to the runtime. + +By the same token, if you have long-running blocking operations, async can be a +useful tool for providing ways for different parts of the program to relate to +each other. + +But *how* would you hand control back to the runtime in those cases? + +### Yielding + +Let’s simulate a long-running operation. Listing 17-22 introduces a `slow` +function. It uses `std::thread::sleep` instead of `trpl::sleep` so that calling +`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can use +`slow` to stand in for real-world operations which are both long-running and +blocking. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); } ``` -Listing 17-14: Adding a placeholder implementation for the `content` method on -`Post` that always returns an empty string slice +Listing 17-22: Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations + +In Listing 17-23, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in +a pair of futures. To begin, each future only hands control back to the runtime +*after* carrying out a bunch of slow operations. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + slow("a", 10); + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'a' finished."); +}; + +let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + slow("b", 10); + slow("b", 15); + slow("b", 350); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'b' finished."); +}; + +trpl::race(a, b).await; +``` + +Listing 17-23: Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations + +If you run this, you will see this output: + +``` +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'b' ran for 350ms +'a' finished. +``` + +As with our earlier example, `race` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. +There’s no interleaving between the two futures, though. The `a` future does all +of its work until the `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, then the `b` future does +all of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and then the `a` +future completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow +tasks, we need await points so we can hand control back to the runtime. That +means we need something we can await! -With this added `content` method, everything in Listing 17-11 up to the line at -[3] works as intended. +We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-23: if we +removed the `trpl::sleep` at the end of the `a` future, it would complete +without the `b` future running *at all*. Maybe we could use the `sleep` function +as a starting point? -### Requesting a Review Changes the Post’s State +Filename: src/main.rs -Next, we need to add functionality to request a review of a post, which should -change its state from `Draft` to `PendingReview`. Listing 17-15 shows this code. +``` +let one_ms = Duration::from_millis(1); + +let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'a' finished."); +}; + +let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'b' finished."); +}; +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +Listing 17-24: Using `sleep` to let operations switch off making progress + +In Listing 17-24, we add `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call +to `slow`. Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: ``` -impl Post { - --snip-- - 1 pub fn request_review(&mut self) { - 2 if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { - 3 self.state = Some(s.request_review()) - } +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'a' finished. +``` + +The `a` future still runs for a bit before handing off control to `b`, because +it calls `slow` before ever calling `trpl::sleep`, but after that the futures +swap back and forth each time one of them hits an await point. In this case, we +have done that after every call to `slow`, but we could break up the work +however makes the most sense to us. + +We don’t really want to *sleep* here, though: we want to make progress as fast +as we can. We just need to hand back control to the runtime. We can do that +directly, using the `yield_now` function. In Listing 17-25, we replace all those +`sleep` calls with `yield_now`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'a' finished."); +}; + +let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'b' finished."); +}; +``` + +Listing 17-25: Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress + +This is both clearer about the actual intent and can be significantly faster +than using `sleep`, because timers such as the one used by `sleep` often have +limits to how granular they can be. The version of `sleep` we are using, for +example, will always sleep for at least a millisecond, even if we pass it a +`Duration` of one nanosecond. Again, modern computers are *fast*: they can do a +lot in one millisecond! + +You can see this for yourself by setting up a little benchmark, such as the one +in Listing 17-26. (This isn’t an especially rigorous way to do performance +testing, but it suffices to show the difference here.) Here, we skip all the +status printing, pass a one-nanosecond `Duration` to `trpl::sleep`, and let +each future run by itself, with no switching between the futures. Then we run +for 1,000 iterations and see how long the future using `trpl::sleep` takes +compared to the future using `trpl::yield_now`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let one_ns = Duration::from_nanos(1); +let start = Instant::now(); +async { + for _ in 1..1000 { + trpl::sleep(one_ns).await; } } - -trait State { - 4 fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; +.await; +let time = Instant::now() - start; +println!( + "'sleep' version finished after {} seconds.", + time.as_secs_f32() +); + +let start = Instant::now(); +async { + for _ in 1..1000 { + trpl::yield_now().await; + } } +.await; +let time = Instant::now() - start; +println!( + "'yield' version finished after {} seconds.", + time.as_secs_f32() +); +``` + +Listing 17-26: Comparing the performance of `sleep` and `yield_now` + +The version with `yield_now` is *way* faster! + +This means that async can be useful even for compute-bound tasks, depending on +what else your program is doing, because it provides a useful tool for +structuring the relationships between different parts of the program. This is a +form of *cooperative multitasking*, where each future has both the power to +determine when it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore +also has the responsibility to avoid blocking for too long. In some Rust-based +embedded operating systems, this is the *only* kind of multitasking! -struct Draft {} +In real-world code, you won’t usually be alternating function calls with await +points on every single line, of course. While yielding control in this way is +relatively inexpensive, it’s not free! In many cases, trying to break up a +compute-bound task might make it significantly slower, so sometimes it’s better +for *overall* performance to let an operation block briefly. You should always +measure to see what your code’s actual performance bottlenecks are. The +underlying dynamic is an important one to keep in mind if you *are* seeing a +lot of work happening in serial that you expected to happen concurrently, +though! -impl State for Draft { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - 5 Box::new(PendingReview {}) +### Building Our Own Async Abstractions + +We can also compose futures together to create new patterns. For example, we can +build a `timeout` function with async building blocks we already have. When +we’re done, the result will be another building block we could use to build up +yet further async abstractions. + +Listing 17-27 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow +future. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await; + "I finished!" +}; + +match timeout(slow, Duration::from_millis(10)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) } } +``` -struct PendingReview {} +Listing 17-27: Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time +limit -impl State for PendingReview { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - 6 self - } +Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`: + +* It needs to be an async function itself so we can await it. +* Its first parameter should be a future to run. We can make it generic to allow + it to work with any future. +* Its second parameter will be the maximum time to wait. If we use a `Duration`, + that will make it easy to pass along to `trpl::sleep`. +* It should return a `Result`. If the future completes successfully, the + `Result` will be `Ok` with the value produced by the future. If the timeout + elapses first, the `Result` will be `Err` with the duration that the timeout + waited for. + +Listing 17-28 shows this declaration. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +async fn timeout<F: Future>( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result<F::Output, Duration> { + // Here is where our implementation will go! } ``` -Listing 17-15: Implementing `request_review` methods on `Post` and the `State` -trait - -We give `Post` a public method named `request_review` that will take a mutable -reference to `self` [1]. Then we call an internal `request_review` method on -the current state of `Post` [3], and this second `request_review` method -consumes the current state and returns a new state. - -We add the `request_review` method to the `State` trait [4]; all types that -implement the trait will now need to implement the `request_review` method. -Note that rather than having `self`, `&self`, or `&mut self` as the first -parameter of the method, we have `self: Box<Self>`. This syntax means the -method is only valid when called on a `Box` holding the type. This syntax takes -ownership of `Box<Self>`, invalidating the old state so the state value of the -`Post` can transform into a new state. - -To consume the old state, the `request_review` method needs to take ownership -of the state value. This is where the `Option` in the `state` field of `Post` -comes in: we call the `take` method to take the `Some` value out of the `state` -field and leave a `None` in its place because Rust doesn’t let us have -unpopulated fields in structs [2]. This lets us move the `state` value out of -`Post` rather than borrowing it. Then we’ll set the post’s `state` value to the -result of this operation. - -We need to set `state` to `None` temporarily rather than setting it directly -with code like `self.state = self.state.request_review();` to get ownership of -the `state` value. This ensures `Post` can’t use the old `state` value after -we’ve transformed it into a new state. - -The `request_review` method on `Draft` returns a new, boxed instance of a new -`PendingReview` struct [5], which represents the state when a post is waiting -for a review. The `PendingReview` struct also implements the `request_review` -method but doesn’t do any transformations. Rather, it returns itself [6] -because when we request a review on a post already in the `PendingReview` -state, it should stay in the `PendingReview` state. - -Now we can start seeing the advantages of the state pattern: the -`request_review` method on `Post` is the same no matter its `state` value. Each -state is responsible for its own rules. - -We’ll leave the `content` method on `Post` as is, returning an empty string -slice. We can now have a `Post` in the `PendingReview` state as well as in the -`Draft` state, but we want the same behavior in the `PendingReview` state. -Listing 17-11 now works up to the line at [5]! - -### Adding approve to Change the Behavior of content - -The `approve` method will be similar to the `request_review` method: it will -set `state` to the value that the current state says it should have when that -state is approved, as shown in Listing 17-16. - -Filename: src/lib.rs - -``` -impl Post { - --snip-- - pub fn approve(&mut self) { - if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { - self.state = Some(s.approve()) +Listing 17-28: Defining the signature of `timeout` + +That satisfies our goals for the types. Now let’s think about the *behavior* we +need: we want to race the future passed in against the duration. We can use +`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::race` to +run that timer with the future the caller passes in. + +We also know that `race` is not fair, and polls arguments in the order they are +passed. Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to `race` first so it gets a chance to +complete even if `max_time` is a very short duration. If `future_to_try` +finishes first, `race` will return `Left` with the output from `future`. If +`timer` finishes first, `race` will return `Right` with the timer’s output of +`()`. + +In Listing 17-29, we match on the result of awaiting `trpl::race`. If the +`future_to_try` succeeded and we get a `Left(output)`, we return `Ok(output)`. +If the sleep timer elapsed instead and we get a `Right(())`, we ignore the `()` +with `_` and return `Err(max_time)` instead. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::Either; + +// --snip-- + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } } + }); +} + +async fn timeout<F: Future>( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result<F::Output, Duration> { + match trpl::race(future_to_try, trpl::sleep(max_time)).await { + Either::Left(output) => Ok(output), + Either::Right(_) => Err(max_time), } +``` + +Listing 17-29: Defining `timeout` with `race` and `sleep` + +With that, we have a working `timeout`, built out of two other async helpers. If +we run our code, it will print the failure mode after the timeout: + +``` +Failed after 2 seconds +``` + +Because futures compose with other futures, you can build really powerful tools +using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same +approach to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with things +such as network calls—one of the examples from the beginning of the chapter! + +In practice, you will usually work directly with `async` and `await`, and +secondarily with functions and macros such as `join`, `join_all`, `race`, and +so on. You’ll only need to reach for `pin` now and again to use them with those +APIs. + +We’ve now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same +time. Up next, we’ll look at how we can work with multiple futures in a +sequence over time, with *streams*. Here are a couple more things you might want +to consider first, though: + +* We used a `Vec` with `join_all` to wait for all of the futures in some group + to finish. How could you use a `Vec` to process a group of futures in + sequence, instead? What are the tradeoffs of doing that? + +* Take a look at the `futures::stream::FuturesUnordered` type from the `futures` + crate. How would using it be different from using a `Vec`? (Don’t worry about + the fact that it is from the `stream` part of the crate; it works just fine + with any collection of futures.) + +## Streams + +So far in this chapter, we have mostly stuck to individual futures. The one big +exception was the async channel we used. Recall how we used the receiver for +our async channel in the “Message Passing” section of this chapter on page XX. +The async `recv` method produces a sequence of items over time. This is an +instance of a much more general pattern, often called a *stream*. + +A sequence of items is something we’ve seen before, when we looked at the +`Iterator` trait in “The `Iterator` Trait and the `next` Method” section of +Chapter 13 on page XX, but there are two differences between iterators and the +async channel receiver. The first difference is the element of time: iterators +are synchronous, while the channel receiver is asynchronous. The second +difference is the API. When working directly with an `Iterator`, we call its +synchronous `next` method. With the `trpl::Receiver` stream in particular, we +called an asynchronous `recv` method instead, but these APIs otherwise feel +very similar. + +That similarity isn’t a coincidence. A stream is similar to an asynchronous +form of iteration. Whereas the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive +messages, though, the general-purpose stream API is much more general: it +provides the next item the way `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. The +similarity between iterators and streams in Rust means we can actually create a +stream from any iterator. As with an iterator, we can work with a stream by +calling its `next` method and then awaiting the output, as in Listing 17-30. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; +let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); +let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + +while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); } +``` + +Listing 17-30: Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values + +We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then call +`map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a stream +using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Then we loop over the items in the +stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop. -trait State { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; +Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it doesn’t compile. Instead, as we +can see in the output, it reports that there is no `next` method available. + +``` +error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `Iter` in the current scope + --> src/main.rs:8:40 + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + | ^^^^ + | + = note: the full type name has been written to '~/projects/hello-async/target/debug/deps/async_await-bbd5bb8f6851cb5f.long-type-18426562901668632191.txt' + = note: consider using `--verbose` to print the full type name to the console + = help: items from traits can only be used if the trait is in scope +help: the following traits which provide `next` are implemented but not in scope; perhaps you want to import one of them + | +1 + use futures_util::stream::stream::StreamExt; + | +1 + use std::iter::Iterator; + | +1 + use std::str::pattern::Searcher; + | +1 + use trpl::StreamExt; + | +help: there is a method `try_next` with a similar name + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.try_next().await { + | ~~~~~~~~ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0599`. +``` + +As the output suggests, the reason for the compiler error is that we need the +right trait in scope to be able to use the `next` method. Given our discussion +so far, you might reasonably expect that to be `Stream`, but the trait we need +here is actually `StreamExt`. The `Ext` there is for “extension”: this is a +common pattern in the Rust community for extending one trait with another. + +Why do we need `StreamExt` instead of `Stream`, and what does the `Stream` trait +itself do? Briefly, the answer is that throughout the Rust ecosystem, the +`Stream` trait defines a low-level interface which effectively combines the +`Iterator` and `Future` traits. The `StreamExt` trait supplies a higher-level +set of APIs on top of `Stream`, including the `next` method as well as other +utility methods similar to those provided by the `Iterator` trait. We’ll return +to the `Stream` and `StreamExt` traits in a bit more detail at the end of the +chapter. For now, this is enough to let us keep moving. + +The fix to the compiler error is to add a `use` statement for `trpl::StreamExt`, +as in Listing 17-31. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::StreamExt; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; + let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); + let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + + while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); + } + }); } +``` -struct Draft {} +Listing 17-31: Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream -impl State for Draft { - --snip-- - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - 1 self - } +With all those pieces put together, this code works the way we want! What’s +more, now that we have `StreamExt` in scope, we can use all of its utility +methods, just as with iterators. For example, in Listing 17-32, we use the +`filter` method to filter out everything but multiples of three and five. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::StreamExt; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let values = 1..101; + let iter = values.map(|n| n * 2); + let stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + + let mut filtered = + stream.filter(|value| value % 3 == 0 || value % 5 == 0); + + while let Some(value) = filtered.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); + } + }); } +``` -struct PendingReview {} +Listing 17-32: Filtering a `Stream` with the `StreamExt::filter` method -impl State for PendingReview { - --snip-- - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - 2 Box::new(Published {}) - } +Of course, this isn’t very interesting. We could do that with normal iterators +and without any async at all. So let’s look at some of the other things we can +do which are unique to streams. + +### Composing Streams + +Many concepts are naturally represented as streams: items becoming available in +a queue, or working with more data than can fit in a computer’s memory by only +pulling chunks of it from the file system at a time, or data arriving over the +network over time. Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other +kind of future, too, and we can combine them in interesting ways. For example, +we can batch up events to avoid triggering too many network calls, set timeouts +on sequences of long-running operations, or throttle user interface events to +avoid doing needless work. + +Let’s start by building a little stream of messages, as a stand-in for a stream +of data we might see from a WebSocket or another real-time communication +protocol. In Listing 17-33, we create a function `get_messages` which returns +`impl Stream<Item = String>`. For its implementation, we create an async +channel, loop over the first ten letters of the English alphabet, and send them +across the channel. + +We also use a new type: `ReceiverStream`, which converts the `rx` receiver from +the `trpl::channel` into a `Stream` with a `next` method. Back in `main`, we use +a `while let` loop to print all the messages from the stream. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = get_messages(); + + while let Some(message) = messages.next().await { + println!("{message}"); + } + }); } -struct Published {} +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); -impl State for Published { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - self + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for message in messages { + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); } - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - self - } + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -Listing 17-16: Implementing the `approve` method on `Post` and the `State` trait +Listing 17-33: Using the `rx` receiver as a `ReceiverStream` -We add the `approve` method to the `State` trait and add a new struct that -implements `State`, the `Published` state. +When we run this code, we get exactly the results we would expect: -Similar to the way `request_review` on `PendingReview` works, if we call the -`approve` method on a `Draft`, it will have no effect because `approve` will -return `self` [1]. When we call `approve` on `PendingReview`, it returns a new, -boxed instance of the `Published` struct [2]. The `Published` struct implements -the `State` trait, and for both the `request_review` method and the `approve` -method, it returns itself because the post should stay in the `Published` state -in those cases. +``` +Message: 'a' +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Message: 'j' +``` -Now we need to update the `content` method on `Post`. We want the value -returned from `content` to depend on the current state of the `Post`, so we’re -going to have the `Post` delegate to a `content` method defined on its `state`, -as shown in Listing 17-17. +We could do this with the regular `Receiver` API, or even the regular `Iterator` +API, though. Let’s add something that requires streams: adding a timeout +which applies to every item in the stream, and a delay on the items we emit. -Filename: src/lib.rs +In Listing 17-34, we start by adding a timeout to the stream with the `timeout` +method, which comes from the `StreamExt` trait. Then we update the body of the +`while let` loop, because the stream now returns a `Result`. The `Ok` variant +indicates a message arrived in time; the `Err` variant indicates that the +timeout elapsed before any message arrived. We `match` on that result and either +print the message when we receive it successfully, or print a notice about the +timeout. Finally, notice that we pin the messages after applying the timeout to +them, because the timeout helper produces a future which needs to be pinned to +be polled. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Post { - --snip-- - pub fn content(&self) -> &str { - self.state.as_ref().unwrap().content(self) - } - --snip-- +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) } ``` -Listing 17-17: Updating the `content` method on `Post` to delegate to a -`content` method on `State` +Listing 17-34: Using the `StreamExt::timeout` method to set a time limit on the +items in a stream -Because the goal is to keep all of these rules inside the structs that -implement `State`, we call a `content` method on the value in `state` and pass -the post instance (that is, `self`) as an argument. Then we return the value -that’s returned from using the `content` method on the `state` value. +However, because there are no delays between messages, this timeout does not +change the behavior of the program. Let’s add a variable delay to the messages +we send. In `get_messages`, we use the `enumerate` iterator method with the +`messages` array so that we can get the index of each item we are sending along +with the item itself. Then we apply a 100 millisecond delay to even-index items +and a 300 millisecond delay to odd-index items, to simulate the different delays +we might see from a stream of messages in the real world. Because our timeout is +for 200 milliseconds, this should affect half of the messages. -We call the `as_ref` method on the `Option` because we want a reference to the -value inside the `Option` rather than ownership of the value. Because `state` -is an `Option<Box<dyn State>>`, when we call `as_ref`, an `Option<&Box<dyn -State>>` is returned. If we didn’t call `as_ref`, we would get an error because -we can’t move `state` out of the borrowed `&self` of the function parameter. +Filename: src/main.rs -We then call the `unwrap` method, which we know will never panic because we -know the methods on `Post` ensure that `state` will always contain a `Some` -value when those methods are done. This is one of the cases we talked about in -“Cases in Which You Have More Information Than the Compiler” on page XX when we -know that a `None` value is never possible, even though the compiler isn’t able -to understand that. +``` +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); -At this point, when we call `content` on the `&Box<dyn State>`, deref coercion -will take effect on the `&` and the `Box` so the `content` method will -ultimately be called on the type that implements the `State` trait. That means -we need to add `content` to the `State` trait definition, and that is where -we’ll put the logic for what content to return depending on which state we -have, as shown in Listing 17-18. + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; -Filename: src/lib.rs + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); -``` -trait State { - --snip-- - fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { - 1 "" - } + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } +``` ---snip-- -struct Published {} +Listing 17-35: Sending messages through `tx` with an async delay without making +`get_messages` an async function + +To sleep between messages in the `get_messages` function without blocking, we +need to use async. However, we can’t make `get_messages` itself into an async +function, because then we’d return a `Future<Output = Stream<Item = String>>` +instead of a `Stream<Item = String>>`. The caller would have to await +`get_messages` itself to get access to the stream. But remember: everything in a +given future happens linearly; concurrency happens *between* futures. Awaiting +`get_messages` would require it to send all the messages, including sleeping +between sending each message, before returning the receiver stream. As a result, +the timeout would end up useless. There would be no delays in the stream itself: +the delays would all happen before the stream was even available. + +Instead, we leave `get_messages` as a regular function which returns a stream, +and spawn a task to handle the async `sleep` calls. + +> Note: calling `spawn_task` in this way works because we already set up our +> runtime. Calling this particular implementation of `spawn_task` *without* +> first setting up a runtime will cause a panic. Other implementations choose +> different tradeoffs: they might spawn a new runtime and so avoid the panic but +> end up with a bit of extra overhead, or simply not provide a standalone way to +> spawn tasks without reference to a runtime. You should make sure you know what +> tradeoff your runtime has chosen and write your code accordingly! + +Now our code has a much more interesting result! Between every other pair of +messages, we see an error reported: `Problem: Elapsed(())`. -impl State for Published { - --snip-- - fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { - 2 &post.content - } +``` +Message: 'a' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'j' +``` + +The timeout doesn’t prevent the messages from arriving in the end—we still get +all of the original messages. This is because our channel is unbounded: it can +hold as many messages as we can fit in memory. If the message doesn’t arrive +before the timeout, our stream handler will account for that, but when it polls +the stream again, the message may now have arrived. + +You can get different behavior if needed by using other kinds of channels, or +other kinds of streams more generally. Let’s see one of those in practice in our +final example for this section, by combining a stream of time intervals with +this stream of messages. + +### Merging Streams + +First, let’s create another stream, which will emit an item every millisecond if +we let it run directly. For simplicity, we can use the `sleep` function to send +a message on a delay, and combine it with the same approach of creating a stream +from a channel we used in `get_messages`. The difference is that this time, +we’re going to send back the count of intervals which has elapsed, so the return +type will be `impl Stream<Item = u32>`, and we can call the function +`get_intervals`. + +In Listing 17-36, we start by defining a `count` in the task. (We could define +it outside the task, too, but it is clearer to limit the scope of any given +variable.) Then we create an infinite loop. Each iteration of the loop +asynchronously sleeps for one millisecond, increments the count, and then sends +it over the channel. Because this is all wrapped in the task created by +`spawn_task`, all of it will get cleaned up along with the runtime, including +the infinite loop. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + tx.send(count).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -Listing 17-18: Adding the `content` method to the `State` trait +Listing 17-36: Creating a stream with a counter that will be emitted once every +millisecond -We add a default implementation for the `content` method that returns an empty -string slice [1]. That means we don’t need to implement `content` on the -`Draft` and `PendingReview` structs. The `Published` struct will override the -`content` method and return the value in `post.content` [2]. +This kind of infinite loop, which only ends when the whole runtime gets torn +down, is fairly common in async Rust: many programs need to keep running +indefinitely. With async, this doesn’t block anything else, as long as there is +at least one await point in each iteration through the loop. -Note that we need lifetime annotations on this method, as we discussed in -Chapter 10. We’re taking a reference to a `post` as an argument and returning a -reference to part of that `post`, so the lifetime of the returned reference is -related to the lifetime of the `post` argument. +Back in our main function’s async block, we start by calling `get_intervals`. +Then we merge the `messages` and `intervals` streams with the `merge` method, +which combines multiple streams into one stream that produces items from any of +the source streams as soon as the items are available, without imposing any +particular ordering. Finally, we loop over that combined stream instead of over +`messages` (Listing 17-37). -And we’re done—all of Listing 17-11 now works! We’ve implemented the state -pattern with the rules of the blog post workflow. The logic related to the -rules lives in the state objects rather than being scattered throughout `Post`. +Filename: src/main.rs -> ### Why Not An Enum? -> -> You may have been wondering why we didn’t use an `enum` with the different -possible post states as variants. That’s certainly a possible solution; try it -and compare the end results to see which you prefer! One disadvantage of using -an enum is that every place that checks the value of the enum will need a -`match` expression or similar to handle every possible variant. This could get -more repetitive than this trait object solution. - -### Trade-offs of the State Pattern - -We’ve shown that Rust is capable of implementing the object-oriented state -pattern to encapsulate the different kinds of behavior a post should have in -each state. The methods on `Post` know nothing about the various behaviors. The -way we organized the code, we have to look in only one place to know the -different ways a published post can behave: the implementation of the `State` -trait on the `Published` struct. - -If we were to create an alternative implementation that didn’t use the state -pattern, we might instead use `match` expressions in the methods on `Post` or -even in the `main` code that checks the state of the post and changes behavior -in those places. That would mean we would have to look in several places to -understand all the implications of a post being in the published state! This -would only increase the more states we added: each of those `match` expressions -would need another arm. - -With the state pattern, the `Post` methods and the places we use `Post` don’t -need `match` expressions, and to add a new state, we would only need to add a -new struct and implement the trait methods on that one struct. - -The implementation using the state pattern is easy to extend to add more -functionality. To see the simplicity of maintaining code that uses the state -pattern, try a few of these suggestions: - -* Add a `reject` method that changes the post’s state from `PendingReview` back -to `Draft`. -* Require two calls to `approve` before the state can be changed to `Published`. -* Allow users to add text content only when a post is in the `Draft` state. -Hint: have the state object responsible for what might change about the content -but not responsible for modifying the `Post`. - -One downside of the state pattern is that, because the states implement the -transitions between states, some of the states are coupled to each other. If we -add another state between `PendingReview` and `Published`, such as `Scheduled`, -we would have to change the code in `PendingReview` to transition to -`Scheduled` instead. It would be less work if `PendingReview` didn’t need to -change with the addition of a new state, but that would mean switching to -another design pattern. - -Another downside is that we’ve duplicated some logic. To eliminate some of the -duplication, we might try to make default implementations for the -`request_review` and `approve` methods on the `State` trait that return `self`. -However, this wouldn’t work: when using `State` as a trait object, the trait -doesn’t know what the concrete `self` will be exactly, so the return type isn’t -known at compile time. - -Other duplication includes the similar implementations of the `request_review` -and `approve` methods on `Post`. Both methods delegate to the implementation of -the same method on the value in the `state` field of `Option` and set the new -value of the `state` field to the result. If we had a lot of methods on `Post` -that followed this pattern, we might consider defining a macro to eliminate the -repetition (see “Macros” on page XX). - -By implementing the state pattern exactly as it’s defined for object-oriented -languages, we’re not taking as full advantage of Rust’s strengths as we could. -Let’s look at some changes we can make to the `blog` crate that can make -invalid states and transitions into compile-time errors. - -#### Encoding States and Behavior as Types - -We’ll show you how to rethink the state pattern to get a different set of -trade-offs. Rather than encapsulating the states and transitions completely so -outside code has no knowledge of them, we’ll encode the states into different -types. Consequently, Rust’s type checking system will prevent attempts to use -draft posts where only published posts are allowed by issuing a compiler error. - -Let’s consider the first part of `main` in Listing 17-11: +``` +let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); +let intervals = get_intervals(); +let merged = messages.merge(intervals); +``` + +Listing 17-37: Attempting to merge streams of messages and intervals + +At this point, neither `messages` nor `intervals` needs to be pinned or +mutable, because both will be combined into the single `merged` stream. +However, this call to `merge` does not compile! (Neither does the `next` call +in the `while let` loop, but we’ll come back to that after fixing this.) The +two streams have different types. The `messages` stream has the type +`Timeout<impl Stream<Item = String>>`, where `Timeout` is the type which +implements `Stream` for a `timeout` call. Meanwhile, the `intervals` stream has +the type `impl Stream<Item = u32>`. To merge these two streams, we need to +transform one of them to match the other. + +In Listing 17-38, we rework the `intervals` stream, because `messages` is +already in the basic format we want and has to handle timeout errors. First, we +can use the `map` helper method to transform the `intervals` into a string. +Second, we need to match the `Timeout` from `messages`. Because we don’t +actually *want* a timeout for `intervals`, though, we can just create a timeout +which is longer than the other durations we are using. Here, we create a +10-second timeout with `Duration::from_secs(10)`. Finally, we need to make +`stream` mutable, so that the `while let` loop’s `next` calls can iterate +through the stream, and pin it so that it’s safe to do so. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn main() { - let mut post = Post::new(); +let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); +let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); +let merged = messages.merge(intervals); +let mut stream = pin!(merged); +``` + +Listing 17-38: Aligning the types of the the `intervals` stream with the type +of the `messages` stream + +That gets us *almost* to where we need to be. Everything type checks. If you run +this, though, there will be two problems. First, it will never stop! You’ll +need to stop it with <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. Second, the +messages from the English alphabet will be buried in the midst of all the +interval counter messages: + +``` +--snip-- +Interval: 38 +Interval: 39 +Interval: 40 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 41 +Interval: 42 +Interval: 43 +--snip-- +``` + +Listing 17-39 shows one way to solve these last two problems. First, we use the +`throttle` method on the `intervals` stream, so that it doesn’t overwhelm the +`messages` stream. Throttling is a way of limiting the rate at which a function +will be called—or, in this case, how often the stream will be polled. Once every +hundred milliseconds should do, because that is in the same ballpark as how +often our messages arrive. + +To limit the number of items we will accept from a stream, we can use the `take` +method. We apply it to the *merged* stream, because we want to limit the final +output, not just one stream or the other. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); +let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(100)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); +let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); +let mut stream = pin!(merged); +``` + +Listing 17-39: Using `throttle` and `take` to manage the merged streams + +Now when we run the program, it stops after pulling twenty items from the +stream, and the intervals don’t overwhelm the messages. We also don’t get +`Interval: 100` or `Interval: 200` or so on, but instead get `Interval: 1`, +`Interval: 2`, and so on—even though we have a source stream which *can* +produce an event every millisecond. That’s because the `throttle` call +produces a new stream, wrapping the original stream, so that the original +stream only gets polled at the throttle rate, not its own “native” rate. We +don’t have a bunch of unhandled interval messages we’re choosing to +ignore. Instead, we never produce those interval messages in the first place! +This is the inherent “laziness” of Rust’s futures at work again, allowing us to +choose our performance characteristics. + +``` +Interval: 1 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 2 +Interval: 3 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 4 +Message: 'b' +Interval: 5 +Message: 'c' +Interval: 6 +Interval: 7 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 8 +Message: 'd' +Interval: 9 +Message: 'e' +Interval: 10 +Interval: 11 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 12 +``` + +There’s one last thing we need to handle: errors! With both of these +channel-based streams, the `send` calls could fail when the other side of the +channel closes—and that’s just a matter of how the runtime executes the futures +which make up the stream. Up until now we have ignored this by calling `unwrap`, +but in a well-behaved app, we should explicitly handle the error, at minimum by +ending the loop so we don’t try to send any more messages! Listing 17-40 shows +a simple error strategy: print the issue and then `break` from the loops. As +usual, the correct way to handle a message send error will vary—just make sure +you have a strategy. + +``` +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { + eprintln!("Could not send interval {count}: {send_error}"); + break; + }; + } + }); - post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); - assert_eq!("", post.content()); + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -We still enable the creation of new posts in the draft state using `Post::new` -and the ability to add text to the post’s content. But instead of having a -`content` method on a draft post that returns an empty string, we’ll make it so -draft posts don’t have the `content` method at all. That way, if we try to get -a draft post’s content, we’ll get a compiler error telling us the method -doesn’t exist. As a result, it will be impossible for us to accidentally -display draft post content in production because that code won’t even compile. -Listing 17-19 shows the definition of a `Post` struct and a `DraftPost` struct, -as well as methods on each. +Listing 17-40: Handling errors and shutting down the loops + +Now that we’ve seen a bunch of async in practice, let’s take a step back and +dig into a few of the details of how `Future`, `Stream`, and the other key +traits which Rust uses to make async work. + +## Digging Into the Traits for Async + +Throughout the chapter, we’ve used the `Future`, `Pin`, `Unpin`, `Stream`, and +`StreamExt` traits in various ways. So far, though, we’ve avoided digging too +far into the details of how they work or how they fit together. Much of the time +when writing Rust day to day, this is fine. Sometimes, though, you’ll hit +situations where understanding a few more of these details matters. In this +section, we’ll dig down *enough* further to help with those situations—while +still leaving the *really* deep dive for other documentation! -Filename: src/lib.rs +### Future + +Back in the “Futures and the Async Syntax” section of this chapter on page XX, +we noted that `Future` is a trait. Let’s start by taking a closer look at how +it works. Here is how Rust defines a `Future`: ``` -pub struct Post { - content: String, +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; } +``` + +That trait definition includes a bunch of new types and also some syntax we +haven’t seen before, so let’s walk through the definition piece by piece. -pub struct DraftPost { - content: String, +First, `Future`’s associated type `Output` says what the future resolves to. +This is analogous to the `Item` associated type for the `Iterator` trait. +Second, `Future` also has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` +reference for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, +and returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We’ll talk a little more about `Pin` and +`Context` later in the section. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, +the `Poll` type: + +``` +enum Poll<T> { + Ready(T), + Pending, } +``` -impl Post { - 1 pub fn new() -> DraftPost { - DraftPost { - content: String::new(), - } - } +This `Poll` type is similar to an `Option`: it has one variant which has a value +(`Ready(T)`), and one which does not (`Pending`). It means something quite +different, though! The `Pending` variant indicates that the future still has +work to do, so the caller will need to check again later. The `Ready` variant +indicates that the `Future` has finished its work and the `T` value is +available. - 2 pub fn content(&self) -> &str { - &self.content +> Note: With most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after the +> future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after +> becoming ready! Futures which are safe to poll again will say so explicitly in +> their documentation. This is similar to how `Iterator::next` behaves! + +Under the hood, when you see code which uses `await`, Rust compiles that to code +which calls `poll`. If you look back at Listing 17-4, where we printed out the +page title for a single URL once it resolved, Rust compiles it into something +kind of (although not exactly) like this: + +``` +match page_title(url).poll() { + Ready(page_title) => match page_title { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + Pending => { + // But what goes here? } } +``` + +What should we do when the `Future` is still `Pending`? We need some way to try +again… and again, and again, until the future is finally ready. In other words, +a loop: -impl DraftPost { - 3 pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { - self.content.push_str(text); +``` +let mut page_title_fut = page_title(url); +loop { + match page_title_fut.poll() { + Ready(value) => match page_title { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + Pending => { + // continue + } } } ``` -Listing 17-19: A `Post` with a `content` method and a `DraftPost` without a -`content` method +If Rust compiled it to exactly that code, though, every `await` would be +blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust needs +makes sure that the loop can hand off control to something which can pause work +on this future and work on other futures and check this one again later. That +“something” is an async runtime, and this scheduling and coordination work is +one of the main jobs for a runtime. + +Recall our description (in the “Counting” section of this chapter on page XX) +of waiting on `rx.recv`. The `recv` call returns a `Future`, and awaiting it +polls it. In our initial discussion, we noted that a runtime will pause the +future until it’s ready with either `Some(message)` or `None` when the channel +closes. With our deeper understanding of `Future` in place, and specifically +`Future::poll`, we can see how that works. The runtime knows the future isn’t +ready when it returns `Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime knows the future +is ready and advances it when `poll` returns `Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or +`Poll::Ready(None)`. + +The exact details of how a runtime does that are more than we will cover in even +this deep dive section. The key here is to see the basic mechanic of futures: a +runtime *polls* each future it is responsible for, putting it back to sleep when +it is not yet ready. + +### Pinning and the Pin and Unpin Traits + +When we introduced the idea of pinning, while working on Listing 17-17, we ran +into a very gnarly error message. Here is the relevant part of it again: + +``` +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` -Both the `Post` and `DraftPost` structs have a private `content` field that -stores the blog post text. The structs no longer have the `state` field because -we’re moving the encoding of the state to the types of the structs. The `Post` -struct will represent a published post, and it has a `content` method that -returns the `content` [2]. +When we read this error message carefully, it not only tells us that we need to +pin the values, but also tells us why pinning is required. The `trpl::join_all` +function returns a struct called `JoinAll`. That struct, in turn, is generic +over a type `F`, which is constrained to implement the `Future` trait. Finally, +directly awaiting a Future requires that the future in question implement the +`Unpin` trait. That’s a lot! But we can understand it, if we dive a little +further into how the `Future` type actually works, in particular around +*pinning*. -We still have a `Post::new` function, but instead of returning an instance of -`Post`, it returns an instance of `DraftPost` [1]. Because `content` is private -and there aren’t any functions that return `Post`, it’s not possible to create -an instance of `Post` right now. +Let’s look again at the definition of `Future`: -The `DraftPost` struct has an `add_text` method, so we can add text to -`content` as before [3], but note that `DraftPost` does not have a `content` -method defined! So now the program ensures all posts start as draft posts, and -draft posts don’t have their content available for display. Any attempt to get -around these constraints will result in a compiler error. +``` +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; -#### Implementing Transitions as Transformations into Different Types +pub trait Future { + type Output; -So how do we get a published post? We want to enforce the rule that a draft -post has to be reviewed and approved before it can be published. A post in the -pending review state should still not display any content. Let’s implement -these constraints by adding another struct, `PendingReviewPost`, defining the -`request_review` method on `DraftPost` to return a `PendingReviewPost` and -defining an `approve` method on `PendingReviewPost` to return a `Post`, as -shown in Listing 17-20. + // Required method + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +The `cx` parameter and its `Context` type is the key to how a runtime actually +knows when to check any given future, while still being lazy. The details of how +that works are beyond the scope of this chapter, though: you generally only need +to worry about it when writing a custom `Future` implementation. + +Instead, we’ll focus on the type for `self`. This is the first time we’ve seen +a method where `self` has a type annotation. A type annotation for `self` is +similar to type annotations for other function parameters, with two key +differences. First, when we specify the type of `self` in this way, we’re +telling Rust what type `self` must be to call this method. Second, a type +annotation on `self` can’t be just any type. It’s only allowed to be the type +on which the method is implemented, a reference or smart pointer to that type, +or a `Pin` wrapping a reference to that type. We’ll see more on this syntax in +Chapter 18. For now, it’s enough to know that if we want to poll a future (to +check whether it is `Pending` or `Ready(Output)`), we need a mutable reference +to the type, which is wrapped in a `Pin`. + +`Pin` is a wrapper type. In some ways, it’s similar to the `Box`, `Rc`, and +other smart pointer types we saw in Chapter 15, which also wrap other types. +Unlike those, however, `Pin` only works with *pointer types* such as references +(`&` and `&mut`) and smart pointers (`Box`, `Rc`, and so on). To be precise, +`Pin` works with types which implement the `Deref` or `DerefMut` traits, which +we covered in the “Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with the +Deref Trait” section of Chapter 15 on page XX. You can think of this restriction +as equivalent to only working with pointers, though, because implementing +`Deref` or `DerefMut` means your type behaves similarly to a pointer type. `Pin` +is also not a pointer itself, and it doesn’t have any behavior of its own the +way `Rc` and `Arc` do with ref counting. It’s purely a tool the compiler can use +to uphold the relevant guarantees, by wrapping pointers in the type. + +Recalling that `await` is implemented in terms of calls to `poll`, this starts +to explain the error message we saw above—but that was in terms of `Unpin`, not +`Pin`. So what exactly are `Pin` and `Unpin`, how do they relate, and why does +`Future` need `self` to be in a `Pin` type to call `poll`? + +In the “”ur First Async Program” section of this chapter on page XX, we +described how a series of await points in a future get compiled into a state +machine—and noted how the compiler helps make sure that state machine follows +all of Rust’s normal rules around safety, including borrowing and ownership. To +make that work, Rust looks at what data is needed between each await point and +the next await point or the end of the async block. It then creates a +corresponding variant in the state machine it creates. Each variant gets the +access it needs to the data that will be used in that section of the source +code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by getting a mutable or +immutable reference to it. + +So far so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in a +given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move around +the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to pass to +`join_all`, the way we did back in—things get trickier. + +When we move a future—whether by pushing into a data structure to use as an +iterator with `join_all`, or returning them from a function—that actually means +moving the state machine Rust creates for us. And unlike most other types in +Rust, the futures Rust creates for async blocks can end up with references to +themselves in the fields of any given variant, as in Figure 17-4 (a simplified +illustration to help you get a feel for the idea, rather than digging into what +are often fairly complicated details). + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-04.svg" /> + +Figure 17-4: A self-referential data type. + +By default, though, any object which has a reference to itself is unsafe to +move, because references always point to the actual memory address of the thing +they refer to. If you move the data structure itself, those internal references +will be left pointing to the old location. However, that memory location is now +invalid. For one thing, its value will not be updated when you make changes to +the data structure. For another—and more importantly!—the computer is now free +to reuse that memory for other things! You could end up reading completely +unrelated data later. + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-05.svg" /> + +Figure 17-5: The unsafe result of moving a self-referential data type. + +In principle, the Rust compiler could try to update every reference to an object +every time it gets moved. That would potentially be a lot of performance +overhead, especially given there can be a whole web of references that need +updating. On the other hand, if we could make sure the data structure in +question *doesn’t move in memory*, we don’t have to update any references. +This is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker requires: you can’t move an item +which has any active references to it using safe code. + +`Pin` builds on that to give us the exact guarantee we need. When we *pin* a +value by wrapping a pointer to that value in `Pin`, it can no longer move. Thus, +if you have `Pin<Box<SomeType>>`, you actually pin the `SomeType` value, *not* +the `Box` pointer. Figure 17-6 illustrates this: + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-06.svg" /> + +Figure 17-6: Pinning a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type. + +In fact, the `Box` pointer can still move around freely. Remember: we care about +making sure the data ultimately being referenced stays in its place. If a +pointer moves around, but the data it points to is in the same place, as in +Figure 17-7, there’s no potential problem. (How you would do this with a `Pin` +wrapping a `Box` is more than we’ll get into in this particular discussion, +but it would make for a good exercise! If you look at the docs for the types as +well as the `std::pin` module, you might be able to work out how you would do +that.) The key is that the self-referential type itself cannot move, because it +is still pinned. + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-07.svg" /> + +Figure 17-7: Moving a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type. + +However, most types are perfectly safe to move around, even if they happen to +be behind a `Pin` pointer. We only need to think about pinning when items have +internal references. Primitive values such as numbers and booleans don’t have +any internal references, so they’re obviously safe. Neither do most types you +normally work with in Rust. A `Vec`, for example, doesn’t have any internal +references it needs to keep up to date this way, so you can move it around +without worrying. If you have a `Pin<Vec<String>>`, you’d have to do everything +via the safe but restrictive APIs provided by `Pin`, even though a +`Vec<String>` is always safe to move if there are no other references to it. We +need a way to tell the compiler that it’s actually just fine to move items +around in cases such as these. For that, we have `Unpin`. + +`Unpin` is a marker trait, similar to the `Send` and `Sync` traits we saw in the +“Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits” section of Chapter +16 on page XX. Recall that marker traits have no functionality of their own. +They exist only to tell the compiler that it’s safe to use the type which +implements a given trait in a particular context. `Unpin` informs the compiler +that a given type does *not* need to uphold any particular guarantees about +whether the value in question can be moved. + +Just as with `Send` and `Sync`, the compiler implements `Unpin` automatically +for all types where it can prove it is safe. Implementing `Unpin` manually is +unsafe because it requires *you* to uphold all the guarantees which make `Pin` +and `Unpin` safe yourself for a type with internal references. In practice, +this is a very rare thing to implement yourself! + +To make that concrete, think about a `String`: it has a length and the Unicode +characters which make it up. We can wrap a `String` in `Pin`, as seen in Figure +17-7. However + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-08.svg" /> + +Figure 17-8: Pinning a String, with a dotted line indicating that the String +implements the `Unpin` trait, so it is not pinned. + +This means that we can do things such as replace one string with another at the +exact same location in memory as in Figure 17-9. This doesn’t violate the `Pin` +contract because `String`—like most other types in Rust—implements `Unpin`, +because it has no internal references that make it unsafe to move around! + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-09.svg" /> + +Figure 17-9: Replacing the String with an entirely different String in memory. + +Now we know enough to understand the errors reported for that `join_all` call +from back in Listing 17-17. We originally tried to move the futures produced by +async blocks into a `Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>`, but as we’ve seen, +those futures may have internal references, so they don’t implement `Unpin`. +They need to be pinned, and then we can pass the `Pin` type into the `Vec`, +confident that the underlying data in the futures will *not* be moved. + +`Pin` and `Unpin` are mostly important for building lower-level libraries, or +when you’re building a runtime itself, rather than for day to day Rust code. +When you see these traits in error messages, though, now you’ll have a better +idea of how to fix the code! + +> Note: This combination of `Pin` and `Unpin` allows a whole class of complex +> types to be safe in Rust which are otherwise difficult to implement because +> they’re self-referential. Types which require `Pin` show up *most* commonly +> in async Rust today, but you might—very rarely!—see it in other contexts, too. +> +> The specifics of how `Pin` and `Unpin` work, and the rules they’re required +> to uphold, are covered extensively in the API documentation for `std::pin`, so +> if you’d like to understand them more deeply, that’s a great place to start. +> +> If you want to understand how things work “under the hood” in even more +> detail, the official *Asynchronous Programming in Rust* book available at +> *https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/* has you covered: +> +> * Chapter 2: Under the Hood: Executing Futures and Tasks +> * Chapter 4: Pinning + +### The Stream Trait + +Now that we have a deeper grasp on the `Future`, `Pin`, and `Unpin` traits, we +can turn our attention to the `Stream` trait. As described in the section +introducing streams, streams are similar to asynchronous iterators. Unlike +`Iterator` and `Future`, there is no definition of a `Stream` trait in the +standard library as of the time of writing, but there *is* a very common +definition from the `futures` crate used throughout the ecosystem. + +Let’s review the definitions of the `Iterator` and `Future` traits, so we can +build up to how a `Stream` trait that merges them together might look. From +`Iterator`, we have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an +`Option<Self::Item>`. From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: +its `poll` method provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of +items which become ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait which puts those +features together: ``` -impl DraftPost { - --snip-- - pub fn request_review(self) -> PendingReviewPost { - PendingReviewPost { - content: self.content, - } - } +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_> + ) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>>; } +``` + +The `Stream` trait defines an associated type `Item` for the type of the items +produced by the stream. This is similar to `Iterator`: there may be zero to +many of these, and unlike `Future`, where there is always a single `Output` +(even if it’s the unit type `()`). + +`Stream` also defines a method to get those items. We call it `poll_next`, to +make it clear that it polls in the same way `Future::poll` does and produces a +sequence of items in the same way `Iterator::next` does. Its return type +combines `Poll` with `Option`. The outer type is `Poll`, because it has to be +checked for readiness, just as a future does. The inner type is `Option`, +because it needs to signal whether there are more messages, just as an iterator +does. + +Something very similar to this will likely end up standardized as part of Rust’s +standard library. In the meantime, it’s part of the toolkit of most runtimes, +so you can rely on it, and everything we cover below should generally apply! + +In the example we saw in the section on streaming, though, we didn’t use +`poll_next` *or* `Stream`, but instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We *could* +work directly in terms of the `poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` +state machines, of course, just as we *could* work with futures directly via +their `poll` method. Using `await` is much nicer, though, so the `StreamExt` +trait supplies the `next` method so we can do just that. -pub struct PendingReviewPost { - content: String, +``` +trait StreamExt: Stream { + async fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> + where + Self: Unpin; + + // other methods... } +``` -impl PendingReviewPost { - pub fn approve(self) -> Post { - Post { - content: self.content, +> Note: The actual definition we used earlier in the chapter looks slightly +> different than this, because it supports versions of Rust which did not yet +> support using async functions in traits. As a result, it looks like this: +> +> ``` +> fn next(&mut self) -> Next<'_, Self> where Self: Unpin; +> ``` +> +> That `Next` type is a `struct` which implements `Future` and gives a way to +> name the lifetime of the reference to `self` with `Next<'_, Self>`, so that +> `await` can work with this method! + +The `StreamExt` trait is also the home of all the interesting methods available +to use with streams. `StreamExt` is automatically implemented for every type +which implements `Stream`, but these traits are defined separately so that the +community can iterate on the foundational trait distinctly from the convenience +APIs. + +In the version of `StreamExt` used in the `trpl` crate, the trait not only +defines the `next` method, it also supplies an implementation of `next`, which +correctly handles the details of calling `Stream::poll_next`. This means that +even when you need to write your own streaming data type, you *only* have to +implement `Stream`, and then anyone who uses your data type can use `StreamExt` +and its methods with it automatically. + +That’s all we’re going to cover for the lower-level details on these traits. To +wrap up, let’s consider how futures (including streams), tasks, and threads all +fit together! + +## Futures, Tasks, and Threads + +As we saw in the “Using Threads to Run Code Simultaneously” section of Chapter +16 on page XX, threads provide one approach to concurrency. We’ve seen another +approach to concurrency in this chapter, using async with futures and streams. +You might be wondering why you would choose one or the other. The answer is: it +depends! And in many cases, the choice isn’t threads *or* async but rather +threads *and* async. + +Many operating systems have supplied threading-based concurrency models for +decades now, and many programming languages have support for them as a result. +However, they are not without their tradeoffs. On many operating systems, they +use a fair bit of memory for each thread, and they come with some overhead for +starting up and shutting down. Threads are also only an option when your +operating system and hardware support them! Unlike mainstream desktop and mobile +computers, some embedded systems don’t have an OS at all, so they also don’t +have threads! + +The async model provides a different—and ultimately complementary—set of +tradeoffs. In the async model, concurrent operations don’t require their own +threads. Instead, they can run on tasks, as when we used `trpl::spawn_task` to +kick off work from a synchronous function throughout the streams section. A task +is similar to a thread, but instead of being managed by the operating system, +it’s managed by library-level code: the runtime. + +In the previous section, we saw that we could build a `Stream` by using an async +channel and spawning an async task which we could call from synchronous code. We +could do the exact same thing with a thread! In Listing 17-40, we used +`trpl::spawn_task` and `trpl::sleep`. In Listing 17-41, we replace those with +the `thread::spawn` and `thread::sleep` APIs from the standard library in the +`get_intervals` function. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + // This is *not* `trpl::spawn` but `std::thread::spawn`! + thread::spawn(move || { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + // Likewise, this is *not* `trpl::sleep` but `std::thread::sleep`! + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); + count += 1; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { + eprintln!("Could not send interval {count}: {send_error}"); + break; + }; } - } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -Listing 17-20: A `PendingReviewPost` that gets created by calling -`request_review` on `DraftPost` and an `approve` method that turns a -`PendingReviewPost` into a published `Post` - -The `request_review` and `approve` methods take ownership of `self`, thus -consuming the `DraftPost` and `PendingReviewPost` instances and transforming -them into a `PendingReviewPost` and a published `Post`, respectively. This way, -we won’t have any lingering `DraftPost` instances after we’ve called -`request_review` on them, and so forth. The `PendingReviewPost` struct doesn’t -have a `content` method defined on it, so attempting to read its content -results in a compiler error, as with `DraftPost`. Because the only way to get a -published `Post` instance that does have a `content` method defined is to call -the `approve` method on a `PendingReviewPost`, and the only way to get a -`PendingReviewPost` is to call the `request_review` method on a `DraftPost`, -we’ve now encoded the blog post workflow into the type system. - -But we also have to make some small changes to `main`. The `request_review` and -`approve` methods return new instances rather than modifying the struct they’re -called on, so we need to add more `let post =` shadowing assignments to save -the returned instances. We also can’t have the assertions about the draft and -pending review posts’ contents be empty strings, nor do we need them: we can’t -compile code that tries to use the content of posts in those states any longer. -The updated code in `main` is shown in Listing 17-21. +Listing 17-41: Using the `std::thread` APIs instead of the async `trpl` APIs +for the `get_intervals` function + +If you run this, the output is identical. And notice how little changes here +from the perspective of the calling code! What’s more, even though one of our +functions spawned an async task on the runtime and the other spawned an +OS thread, the resulting streams were unaffected by the differences. + +Despite the similarities, these two approaches behave very differently, although +we might have a hard time measuring it in this very simple example. We could +spawn millions of async tasks on any modern personal computer. If we tried to do +that with threads, we would literally run out of memory! + +However, there’s a reason these APIs are so similar. Threads act as a boundary +for sets of synchronous operations; concurrency is possible *between* threads. +Tasks act as a boundary for sets of *asynchronous* operations; concurrency is +possible both *between* and *within* tasks, because a task can switch between +futures in its body. Finally, futures are Rust’s most granular unit of +concurrency, and each future may represent a tree of other futures. The +runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, and tasks manage futures. In +that regard, tasks are similar to lightweight, runtime-managed threads with +added capabilities that come from being managed by a runtime instead of by the +operating system. + +This doesn’t mean that async tasks are always better than threads, any more than +that threads are always better than tasks. + +Concurrency with threads is in some ways a simpler programming model than +concurrency with `async`. That can be a strength or a weakness. Threads are +somewhat “fire and forget,” they have no native equivalent to a future, so they +simply run to completion, without interruption except by the operating system +itself. That is, they have no built-in support for *intra-task concurrency* the +way futures do. Threads in Rust also have no mechanisms for cancellation—a +subject we haven’t covered in depth in this chapter, but which is implicit in +the fact that whenever we ended a future, its state got cleaned up correctly. + +These limitations also make threads harder to compose than futures. It’s much +more difficult, for example, to use threads to build helpers such as the +`timeout` we built in the “Building Our Own Async Abstractions” section of this +chapter on page XX or the `throttle` method we used with streams in the +“Composing Streams” section of this chapter on page XX. The fact that futures +are richer data structures means they can be composed together more naturally, +as we have seen. + +Tasks then give *additional* control over futures, allowing you to choose where +and how to group the futures. And it turns out that threads and tasks often +work very well together, because tasks can (at least in some runtimes) be moved +around between threads. We haven’t mentioned it up until now, but under the +hood the `Runtime` we have been using, including the `spawn_blocking` and +`spawn_task` functions, is multithreaded by default! Many runtimes use an +approach called *work stealing* to transparently move tasks around between +threads based on the current utilization of the threads, with the aim of +improving the overall performance of the system. To build that actually requires +threads *and* tasks, and therefore futures. + +As a default way of thinking about which to use when: + +* If the task is *very parallelizable*, such as processing a bunch of data where + each part can be processed separately, threads are a better choice. +* If the task is *very concurrent*, such as handling messages from a bunch of + different sources which may come in a different intervals or different rates, + async is a better choice. + +And if you need some mix of parallelism and concurrency, you don’t have to +choose between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each +one serve the part it is best at. For example, Listing 17-42 shows a fairly +common example of this kind of mix in real-world Rust code. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use blog::Post; +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; fn main() { - let mut post = Post::new(); - - post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); - - let post = post.request_review(); + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - let post = post.approve(); + thread::spawn(move || { + for i in 1..11 { + tx.send(i).unwrap(); + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); + } + }); - assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); + trpl::run(async { + while let Some(message) = rx.recv().await { + println!("{message}"); + } + }); } ``` -Listing 17-21: Modifications to `main` to use the new implementation of the -blog post workflow - -The changes we needed to make to `main` to reassign `post` mean that this -implementation doesn’t quite follow the object-oriented state pattern anymore: -the transformations between the states are no longer encapsulated entirely -within the `Post` implementation. However, our gain is that invalid states are -now impossible because of the type system and the type checking that happens at -compile time! This ensures that certain bugs, such as display of the content of -an unpublished post, will be discovered before they make it to production. +Listing 17-42: Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the +messages in an async block -Try the tasks suggested at the start of this section on the `blog` crate as it -is after Listing 17-21 to see what you think about the design of this version -of the code. Note that some of the tasks might be completed already in this -design. +We begin by creating an async channel. Then we spawn a thread which takes +ownership of the sender side of the channel. Within the thread, we send the +numbers 1 through 10, and sleep for a second in between each. Finally, we run a +future created with an async block passed to `trpl::run` just as we have +throughout the chapter. In that future, we await those messages, just as in +the other message-passing examples we have seen. -We’ve seen that even though Rust is capable of implementing object-oriented -design patterns, other patterns, such as encoding state into the type system, -are also available in Rust. These patterns have different trade-offs. Although -you might be very familiar with object-oriented patterns, rethinking the -problem to take advantage of Rust’s features can provide benefits, such as -preventing some bugs at compile time. Object-oriented patterns won’t always be -the best solution in Rust due to certain features, like ownership, that -object-oriented languages don’t have. +To return to the examples we opened the chapter with: you could imagine running +a set of video encoding tasks using a dedicated thread, because video encoding +is compute bound, but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an +async channel. Examples of this kind of mix abound! ## Summary -Regardless of whether you think Rust is an object-oriented language after -reading this chapter, you now know that you can use trait objects to get some -object-oriented features in Rust. Dynamic dispatch can give your code some -flexibility in exchange for a bit of runtime performance. You can use this -flexibility to implement object-oriented patterns that can help your code’s -maintainability. Rust also has other features, like ownership, that -object-oriented languages don’t have. An object-oriented pattern won’t always -be the best way to take advantage of Rust’s strengths, but it is an available -option. +This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the project in +Chapter 21 will use the concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation +than the smaller examples discussed here—and compare more directly what it looks +like to solve these kinds of problems with threading vs. with tasks and futures. -Next, we’ll look at patterns, which are another of Rust’s features that enable -lots of flexibility. We’ve looked at them briefly throughout the book but -haven’t seen their full capability yet. Let’s go! +Whether with threads, with futures and tasks, or with the combination of them +all, Rust gives you the tools you need to write safe, fast, concurrent +code—whether for a high-throughput web server or an embedded operating system. +Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions +as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms +relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. diff --git a/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter18.md b/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter18.md index 40c7f10a1..946d20a11 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter18.md +++ b/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter18.md @@ -6,1287 +6,1228 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. [TOC] -# Patterns and Matching - -*Patterns* are a special syntax in Rust for matching against the structure of -types, both complex and simple. Using patterns in conjunction with `match` -expressions and other constructs gives you more control over a program’s -control flow. A pattern consists of some combination of the following: - -* Literals -* Destructured arrays, enums, structs, or tuples -* Variables -* Wildcards -* Placeholders - -Some example patterns include `x`, `(a, 3)`, and `Some(Color::Red)`. In the -contexts in which patterns are valid, these components describe the shape of -data. Our program then matches values against the patterns to determine whether -it has the correct shape of data to continue running a particular piece of code. +# Object-Oriented Programming Features + +Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a way of modeling programs. Objects as a +programmatic concept were introduced in the programming language Simula in the +1960s. Those objects influenced Alan Kay’s programming architecture in which +objects pass messages to each other. To describe this architecture, he coined +the term *object-oriented programming* in 1967. Many competing definitions +describe what OOP is, and by some of these definitions Rust is object oriented +but by others it is not. In this chapter, we’ll explore certain characteristics +that are commonly considered object oriented and how those characteristics +translate to idiomatic Rust. We’ll then show you how to implement an +object-oriented design pattern in Rust and discuss the trade-offs of doing so +versus implementing a solution using some of Rust’s strengths instead. + +## Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages + +There is no consensus in the programming community about what features a +language must have to be considered object oriented. Rust is influenced by many +programming paradigms, including OOP; for example, we explored the features +that came from functional programming in Chapter 13. Arguably, OOP languages +share certain common characteristics, namely objects, encapsulation, and +inheritance. Let’s look at what each of those characteristics means and whether +Rust supports it. + +### Objects Contain Data and Behavior + +The book *Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software* by +Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides (Addison-Wesley, +1994), colloquially referred to as *The Gang of Four* book, is a catalog of +object-oriented design patterns. It defines OOP in this way: + +Object-oriented programs are made up of objects. An *object* packages both data +and the procedures that operate on that data. The procedures are typically +called *methods* or *operations*. + +Using this definition, Rust is object oriented: structs and enums have data, +and `impl` blocks provide methods on structs and enums. Even though structs and +enums with methods aren’t *called* objects, they provide the same +functionality, according to the Gang of Four’s definition of objects. + +### Encapsulation That Hides Implementation Details + +Another aspect commonly associated with OOP is the idea of *encapsulation*, +which means that the implementation details of an object aren’t accessible to +code using that object. Therefore, the only way to interact with an object is +through its public API; code using the object shouldn’t be able to reach into +the object’s internals and change data or behavior directly. This enables the +programmer to change and refactor an object’s internals without needing to +change the code that uses the object. + +We discussed how to control encapsulation in Chapter 7: we can use the `pub` +keyword to decide which modules, types, functions, and methods in our code +should be public, and by default everything else is private. For example, we +can define a struct `AveragedCollection` that has a field containing a vector +of `i32` values. The struct can also have a field that contains the average of +the values in the vector, meaning the average doesn’t have to be computed on +demand whenever anyone needs it. In other words, `AveragedCollection` will +cache the calculated average for us. Listing 17-1 has the definition of the +`AveragedCollection` struct. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct AveragedCollection { + list: Vec<i32>, + average: f64, +} +``` -To use a pattern, we compare it to some value. If the pattern matches the -value, we use the value parts in our code. Recall the `match` expressions in -Chapter 6 that used patterns, such as the coin-sorting machine example. If the -value fits the shape of the pattern, we can use the named pieces. If it -doesn’t, the code associated with the pattern won’t run. +Listing 17-1: An `AveragedCollection` struct that maintains a list of integers +and the average of the items in the collection -This chapter is a reference on all things related to patterns. We’ll cover the -valid places to use patterns, the difference between refutable and irrefutable -patterns, and the different kinds of pattern syntax that you might see. By the -end of the chapter, you’ll know how to use patterns to express many concepts in -a clear way. +The struct is marked `pub` so that other code can use it, but the fields within +the struct remain private. This is important in this case because we want to +ensure that whenever a value is added or removed from the list, the average is +also updated. We do this by implementing `add`, `remove`, and `average` methods +on the struct, as shown in Listing 17-2. -## All the Places Patterns Can Be Used +Filename: src/lib.rs -Patterns pop up in a number of places in Rust, and you’ve been using them a lot -without realizing it! This section discusses all the places where patterns are -valid. +``` +impl AveragedCollection { + pub fn add(&mut self, value: i32) { + self.list.push(value); + self.update_average(); + } -### match Arms + pub fn remove(&mut self) -> Option<i32> { + let result = self.list.pop(); + match result { + Some(value) => { + self.update_average(); + Some(value) + } + None => None, + } + } -As discussed in Chapter 6, we use patterns in the arms of `match` expressions. -Formally, `match` expressions are defined as the keyword `match`, a value to -match on, and one or more match arms that consist of a pattern and an -expression to run if the value matches that arm’s pattern, like this: + pub fn average(&self) -> f64 { + self.average + } -``` -match VALUE { - PATTERN => EXPRESSION, - PATTERN => EXPRESSION, - PATTERN => EXPRESSION, + fn update_average(&mut self) { + let total: i32 = self.list.iter().sum(); + self.average = total as f64 / self.list.len() as f64; + } } ``` -For example, here’s the `match` expression from Listing 6-5 that matches on an -`Option<i32>` value in the variable `x`: - -``` -match x { - None => None, - Some(i) => Some(i + 1), +Listing 17-2: Implementations of the public methods `add`, `remove`, and +`average` on `AveragedCollection` + +The public methods `add`, `remove`, and `average` are the only ways to access +or modify data in an instance of `AveragedCollection`. When an item is added to +`list` using the `add` method or removed using the `remove` method, the +implementations of each call the private `update_average` method that handles +updating the `average` field as well. + +We leave the `list` and `average` fields private so there is no way for +external code to add or remove items to or from the `list` field directly; +otherwise, the `average` field might become out of sync when the `list` +changes. The `average` method returns the value in the `average` field, +allowing external code to read the `average` but not modify it. + +Because we’ve encapsulated the implementation details of the struct +`AveragedCollection`, we can easily change aspects, such as the data structure, +in the future. For instance, we could use a `HashSet<i32>` instead of a +`Vec<i32>` for the `list` field. As long as the signatures of the `add`, +`remove`, and `average` public methods stayed the same, code using +`AveragedCollection` wouldn’t need to change. If we made `list` public instead, +this wouldn’t necessarily be the case: `HashSet<i32>` and `Vec<i32>` have +different methods for adding and removing items, so the external code would +likely have to change if it were modifying `list` directly. + +If encapsulation is a required aspect for a language to be considered object +oriented, then Rust meets that requirement. The option to use `pub` or not for +different parts of code enables encapsulation of implementation details. + +### Inheritance as a Type System and as Code Sharing + +*Inheritance* is a mechanism whereby an object can inherit elements from +another object’s definition, thus gaining the parent object’s data and behavior +without you having to define them again. + +If a language must have inheritance to be object oriented, then Rust is not +such a language. There is no way to define a struct that inherits the parent +struct’s fields and method implementations without using a macro. + +However, if you’re used to having inheritance in your programming toolbox, you +can use other solutions in Rust, depending on your reason for reaching for +inheritance in the first place. + +You would choose inheritance for two main reasons. One is for reuse of code: +you can implement particular behavior for one type, and inheritance enables you +to reuse that implementation for a different type. You can do this in a limited +way in Rust code using default trait method implementations, which you saw in +Listing 10-14 when we added a default implementation of the `summarize` method +on the `Summary` trait. Any type implementing the `Summary` trait would have +the `summarize` method available on it without any further code. This is +similar to a parent class having an implementation of a method and an +inheriting child class also having the implementation of the method. We can +also override the default implementation of the `summarize` method when we +implement the `Summary` trait, which is similar to a child class overriding the +implementation of a method inherited from a parent class. + +The other reason to use inheritance relates to the type system: to enable a +child type to be used in the same places as the parent type. This is also +called *polymorphism*, which means that you can substitute multiple objects for +each other at runtime if they share certain characteristics. + +> ### Polymorphism +> +> To many people, polymorphism is synonymous with inheritance. But it’s +actually a more general concept that refers to code that can work with data of +multiple types. For inheritance, those types are generally subclasses. +> +> Rust instead uses generics to abstract over different possible types and +trait bounds to impose constraints on what those types must provide. This is +sometimes called *bounded parametric polymorphism*. + +Inheritance has recently fallen out of favor as a programming design solution +in many programming languages because it’s often at risk of sharing more code +than necessary. Subclasses shouldn’t always share all characteristics of their +parent class but will do so with inheritance. This can make a program’s design +less flexible. It also introduces the possibility of calling methods on +subclasses that don’t make sense or that cause errors because the methods don’t +apply to the subclass. In addition, some languages will only allow single +inheritance (meaning a subclass can only inherit from one class), further +restricting the flexibility of a program’s design. + +For these reasons, Rust takes the different approach of using trait objects +instead of inheritance. Let’s look at how trait objects enable polymorphism in +Rust. + +## Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types + +In Chapter 8, we mentioned that one limitation of vectors is that they can +store elements of only one type. We created a workaround in Listing 8-9 where +we defined a `SpreadsheetCell` enum that had variants to hold integers, floats, +and text. This meant we could store different types of data in each cell and +still have a vector that represented a row of cells. This is a perfectly good +solution when our interchangeable items are a fixed set of types that we know +when our code is compiled. + +However, sometimes we want our library user to be able to extend the set of +types that are valid in a particular situation. To show how we might achieve +this, we’ll create an example graphical user interface (GUI) tool that iterates +through a list of items, calling a `draw` method on each one to draw it to the +screen—a common technique for GUI tools. We’ll create a library crate called +`gui` that contains the structure of a GUI library. This crate might include +some types for people to use, such as `Button` or `TextField`. In addition, +`gui` users will want to create their own types that can be drawn: for +instance, one programmer might add an `Image` and another might add a +`SelectBox`. + +We won’t implement a full-fledged GUI library for this example but will show +how the pieces would fit together. At the time of writing the library, we can’t +know and define all the types other programmers might want to create. But we do +know that `gui` needs to keep track of many values of different types, and it +needs to call a `draw` method on each of these differently typed values. It +doesn’t need to know exactly what will happen when we call the `draw` method, +just that the value will have that method available for us to call. + +To do this in a language with inheritance, we might define a class named +`Component` that has a method named `draw` on it. The other classes, such as +`Button`, `Image`, and `SelectBox`, would inherit from `Component` and thus +inherit the `draw` method. They could each override the `draw` method to define +their custom behavior, but the framework could treat all of the types as if +they were `Component` instances and call `draw` on them. But because Rust +doesn’t have inheritance, we need another way to structure the `gui` library to +allow users to extend it with new types. + +### Defining a Trait for Common Behavior + +To implement the behavior we want `gui` to have, we’ll define a trait named +`Draw` that will have one method named `draw`. Then we can define a vector that +takes a *trait object*. A trait object points to both an instance of a type +implementing our specified trait and a table used to look up trait methods on +that type at runtime. We create a trait object by specifying some sort of +pointer, such as a `&` reference or a `Box<T>` smart pointer, then the `dyn` +keyword, and then specifying the relevant trait. (We’ll talk about the reason +trait objects must use a pointer in “Dynamically Sized Types and the Sized +Trait” on page XX.) We can use trait objects in place of a generic or concrete +type. Wherever we use a trait object, Rust’s type system will ensure at compile +time that any value used in that context will implement the trait object’s +trait. Consequently, we don’t need to know all the possible types at compile +time. + +We’ve mentioned that, in Rust, we refrain from calling structs and enums +“objects” to distinguish them from other languages’ objects. In a struct or +enum, the data in the struct fields and the behavior in `impl` blocks are +separated, whereas in other languages, the data and behavior combined into one +concept is often labeled an object. However, trait objects *are* more like +objects in other languages in the sense that they combine data and behavior. +But trait objects differ from traditional objects in that we can’t add data to +a trait object. Trait objects aren’t as generally useful as objects in other +languages: their specific purpose is to allow abstraction across common +behavior. + +Listing 17-3 shows how to define a trait named `Draw` with one method named +`draw`. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub trait Draw { + fn draw(&self); } ``` -The patterns in this `match` expression are the `None` and `Some(i)` to the -left of each arrow. - -One requirement for `match` expressions is that they need to be *exhaustive* in -the sense that all possibilities for the value in the `match` expression must -be accounted for. One way to ensure you’ve covered every possibility is to have -a catchall pattern for the last arm: for example, a variable name matching any -value can never fail and thus covers every remaining case. - -The particular pattern `_` will match anything, but it never binds to a -variable, so it’s often used in the last match arm. The `_` pattern can be -useful when you want to ignore any value not specified, for example. We’ll -cover the `_` pattern in more detail in “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” on page -XX. - -### Conditional if let Expressions - -In Chapter 6, we discussed how to use `if let` expressions mainly as a shorter -way to write the equivalent of a `match` that only matches one case. -Optionally, `if let` can have a corresponding `else` containing code to run if -the pattern in the `if let` doesn’t match. +Listing 17-3: Definition of the `Draw` trait -Listing 18-1 shows that it’s also possible to mix and match `if let`, `else -if`, and `else if let` expressions. Doing so gives us more flexibility than a -`match` expression in which we can express only one value to compare with the -patterns. Also, Rust doesn’t require that the conditions in a series of `if -let`, `else if`, and `else if let` arms relate to each other. +This syntax should look familiar from our discussions on how to define traits +in Chapter 10. Next comes some new syntax: Listing 17-4 defines a struct named +`Screen` that holds a vector named `components`. This vector is of type +`Box<dyn Draw>`, which is a trait object; it’s a stand-in for any type inside a +`Box` that implements the `Draw` trait. -The code in Listing 18-1 determines what color to make your background based on -a series of checks for several conditions. For this example, we’ve created -variables with hardcoded values that a real program might receive from user -input. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -fn main() { - let favorite_color: Option<&str> = None; - let is_tuesday = false; - let age: Result<u8, _> = "34".parse(); - - 1 if let Some(color) = favorite_color { - 2 println!( - "Using your favorite, {color}, as the background" - ); - 3 } else if is_tuesday { - 4 println!("Tuesday is green day!"); - 5 } else if let Ok(age) = age { - 6 if age > 30 { - 7 println!("Using purple as the background color"); - } else { - 8 println!("Using orange as the background color"); - } - 9 } else { - 10 println!("Using blue as the background color"); - } +pub struct Screen { + pub components: Vec<Box<dyn Draw>>, } ``` -Listing 18-1: Mixing `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, and `else` - -If the user specifies a favorite color [1], that color is used as the -background [2]. If no favorite color is specified and today is Tuesday [3], the -background color is green [4]. Otherwise, if the user specifies their age as a -string and we can parse it as a number successfully [5], the color is either -purple [7] or orange [8] depending on the value of the number [6]. If none of -these conditions apply [9], the background color is blue [10]. - -This conditional structure lets us support complex requirements. With the -hardcoded values we have here, this example will print `Using purple as the -background color`. - -You can see that `if let` can also introduce shadowed variables in the same way -that `match` arms can: the line `if let Ok(age) = age` [5] introduces a new -shadowed `age` variable that contains the value inside the `Ok` variant. This -means we need to place the `if age > 30` condition [6] within that block: we -can’t combine these two conditions into `if let Ok(age) = age && age > 30`. The -shadowed `age` we want to compare to 30 isn’t valid until the new scope starts -with the curly bracket. - -The downside of using `if let` expressions is that the compiler doesn’t check -for exhaustiveness, whereas with `match` expressions it does. If we omitted the -last `else` block [9] and therefore missed handling some cases, the compiler -would not alert us to the possible logic bug. +Listing 17-4: Definition of the `Screen` struct with a `components` field +holding a vector of trait objects that implement the `Draw` trait -### while let Conditional Loops +On the `Screen` struct, we’ll define a method named `run` that will call the +`draw` method on each of its `components`, as shown in Listing 17-5. -Similar in construction to `if let`, the `while let` conditional loop allows a -`while` loop to run for as long as a pattern continues to match. In Listing -18-2, we code a `while let` loop that uses a vector as a stack and prints the -values in the vector in the opposite order in which they were pushed. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let mut stack = Vec::new(); - -stack.push(1); -stack.push(2); -stack.push(3); - -while let Some(top) = stack.pop() { - println!("{top}"); +impl Screen { + pub fn run(&self) { + for component in self.components.iter() { + component.draw(); + } + } } ``` -Listing 18-2: Using a `while let` loop to print values for as long as -`stack.pop()` returns `Some` +Listing 17-5: A `run` method on `Screen` that calls the `draw` method on each +component -This example prints `3`, `2`, and then `1`. The `pop` method takes the last -element out of the vector and returns `Some(value)`. If the vector is empty, -`pop` returns `None`. The `while` loop continues running the code in its block -as long as `pop` returns `Some`. When `pop` returns `None`, the loop stops. We -can use `while let` to pop every element off our stack. +This works differently from defining a struct that uses a generic type +parameter with trait bounds. A generic type parameter can only be substituted +with one concrete type at a time, whereas trait objects allow for multiple +concrete types to fill in for the trait object at runtime. For example, we +could have defined the `Screen` struct using a generic type and a trait bound, +as in Listing 17-6. -### for Loops - -In a `for` loop, the value that directly follows the keyword `for` is a -pattern. For example, in `for x in y`, the `x` is the pattern. Listing 18-3 -demonstrates how to use a pattern in a `for` loop to *destructure*, or break -apart, a tuple as part of the `for` loop. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let v = vec!['a', 'b', 'c']; +pub struct Screen<T: Draw> { + pub components: Vec<T>, +} -for (index, value) in v.iter().enumerate() { - println!("{value} is at index {index}"); +impl<T> Screen<T> +where + T: Draw, +{ + pub fn run(&self) { + for component in self.components.iter() { + component.draw(); + } + } } ``` -Listing 18-3: Using a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure a tuple +Listing 17-6: An alternate implementation of the `Screen` struct and its `run` +method using generics and trait bounds -The code in Listing 18-3 will print the following: +This restricts us to a `Screen` instance that has a list of components all of +type `Button` or all of type `TextField`. If you’ll only ever have homogeneous +collections, using generics and trait bounds is preferable because the +definitions will be monomorphized at compile time to use the concrete types. -``` -a is at index 0 -b is at index 1 -c is at index 2 -``` +On the other hand, with the method using trait objects, one `Screen` instance +can hold a `Vec<T>` that contains a `Box<Button>` as well as a +`Box<TextField>`. Let’s look at how this works, and then we’ll talk about the +runtime performance implications. -We adapt an iterator using the `enumerate` method so it produces a value and -the index for that value, placed into a tuple. The first value produced is the -tuple `(0, 'a')`. When this value is matched to the pattern `(index, value)`, -`index` will be `0` and `value` will be `'a'`, printing the first line of the -output. +### Implementing the Trait -### let Statements +Now we’ll add some types that implement the `Draw` trait. We’ll provide the +`Button` type. Again, actually implementing a GUI library is beyond the scope +of this book, so the `draw` method won’t have any useful implementation in its +body. To imagine what the implementation might look like, a `Button` struct +might have fields for `width`, `height`, and `label`, as shown in Listing 17-7. -Prior to this chapter, we had only explicitly discussed using patterns with -`match` and `if let`, but in fact, we’ve used patterns in other places as well, -including in `let` statements. For example, consider this straightforward -variable assignment with `let`: +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let x = 5; -``` - -Every time you’ve used a `let` statement like this you’ve been using patterns, -although you might not have realized it! More formally, a `let` statement looks -like this: - -``` -let PATTERN = EXPRESSION; -``` - -In statements like `let x = 5;` with a variable name in the PATTERN slot, the -variable name is just a particularly simple form of a pattern. Rust compares -the expression against the pattern and assigns any names it finds. So, in the -`let x = 5;` example, `x` is a pattern that means “bind what matches here to -the variable `x`.” Because the name `x` is the whole pattern, this pattern -effectively means “bind everything to the variable `x`, whatever the value is.” - -To see the pattern-matching aspect of `let` more clearly, consider Listing -18-4, which uses a pattern with `let` to destructure a tuple. +pub struct Button { + pub width: u32, + pub height: u32, + pub label: String, +} -``` -let (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3); +impl Draw for Button { + fn draw(&self) { + // code to actually draw a button + } +} ``` -Listing 18-4: Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and create three variables -at once +Listing 17-7: A `Button` struct that implements the `Draw` trait -Here, we match a tuple against a pattern. Rust compares the value `(1, 2, 3)` -to the pattern `(x, y, z)` and sees that the value matches the pattern, in that -it sees that the number of elements is the same in both, so Rust binds `1` to -`x`, `2` to `y`, and `3` to `z`. You can think of this tuple pattern as nesting -three individual variable patterns inside it. +The `width`, `height`, and `label` fields on `Button` will differ from the +fields on other components; for example, a `TextField` type might have those +same fields plus a `placeholder` field. Each of the types we want to draw on +the screen will implement the `Draw` trait but will use different code in the +`draw` method to define how to draw that particular type, as `Button` has here +(without the actual GUI code, as mentioned). The `Button` type, for instance, +might have an additional `impl` block containing methods related to what +happens when a user clicks the button. These kinds of methods won’t apply to +types like `TextField`. -If the number of elements in the pattern doesn’t match the number of elements -in the tuple, the overall type won’t match and we’ll get a compiler error. For -example, Listing 18-5 shows an attempt to destructure a tuple with three -elements into two variables, which won’t work. +If someone using our library decides to implement a `SelectBox` struct that has +`width`, `height`, and `options` fields, they would implement the `Draw` trait +on the `SelectBox` type as well, as shown in Listing 17-8. -``` -let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); -``` - -Listing 18-5: Incorrectly constructing a pattern whose variables don’t match -the number of elements in the tuple - -Attempting to compile this code results in this type error: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:2:9 - | -2 | let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); - | ^^^^^^ --------- this expression has type `({integer}, {integer}, -{integer})` - | | - | expected a tuple with 3 elements, found one with 2 elements - | - = note: expected tuple `({integer}, {integer}, {integer})` - found tuple `(_, _)` -``` - -To fix the error, we could ignore one or more of the values in the tuple using -`_` or `..`, as you’ll see in “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” on page XX. If the -problem is that we have too many variables in the pattern, the solution is to -make the types match by removing variables so the number of variables equals -the number of elements in the tuple. +use gui::Draw; -### Function Parameters - -Function parameters can also be patterns. The code in Listing 18-6, which -declares a function named `foo` that takes one parameter named `x` of type -`i32`, should by now look familiar. +struct SelectBox { + width: u32, + height: u32, + options: Vec<String>, +} -``` -fn foo(x: i32) { - // code goes here +impl Draw for SelectBox { + fn draw(&self) { + // code to actually draw a select box + } } ``` -Listing 18-6: A function signature using patterns in the parameters +Listing 17-8: Another crate using `gui` and implementing the `Draw` trait on a +`SelectBox` struct -The `x` part is a pattern! As we did with `let`, we could match a tuple in a -function’s arguments to the pattern. Listing 18-7 splits the values in a tuple -as we pass it to a function. +Our library’s user can now write their `main` function to create a `Screen` +instance. To the `Screen` instance, they can add a `SelectBox` and a `Button` +by putting each in a `Box<T>` to become a trait object. They can then call the +`run` method on the `Screen` instance, which will call `draw` on each of the +components. Listing 17-9 shows this implementation. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn print_coordinates(&(x, y): &(i32, i32)) { - println!("Current location: ({x}, {y})"); -} +use gui::{Button, Screen}; fn main() { - let point = (3, 5); - print_coordinates(&point); + let screen = Screen { + components: vec![ + Box::new(SelectBox { + width: 75, + height: 10, + options: vec![ + String::from("Yes"), + String::from("Maybe"), + String::from("No"), + ], + }), + Box::new(Button { + width: 50, + height: 10, + label: String::from("OK"), + }), + ], + }; + + screen.run(); } ``` -Listing 18-7: A function with parameters that destructure a tuple - -This code prints `Current location: (3, 5)`. The values `&(3, 5)` match the -pattern `&(x, y)`, so `x` is the value `3` and `y` is the value `5`. - -We can also use patterns in closure parameter lists in the same way as in -function parameter lists because closures are similar to functions, as -discussed in Chapter 13. - -At this point, you’ve seen several ways to use patterns, but patterns don’t -work the same in every place we can use them. In some places, the patterns must -be irrefutable; in other circumstances, they can be refutable. We’ll discuss -these two concepts next. - -## Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match - -Patterns come in two forms: refutable and irrefutable. Patterns that will match -for any possible value passed are *irrefutable*. An example would be `x` in the -statement `let x = 5;` because `x` matches anything and therefore cannot fail -to match. Patterns that can fail to match for some possible value are -*refutable*. An example would be `Some(x)` in the expression `if let Some(x) = -a_value` because if the value in the `a_value` variable is `None` rather than -`Some`, the `Some(x)` pattern will not match. - -Function parameters, `let` statements, and `for` loops can only accept -irrefutable patterns because the program cannot do anything meaningful when -values don’t match. The `if let` and `while let` expressions accept refutable -and irrefutable patterns, but the compiler warns against irrefutable patterns -because, by definition, they’re intended to handle possible failure: the -functionality of a conditional is in its ability to perform differently -depending on success or failure. - -In general, you shouldn’t have to worry about the distinction between refutable -and irrefutable patterns; however, you do need to be familiar with the concept -of refutability so you can respond when you see it in an error message. In -those cases, you’ll need to change either the pattern or the construct you’re -using the pattern with, depending on the intended behavior of the code. - -Let’s look at an example of what happens when we try to use a refutable pattern -where Rust requires an irrefutable pattern and vice versa. Listing 18-8 shows a -`let` statement, but for the pattern, we’ve specified `Some(x)`, a refutable -pattern. As you might expect, this code will not compile. +Listing 17-9: Using trait objects to store values of different types that +implement the same trait -``` -let Some(x) = some_option_value; -``` +When we wrote the library, we didn’t know that someone might add the +`SelectBox` type, but our `Screen` implementation was able to operate on the +new type and draw it because `SelectBox` implements the `Draw` trait, which +means it implements the `draw` method. -Listing 18-8: Attempting to use a refutable pattern with `let` +This concept—of being concerned only with the messages a value responds to +rather than the value’s concrete type—is similar to the concept of *duck +typing* in dynamically typed languages: if it walks like a duck and quacks like +a duck, then it must be a duck! In the implementation of `run` on `Screen` in +Listing 17-5, `run` doesn’t need to know what the concrete type of each +component is. It doesn’t check whether a component is an instance of a `Button` +or a `SelectBox`, it just calls the `draw` method on the component. By +specifying `Box<dyn Draw>` as the type of the values in the `components` +vector, we’ve defined `Screen` to need values that we can call the `draw` +method on. -If `some_option_value` were a `None` value, it would fail to match the pattern -`Some(x)`, meaning the pattern is refutable. However, the `let` statement can -only accept an irrefutable pattern because there is nothing valid the code can -do with a `None` value. At compile time, Rust will complain that we’ve tried to -use a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is required: +The advantage of using trait objects and Rust’s type system to write code +similar to code using duck typing is that we never have to check whether a +value implements a particular method at runtime or worry about getting errors +if a value doesn’t implement a method but we call it anyway. Rust won’t compile +our code if the values don’t implement the traits that the trait objects need. -``` -error[E0005]: refutable pattern in local binding: `None` not covered - --> src/main.rs:3:9 - | -3 | let Some(x) = some_option_value; - | ^^^^^^^ pattern `None` not covered - | - = note: `let` bindings require an "irrefutable pattern", like a `struct` or -an `enum` with only one variant - = note: for more information, visit -https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch18-02-refutability.html - = note: the matched value is of type `Option<i32>` -help: you might want to use `if let` to ignore the variant that isn't matched - | -3 | let x = if let Some(x) = some_option_value { x } else { todo!() }; - | ++++++++++ ++++++++++++++++++++++ -``` - -Because we didn’t cover (and couldn’t cover!) every valid value with the -pattern `Some(x)`, Rust rightfully produces a compiler error. +For example, Listing 17-10 shows what happens if we try to create a `Screen` +with a `String` as a component. -If we have a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is needed, we can -fix it by changing the code that uses the pattern: instead of using `let`, we -can use `if let`. Then, if the pattern doesn’t match, the code will just skip -the code in the curly brackets, giving it a way to continue validly. Listing -18-9 shows how to fix the code in Listing 18-8. +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -if let Some(x) = some_option_value { - println!("{x}"); -} -``` +use gui::Screen; -Listing 18-9: Using `if let` and a block with refutable patterns instead of -`let` - -We’ve given the code an out! This code is perfectly valid, although it means we -cannot use an irrefutable pattern without receiving an error. If we give `if -let` a pattern that will always match, such as `x`, as shown in Listing 18-10, -the compiler will give a warning. +fn main() { + let screen = Screen { + components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], + }; -``` -if let x = 5 { - println!("{x}"); -}; + screen.run(); +} ``` -Listing 18-10: Attempting to use an irrefutable pattern with `if let` +Listing 17-10: Attempting to use a type that doesn’t implement the trait +object’s trait -Rust complains that it doesn’t make sense to use `if let` with an irrefutable -pattern: +We’ll get this error because `String` doesn’t implement the `Draw` trait: ``` -warning: irrefutable `if let` pattern - --> src/main.rs:2:8 +error[E0277]: the trait bound `String: Draw` is not satisfied + --> src/main.rs:5:26 | -2 | if let x = 5 { - | ^^^^^^^^^ +5 | components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Draw` is +not implemented for `String` | - = note: `#[warn(irrefutable_let_patterns)]` on by default - = note: this pattern will always match, so the `if let` is -useless - = help: consider replacing the `if let` with a `let` -``` - -For this reason, match arms must use refutable patterns, except for the last -arm, which should match any remaining values with an irrefutable pattern. Rust -allows us to use an irrefutable pattern in a `match` with only one arm, but -this syntax isn’t particularly useful and could be replaced with a simpler -`let` statement. - -Now that you know where to use patterns and the difference between refutable -and irrefutable patterns, let’s cover all the syntax we can use to create -patterns. - -## Pattern Syntax - -In this section, we gather all the syntax that is valid in patterns and discuss -why and when you might want to use each one. - -### Matching Literals - -As you saw in Chapter 6, you can match patterns against literals directly. The -following code gives some examples: + = note: required for the cast to the object type `dyn Draw` +``` + +This error lets us know that either we’re passing something to `Screen` that we +didn’t mean to pass and so should pass a different type, or we should implement +`Draw` on `String` so that `Screen` is able to call `draw` on it. + +### Trait Objects Perform Dynamic Dispatch + +Recall in “Performance of Code Using Generics” on page XX our discussion on the +monomorphization process performed by the compiler when we use trait bounds on +generics: the compiler generates nongeneric implementations of functions and +methods for each concrete type that we use in place of a generic type +parameter. The code that results from monomorphization is doing *static +dispatch*, which is when the compiler knows what method you’re calling at +compile time. This is opposed to *dynamic dispatch*, which is when the compiler +can’t tell at compile time which method you’re calling. In dynamic dispatch +cases, the compiler emits code that at runtime will figure out which method to +call. + +When we use trait objects, Rust must use dynamic dispatch. The compiler doesn’t +know all the types that might be used with the code that’s using trait objects, +so it doesn’t know which method implemented on which type to call. Instead, at +runtime, Rust uses the pointers inside the trait object to know which method to +call. This lookup incurs a runtime cost that doesn’t occur with static +dispatch. Dynamic dispatch also prevents the compiler from choosing to inline a +method’s code, which in turn prevents some optimizations. However, we did get +extra flexibility in the code that we wrote in Listing 17-5 and were able to +support in Listing 17-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. + +## Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern + +The *state pattern* is an object-oriented design pattern. The crux of the +pattern is that we define a set of states a value can have internally. The +states are represented by a set of *state objects*, and the value’s behavior +changes based on its state. We’re going to work through an example of a blog +post struct that has a field to hold its state, which will be a state object +from the set “draft,” “review,” or “published.” + +The state objects share functionality: in Rust, of course, we use structs and +traits rather than objects and inheritance. Each state object is responsible +for its own behavior and for governing when it should change into another +state. The value that holds a state object knows nothing about the different +behavior of the states or when to transition between states. + +The advantage of using the state pattern is that, when the business +requirements of the program change, we won’t need to change the code of the +value holding the state or the code that uses the value. We’ll only need to +update the code inside one of the state objects to change its rules or perhaps +add more state objects. + +First we’re going to implement the state pattern in a more traditional +object-oriented way, then we’ll use an approach that’s a bit more natural in +Rust. Let’s dig in to incrementally implement a blog post workflow using the +state pattern. + +The final functionality will look like this: + +1. A blog post starts as an empty draft. +1. When the draft is done, a review of the post is requested. +1. When the post is approved, it gets published. +1. Only published blog posts return content to print, so unapproved posts can’t +accidentally be published. + +Any other changes attempted on a post should have no effect. For example, if we +try to approve a draft blog post before we’ve requested a review, the post +should remain an unpublished draft. + +Listing 17-11 shows this workflow in code form: this is an example usage of the +API we’ll implement in a library crate named `blog`. This won’t compile yet +because we haven’t implemented the `blog` crate. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let x = 1; - -match x { - 1 => println!("one"), - 2 => println!("two"), - 3 => println!("three"), - _ => println!("anything"), -} -``` - -This code prints `one` because the value in `x` is `1`. This syntax is useful -when you want your code to take an action if it gets a particular concrete -value. - -### Matching Named Variables - -Named variables are irrefutable patterns that match any value, and we’ve used -them many times in this book. However, there is a complication when you use -named variables in `match` expressions. Because `match` starts a new scope, -variables declared as part of a pattern inside the `match` expression will -shadow those with the same name outside the `match` construct, as is the case -with all variables. In Listing 18-11, we declare a variable named `x` with the -value `Some(5)` and a variable `y` with the value `10`. We then create a -`match` expression on the value `x`. Look at the patterns in the match arms and -`println!` at the end, and try to figure out what the code will print before -running this code or reading further. +use blog::Post; -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` fn main() { - 1 let x = Some(5); - 2 let y = 10; - - match x { - 3 Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), - 4 Some(y) => println!("Matched, y = {y}"), - 5 _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), - } - - 6 println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {y}", x); -} -``` - -Listing 18-11: A `match` expression with an arm that introduces a shadowed -variable `y` - -Let’s walk through what happens when the `match` expression runs. The pattern -in the first match arm [3] doesn’t match the defined value of `x` [1], so the -code continues. - -The pattern in the second match arm [4] introduces a new variable named `y` -that will match any value inside a `Some` value. Because we’re in a new scope -inside the `match` expression, this is a new `y` variable, not the `y` we -declared at the beginning with the value `10` [2]. This new `y` binding will -match any value inside a `Some`, which is what we have in `x`. Therefore, this -new `y` binds to the inner value of the `Some` in `x`. That value is `5`, so -the expression for that arm executes and prints `Matched, y = 5`. - -If `x` had been a `None` value instead of `Some(5)`, the patterns in the first -two arms wouldn’t have matched, so the value would have matched to the -underscore [5]. We didn’t introduce the `x` variable in the pattern of the -underscore arm, so the `x` in the expression is still the outer `x` that hasn’t -been shadowed. In this hypothetical case, the `match` would print `Default -case, x = None`. - -When the `match` expression is done, its scope ends, and so does the scope of -the inner `y`. The last `println!` [6] produces `at the end: x = Some(5), y = -10`. - -To create a `match` expression that compares the values of the outer `x` and -`y`, rather than introducing a shadowed variable, we would need to use a match -guard conditional instead. We’ll talk about match guards in “Extra Conditionals -with Match Guards” on page XX. - -### Multiple Patterns - -In `match` expressions, you can match multiple patterns using the `|` syntax, -which is the pattern *or* operator. For example, in the following code we match -the value of `x` against the match arms, the first of which has an *or* option, -meaning if the value of `x` matches either of the values in that arm, that -arm’s code will run: - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -let x = 1; - -match x { - 1 | 2 => println!("one or two"), - 3 => println!("three"), - _ => println!("anything"), -} -``` - -This code prints `one or two`. + 1 let mut post = Post::new(); -### Matching Ranges of Values with ..= + 2 post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); + 3 assert_eq!("", post.content()); -The `..=` syntax allows us to match to an inclusive range of values. In the -following code, when a pattern matches any of the values within the given -range, that arm will execute: - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -let x = 5; + 4 post.request_review(); + 5 assert_eq!("", post.content()); -match x { - 1..=5 => println!("one through five"), - _ => println!("something else"), + 6 post.approve(); + 7 assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); } ``` -If `x` is `1`, `2`, `3`, `4`, or `5`, the first arm will match. This syntax is -more convenient for multiple match values than using the `|` operator to -express the same idea; if we were to use `|`, we would have to specify `1 | 2 | -3 | 4 | 5`. Specifying a range is much shorter, especially if we want to match, -say, any number between 1 and 1,000! +Listing 17-11: Code that demonstrates the desired behavior we want our `blog` +crate to have -The compiler checks that the range isn’t empty at compile time, and because the -only types for which Rust can tell if a range is empty or not are `char` and -numeric values, ranges are only allowed with numeric or `char` values. - -Here is an example using ranges of `char` values: - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -let x = 'c'; - -match x { - 'a'..='j' => println!("early ASCII letter"), - 'k'..='z' => println!("late ASCII letter"), - _ => println!("something else"), -} -``` +We want to allow the user to create a new draft blog post with `Post::new` [1]. +We want to allow text to be added to the blog post [2]. If we try to get the +post’s content immediately, before approval, we shouldn’t get any text because +the post is still a draft. We’ve added `assert_eq!` in the code for +demonstration purposes [3]. An excellent unit test for this would be to assert +that a draft blog post returns an empty string from the `content` method, but +we’re not going to write tests for this example. -Rust can tell that `'c'` is within the first pattern’s range and prints `early -ASCII letter`. +Next, we want to enable a request for a review of the post [4], and we want +`content` to return an empty string while waiting for the review [5]. When the +post receives approval [6], it should get published, meaning the text of the +post will be returned when `content` is called [7]. -### Destructuring to Break Apart Values +Notice that the only type we’re interacting with from the crate is the `Post` +type. This type will use the state pattern and will hold a value that will be +one of three state objects representing the various states a post can be +in—draft, review, or published. Changing from one state to another will be +managed internally within the `Post` type. The states change in response to the +methods called by our library’s users on the `Post` instance, but they don’t +have to manage the state changes directly. Also, users can’t make a mistake +with the states, such as publishing a post before it’s reviewed. -We can also use patterns to destructure structs, enums, and tuples to use -different parts of these values. Let’s walk through each value. +### Defining Post and Creating a New Instance in the Draft State -#### Destructuring Structs +Let’s get started on the implementation of the library! We know we need a +public `Post` struct that holds some content, so we’ll start with the +definition of the struct and an associated public `new` function to create an +instance of `Post`, as shown in Listing 17-12. We’ll also make a private +`State` trait that will define the behavior that all state objects for a `Post` +must have. -Listing 18-12 shows a `Point` struct with two fields, `x` and `y`, that we can -break apart using a pattern with a `let` statement. +Then `Post` will hold a trait object of `Box<dyn State>` inside an `Option<T>` +in a private field named `state` to hold the state object. You’ll see why the +`Option<T>` is necessary in a bit. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, +pub struct Post { + state: Option<Box<dyn State>>, + content: String, } -fn main() { - let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; - - let Point { x: a, y: b } = p; - assert_eq!(0, a); - assert_eq!(7, b); +impl Post { + pub fn new() -> Post { + Post { + 1 state: Some(Box::new(Draft {})), + 2 content: String::new(), + } + } } -``` - -Listing 18-12: Destructuring a struct’s fields into separate variables -This code creates the variables `a` and `b` that match the values of the `x` -and `y` fields of the `p` struct. This example shows that the names of the -variables in the pattern don’t have to match the field names of the struct. -However, it’s common to match the variable names to the field names to make it -easier to remember which variables came from which fields. Because of this -common usage, and because writing `let Point { x: x, y: y } = p;` contains a -lot of duplication, Rust has a shorthand for patterns that match struct fields: -you only need to list the name of the struct field, and the variables created -from the pattern will have the same names. Listing 18-13 behaves in the same -way as the code in Listing 18-12, but the variables created in the `let` -pattern are `x` and `y` instead of `a` and `b`. +trait State {} -Filename: src/main.rs +struct Draft {} +impl State for Draft {} ``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, -} -fn main() { - let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; - - let Point { x, y } = p; - assert_eq!(0, x); - assert_eq!(7, y); -} -``` +Listing 17-12: Definition of a `Post` struct and a `new` function that creates +a new `Post` instance, a `State` trait, and a `Draft` struct -Listing 18-13: Destructuring struct fields using struct field shorthand +The `State` trait defines the behavior shared by different post states. The +state objects are `Draft`, `PendingReview`, and `Published`, and they will all +implement the `State` trait. For now, the trait doesn’t have any methods, and +we’ll start by defining just the `Draft` state because that is the state we +want a post to start in. -This code creates the variables `x` and `y` that match the `x` and `y` fields -of the `p` variable. The outcome is that the variables `x` and `y` contain the -values from the `p` struct. +When we create a new `Post`, we set its `state` field to a `Some` value that +holds a `Box` [1]. This `Box` points to a new instance of the `Draft` struct. +This ensures that whenever we create a new instance of `Post`, it will start +out as a draft. Because the `state` field of `Post` is private, there is no way +to create a `Post` in any other state! In the `Post::new` function, we set the +`content` field to a new, empty `String` [2]. -We can also destructure with literal values as part of the struct pattern -rather than creating variables for all the fields. Doing so allows us to test -some of the fields for particular values while creating variables to -destructure the other fields. +### Storing the Text of the Post Content -In Listing 18-14, we have a `match` expression that separates `Point` values -into three cases: points that lie directly on the `x` axis (which is true when -`y = 0`), on the `y` axis (`x = 0`), or on neither axis. +We saw in Listing 17-11 that we want to be able to call a method named +`add_text` and pass it a `&str` that is then added as the text content of the +blog post. We implement this as a method, rather than exposing the `content` +field as `pub`, so that later we can implement a method that will control how +the `content` field’s data is read. The `add_text` method is pretty +straightforward, so let’s add the implementation in Listing 17-13 to the `impl +Post` block. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -fn main() { - let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; - - match p { - Point { x, y: 0 } => println!("On the x axis at {x}"), - Point { x: 0, y } => println!("On the y axis at {y}"), - Point { x, y } => { - println!("On neither axis: ({x}, {y})"); - } +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { + self.content.push_str(text); } } ``` -Listing 18-14: Destructuring and matching literal values in one pattern +Listing 17-13: Implementing the `add_text` method to add text to a post’s +`content` -The first arm will match any point that lies on the `x` axis by specifying that -the `y` field matches if its value matches the literal `0`. The pattern still -creates an `x` variable that we can use in the code for this arm. +The `add_text` method takes a mutable reference to `self` because we’re +changing the `Post` instance that we’re calling `add_text` on. We then call +`push_str` on the `String` in `content` and pass the `text` argument to add to +the saved `content`. This behavior doesn’t depend on the state the post is in, +so it’s not part of the state pattern. The `add_text` method doesn’t interact +with the `state` field at all, but it is part of the behavior we want to +support. -Similarly, the second arm matches any point on the `y` axis by specifying that -the `x` field matches if its value is `0` and creates a variable `y` for the -value of the `y` field. The third arm doesn’t specify any literals, so it -matches any other `Point` and creates variables for both the `x` and `y` fields. +### Ensuring the Content of a Draft Post Is Empty -In this example, the value `p` matches the second arm by virtue of `x` -containing a `0`, so this code will print `On the y axis at 7`. +Even after we’ve called `add_text` and added some content to our post, we still +want the `content` method to return an empty string slice because the post is +still in the draft state, as shown at [3] in Listing 17-11. For now, let’s +implement the `content` method with the simplest thing that will fulfill this +requirement: always returning an empty string slice. We’ll change this later +once we implement the ability to change a post’s state so it can be published. +So far, posts can only be in the draft state, so the post content should always +be empty. Listing 17-14 shows this placeholder implementation. -Remember that a `match` expression stops checking arms once it has found the -first matching pattern, so even though `Point { x: 0, y: 0}` is on the `x` axis -and the `y` axis, this code would only print `On the x axis at 0`. - -#### Destructuring Enums - -We’ve destructured enums in this book (for example, Listing 6-5), but we -haven’t yet explicitly discussed that the pattern to destructure an enum -corresponds to the way the data stored within the enum is defined. As an -example, in Listing 18-15 we use the `Message` enum from Listing 6-2 and write -a `match` with patterns that will destructure each inner value. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -enum Message { - Quit, - Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, - Write(String), - ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32), -} - -fn main() { - 1 let msg = Message::ChangeColor(0, 160, 255); - - match msg { - 2 Message::Quit => { - println!( - "The Quit variant has no data to destructure." - ); - } - 3 Message::Move { x, y } => { - println!( - "Move in the x dir {x}, in the y dir {y}" - ); - } - 4 Message::Write(text) => { - println!("Text message: {text}"); - } - 5 Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => println!( - "Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}" - ), +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn content(&self) -> &str { + "" } } ``` -Listing 18-15: Destructuring enum variants that hold different kinds of values - -This code will print `Change color to red 0, green 160, and blue 255`. Try -changing the value of `msg` [1] to see the code from the other arms run. +Listing 17-14: Adding a placeholder implementation for the `content` method on +`Post` that always returns an empty string slice -For enum variants without any data, like `Message::Quit` [2], we can’t -destructure the value any further. We can only match on the literal -`Message::Quit` value, and no variables are in that pattern. +With this added `content` method, everything in Listing 17-11 up to the line at +[3] works as intended. -For struct-like enum variants, such as `Message::Move` [3], we can use a -pattern similar to the pattern we specify to match structs. After the variant -name, we place curly brackets and then list the fields with variables so we -break apart the pieces to use in the code for this arm. Here we use the -shorthand form as we did in Listing 18-13. +### Requesting a Review Changes the Post’s State -For tuple-like enum variants, like `Message::Write` that holds a tuple with one -element [4] and `Message::ChangeColor` that holds a tuple with three elements -[5], the pattern is similar to the pattern we specify to match tuples. The -number of variables in the pattern must match the number of elements in the -variant we’re matching. +Next, we need to add functionality to request a review of a post, which should +change its state from `Draft` to `PendingReview`. Listing 17-15 shows this code. -#### Destructuring Nested Structs and Enums - -So far, our examples have all been matching structs or enums one level deep, -but matching can work on nested items too! For example, we can refactor the -code in Listing 18-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor` -message, as shown in Listing 18-16. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -enum Color { - Rgb(i32, i32, i32), - Hsv(i32, i32, i32), +impl Post { + --snip-- + 1 pub fn request_review(&mut self) { + 2 if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { + 3 self.state = Some(s.request_review()) + } + } } -enum Message { - Quit, - Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, - Write(String), - ChangeColor(Color), +trait State { + 4 fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; } -fn main() { - let msg = Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(0, 160, 255)); - - match msg { - Message::ChangeColor(Color::Rgb(r, g, b)) => println!( - "Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}" - ), - Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(h, s, v)) => println!( - "Change color to hue {h}, saturation {s}, value {v}" - ), - _ => (), +struct Draft {} + +impl State for Draft { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 5 Box::new(PendingReview {}) } } -``` - -Listing 18-16: Matching on nested enums - -The pattern of the first arm in the `match` expression matches a -`Message::ChangeColor` enum variant that contains a `Color::Rgb` variant; then -the pattern binds to the three inner `i32` values. The pattern of the second -arm also matches a `Message::ChangeColor` enum variant, but the inner enum -matches `Color::Hsv` instead. We can specify these complex conditions in one -`match` expression, even though two enums are involved. - -#### Destructuring Structs and Tuples -We can mix, match, and nest destructuring patterns in even more complex ways. -The following example shows a complicated destructure where we nest structs and -tuples inside a tuple and destructure all the primitive values out: +struct PendingReview {} +impl State for PendingReview { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 6 self + } +} ``` -let ((feet, inches), Point { x, y }) = - ((3, 10), Point { x: 3, y: -10 }); -``` - -This code lets us break complex types into their component parts so we can use -the values we’re interested in separately. -Destructuring with patterns is a convenient way to use pieces of values, such -as the value from each field in a struct, separately from each other. - -### Ignoring Values in a Pattern - -You’ve seen that it’s sometimes useful to ignore values in a pattern, such as -in the last arm of a `match`, to get a catchall that doesn’t actually do -anything but does account for all remaining possible values. There are a few -ways to ignore entire values or parts of values in a pattern: using the `_` -pattern (which you’ve seen), using the `_` pattern within another pattern, -using a name that starts with an underscore, or using `..` to ignore remaining -parts of a value. Let’s explore how and why to use each of these patterns. - -#### An Entire Value with _ - -We’ve used the underscore as a wildcard pattern that will match any value but -not bind to the value. This is especially useful as the last arm in a `match` -expression, but we can also use it in any pattern, including function -parameters, as shown in Listing 18-17. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn foo(_: i32, y: i32) { - println!("This code only uses the y parameter: {y}"); +Listing 17-15: Implementing `request_review` methods on `Post` and the `State` +trait + +We give `Post` a public method named `request_review` that will take a mutable +reference to `self` [1]. Then we call an internal `request_review` method on +the current state of `Post` [3], and this second `request_review` method +consumes the current state and returns a new state. + +We add the `request_review` method to the `State` trait [4]; all types that +implement the trait will now need to implement the `request_review` method. +Note that rather than having `self`, `&self`, or `&mut self` as the first +parameter of the method, we have `self: Box<Self>`. This syntax means the +method is only valid when called on a `Box` holding the type. This syntax takes +ownership of `Box<Self>`, invalidating the old state so the state value of the +`Post` can transform into a new state. + +To consume the old state, the `request_review` method needs to take ownership +of the state value. This is where the `Option` in the `state` field of `Post` +comes in: we call the `take` method to take the `Some` value out of the `state` +field and leave a `None` in its place because Rust doesn’t let us have +unpopulated fields in structs [2]. This lets us move the `state` value out of +`Post` rather than borrowing it. Then we’ll set the post’s `state` value to the +result of this operation. + +We need to set `state` to `None` temporarily rather than setting it directly +with code like `self.state = self.state.request_review();` to get ownership of +the `state` value. This ensures `Post` can’t use the old `state` value after +we’ve transformed it into a new state. + +The `request_review` method on `Draft` returns a new, boxed instance of a new +`PendingReview` struct [5], which represents the state when a post is waiting +for a review. The `PendingReview` struct also implements the `request_review` +method but doesn’t do any transformations. Rather, it returns itself [6] +because when we request a review on a post already in the `PendingReview` +state, it should stay in the `PendingReview` state. + +Now we can start seeing the advantages of the state pattern: the +`request_review` method on `Post` is the same no matter its `state` value. Each +state is responsible for its own rules. + +We’ll leave the `content` method on `Post` as is, returning an empty string +slice. We can now have a `Post` in the `PendingReview` state as well as in the +`Draft` state, but we want the same behavior in the `PendingReview` state. +Listing 17-11 now works up to the line at [5]! + +### Adding approve to Change the Behavior of content + +The `approve` method will be similar to the `request_review` method: it will +set `state` to the value that the current state says it should have when that +state is approved, as shown in Listing 17-16. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn approve(&mut self) { + if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { + self.state = Some(s.approve()) + } + } } -fn main() { - foo(3, 4); +trait State { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; } -``` - -Listing 18-17: Using `_` in a function signature -This code will completely ignore the value `3` passed as the first argument, -and will print `This code only uses the y parameter: 4`. +struct Draft {} -In most cases when you no longer need a particular function parameter, you -would change the signature so it doesn’t include the unused parameter. Ignoring -a function parameter can be especially useful in cases when, for example, -you’re implementing a trait when you need a certain type signature but the -function body in your implementation doesn’t need one of the parameters. You -then avoid getting a compiler warning about unused function parameters, as you -would if you used a name instead. - -#### Parts of a Value with a Nested _ +impl State for Draft { + --snip-- + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 1 self + } +} -We can also use `_` inside another pattern to ignore just part of a value, for -example, when we want to test for only part of a value but have no use for the -other parts in the corresponding code we want to run. Listing 18-18 shows code -responsible for managing a setting’s value. The business requirements are that -the user should not be allowed to overwrite an existing customization of a -setting but can unset the setting and give it a value if it is currently unset. +struct PendingReview {} -Filename: src/main.rs +impl State for PendingReview { + --snip-- + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 2 Box::new(Published {}) + } +} -``` -let mut setting_value = Some(5); -let new_setting_value = Some(10); +struct Published {} -match (setting_value, new_setting_value) { - (Some(_), Some(_)) => { - println!("Can't overwrite an existing customized value"); +impl State for Published { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + self } - _ => { - setting_value = new_setting_value; + + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + self } } - -println!("setting is {:?}", setting_value); ``` -Listing 18-18: Using an underscore within patterns that match `Some` variants -when we don’t need to use the value inside the `Some` +Listing 17-16: Implementing the `approve` method on `Post` and the `State` trait -This code will print `Can't overwrite an existing customized value` and then -`setting is Some(5)`. In the first match arm, we don’t need to match on or use -the values inside either `Some` variant, but we do need to test for the case -when `setting_value` and `new_setting_value` are the `Some` variant. In that -case, we print the reason for not changing `setting_value`, and it doesn’t get -changed. +We add the `approve` method to the `State` trait and add a new struct that +implements `State`, the `Published` state. -In all other cases (if either `setting_value` or `new_setting_value` is `None`) -expressed by the `_` pattern in the second arm, we want to allow -`new_setting_value` to become `setting_value`. +Similar to the way `request_review` on `PendingReview` works, if we call the +`approve` method on a `Draft`, it will have no effect because `approve` will +return `self` [1]. When we call `approve` on `PendingReview`, it returns a new, +boxed instance of the `Published` struct [2]. The `Published` struct implements +the `State` trait, and for both the `request_review` method and the `approve` +method, it returns itself because the post should stay in the `Published` state +in those cases. -We can also use underscores in multiple places within one pattern to ignore -particular values. Listing 18-19 shows an example of ignoring the second and -fourth values in a tuple of five items. +Now we need to update the `content` method on `Post`. We want the value +returned from `content` to depend on the current state of the `Post`, so we’re +going to have the `Post` delegate to a `content` method defined on its `state`, +as shown in Listing 17-17. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); - -match numbers { - (first, _, third, _, fifth) => { - println!("Some numbers: {first}, {third}, {fifth}"); +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn content(&self) -> &str { + self.state.as_ref().unwrap().content(self) } + --snip-- } ``` -Listing 18-19: Ignoring multiple parts of a tuple +Listing 17-17: Updating the `content` method on `Post` to delegate to a +`content` method on `State` -This code will print `Some numbers: 2, 8, 32`, and the values `4` and `16` will -be ignored. +Because the goal is to keep all of these rules inside the structs that +implement `State`, we call a `content` method on the value in `state` and pass +the post instance (that is, `self`) as an argument. Then we return the value +that’s returned from using the `content` method on the `state` value. -#### An Unused Variable by Starting Its Name with _ +We call the `as_ref` method on the `Option` because we want a reference to the +value inside the `Option` rather than ownership of the value. Because `state` +is an `Option<Box<dyn State>>`, when we call `as_ref`, an `Option<&Box<dyn +State>>` is returned. If we didn’t call `as_ref`, we would get an error because +we can’t move `state` out of the borrowed `&self` of the function parameter. -If you create a variable but don’t use it anywhere, Rust will usually issue a -warning because an unused variable could be a bug. However, sometimes it’s -useful to be able to create a variable you won’t use yet, such as when you’re -prototyping or just starting a project. In this situation, you can tell Rust -not to warn you about the unused variable by starting the name of the variable -with an underscore. In Listing 18-20, we create two unused variables, but when -we compile this code, we should only get a warning about one of them. +We then call the `unwrap` method, which we know will never panic because we +know the methods on `Post` ensure that `state` will always contain a `Some` +value when those methods are done. This is one of the cases we talked about in +“Cases in Which You Have More Information Than the Compiler” on page XX when we +know that a `None` value is never possible, even though the compiler isn’t able +to understand that. -Filename: src/main.rs +At this point, when we call `content` on the `&Box<dyn State>`, deref coercion +will take effect on the `&` and the `Box` so the `content` method will +ultimately be called on the type that implements the `State` trait. That means +we need to add `content` to the `State` trait definition, and that is where +we’ll put the logic for what content to return depending on which state we +have, as shown in Listing 17-18. + +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -fn main() { - let _x = 5; - let y = 10; +trait State { + --snip-- + fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { + 1 "" + } } -``` - -Listing 18-20: Starting a variable name with an underscore to avoid getting -unused variable warnings -Here, we get a warning about not using the variable `y`, but we don’t get a -warning about not using `_x`. +--snip-- +struct Published {} -Note that there is a subtle difference between using only `_` and using a name -that starts with an underscore. The syntax `_x` still binds the value to the -variable, whereas `_` doesn’t bind at all. To show a case where this -distinction matters, Listing 18-21 will provide us with an error. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); - -if let Some(_s) = s { - println!("found a string"); +impl State for Published { + --snip-- + fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { + 2 &post.content + } } - -println!("{:?}", s); ``` -Listing 18-21: An unused variable starting with an underscore still binds the -value, which might take ownership of the value. - -We’ll receive an error because the `s` value will still be moved into `_s`, -which prevents us from using `s` again. However, using the underscore by itself -doesn’t ever bind to the value. Listing 18-22 will compile without any errors -because `s` doesn’t get moved into `_`. +Listing 17-18: Adding the `content` method to the `State` trait + +We add a default implementation for the `content` method that returns an empty +string slice [1]. That means we don’t need to implement `content` on the +`Draft` and `PendingReview` structs. The `Published` struct will override the +`content` method and return the value in `post.content` [2]. + +Note that we need lifetime annotations on this method, as we discussed in +Chapter 10. We’re taking a reference to a `post` as an argument and returning a +reference to part of that `post`, so the lifetime of the returned reference is +related to the lifetime of the `post` argument. + +And we’re done—all of Listing 17-11 now works! We’ve implemented the state +pattern with the rules of the blog post workflow. The logic related to the +rules lives in the state objects rather than being scattered throughout `Post`. + +> ### Why Not An Enum? +> +> You may have been wondering why we didn’t use an `enum` with the different +possible post states as variants. That’s certainly a possible solution; try it +and compare the end results to see which you prefer! One disadvantage of using +an enum is that every place that checks the value of the enum will need a +`match` expression or similar to handle every possible variant. This could get +more repetitive than this trait object solution. + +### Trade-offs of the State Pattern + +We’ve shown that Rust is capable of implementing the object-oriented state +pattern to encapsulate the different kinds of behavior a post should have in +each state. The methods on `Post` know nothing about the various behaviors. The +way we organized the code, we have to look in only one place to know the +different ways a published post can behave: the implementation of the `State` +trait on the `Published` struct. + +If we were to create an alternative implementation that didn’t use the state +pattern, we might instead use `match` expressions in the methods on `Post` or +even in the `main` code that checks the state of the post and changes behavior +in those places. That would mean we would have to look in several places to +understand all the implications of a post being in the published state! This +would only increase the more states we added: each of those `match` expressions +would need another arm. + +With the state pattern, the `Post` methods and the places we use `Post` don’t +need `match` expressions, and to add a new state, we would only need to add a +new struct and implement the trait methods on that one struct. + +The implementation using the state pattern is easy to extend to add more +functionality. To see the simplicity of maintaining code that uses the state +pattern, try a few of these suggestions: + +* Add a `reject` method that changes the post’s state from `PendingReview` back +to `Draft`. +* Require two calls to `approve` before the state can be changed to `Published`. +* Allow users to add text content only when a post is in the `Draft` state. +Hint: have the state object responsible for what might change about the content +but not responsible for modifying the `Post`. + +One downside of the state pattern is that, because the states implement the +transitions between states, some of the states are coupled to each other. If we +add another state between `PendingReview` and `Published`, such as `Scheduled`, +we would have to change the code in `PendingReview` to transition to +`Scheduled` instead. It would be less work if `PendingReview` didn’t need to +change with the addition of a new state, but that would mean switching to +another design pattern. + +Another downside is that we’ve duplicated some logic. To eliminate some of the +duplication, we might try to make default implementations for the +`request_review` and `approve` methods on the `State` trait that return `self`. +However, this wouldn’t work: when using `State` as a trait object, the trait +doesn’t know what the concrete `self` will be exactly, so the return type isn’t +known at compile time. + +Other duplication includes the similar implementations of the `request_review` +and `approve` methods on `Post`. Both methods delegate to the implementation of +the same method on the value in the `state` field of `Option` and set the new +value of the `state` field to the result. If we had a lot of methods on `Post` +that followed this pattern, we might consider defining a macro to eliminate the +repetition (see “Macros” on page XX). + +By implementing the state pattern exactly as it’s defined for object-oriented +languages, we’re not taking as full advantage of Rust’s strengths as we could. +Let’s look at some changes we can make to the `blog` crate that can make +invalid states and transitions into compile-time errors. + +#### Encoding States and Behavior as Types + +We’ll show you how to rethink the state pattern to get a different set of +trade-offs. Rather than encapsulating the states and transitions completely so +outside code has no knowledge of them, we’ll encode the states into different +types. Consequently, Rust’s type checking system will prevent attempts to use +draft posts where only published posts are allowed by issuing a compiler error. + +Let’s consider the first part of `main` in Listing 17-11: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); +fn main() { + let mut post = Post::new(); -if let Some(_) = s { - println!("found a string"); + post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); + assert_eq!("", post.content()); } - -println!("{:?}", s); ``` -Listing 18-22: Using an underscore does not bind the value. - -This code works just fine because we never bind `s` to anything; it isn’t moved. - -#### Remaining Parts of a Value with .. +We still enable the creation of new posts in the draft state using `Post::new` +and the ability to add text to the post’s content. But instead of having a +`content` method on a draft post that returns an empty string, we’ll make it so +draft posts don’t have the `content` method at all. That way, if we try to get +a draft post’s content, we’ll get a compiler error telling us the method +doesn’t exist. As a result, it will be impossible for us to accidentally +display draft post content in production because that code won’t even compile. +Listing 17-19 shows the definition of a `Post` struct and a `DraftPost` struct, +as well as methods on each. -With values that have many parts, we can use the `..` syntax to use specific -parts and ignore the rest, avoiding the need to list underscores for each -ignored value. The `..` pattern ignores any parts of a value that we haven’t -explicitly matched in the rest of the pattern. In Listing 18-23, we have a -`Point` struct that holds a coordinate in three-dimensional space. In the -`match` expression, we want to operate only on the `x` coordinate and ignore -the values in the `y` and `z` fields. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, - z: i32, +pub struct Post { + content: String, } -let origin = Point { x: 0, y: 0, z: 0 }; - -match origin { - Point { x, .. } => println!("x is {x}"), +pub struct DraftPost { + content: String, } -``` - -Listing 18-23: Ignoring all fields of a `Point` except for `x` by using `..` - -We list the `x` value and then just include the `..` pattern. This is quicker -than having to list `y: _` and `z: _`, particularly when we’re working with -structs that have lots of fields in situations where only one or two fields are -relevant. - -The syntax `..` will expand to as many values as it needs to be. Listing 18-24 -shows how to use `..` with a tuple. - -Filename: src/main.rs -``` -fn main() { - let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); - - match numbers { - (first, .., last) => { - println!("Some numbers: {first}, {last}"); +impl Post { + 1 pub fn new() -> DraftPost { + DraftPost { + content: String::new(), } } -} -``` - -Listing 18-24: Matching only the first and last values in a tuple and ignoring -all other values - -In this code, the first and last values are matched with `first` and `last`. -The `..` will match and ignore everything in the middle. - -However, using `..` must be unambiguous. If it is unclear which values are -intended for matching and which should be ignored, Rust will give us an error. -Listing 18-25 shows an example of using `..` ambiguously, so it will not -compile. -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn main() { - let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); + 2 pub fn content(&self) -> &str { + &self.content + } +} - match numbers { - (.., second, ..) => { - println!("Some numbers: {second}"); - }, +impl DraftPost { + 3 pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { + self.content.push_str(text); } } ``` -Listing 18-25: An attempt to use `..` in an ambiguous way +Listing 17-19: A `Post` with a `content` method and a `DraftPost` without a +`content` method -When we compile this example, we get this error: +Both the `Post` and `DraftPost` structs have a private `content` field that +stores the blog post text. The structs no longer have the `state` field because +we’re moving the encoding of the state to the types of the structs. The `Post` +struct will represent a published post, and it has a `content` method that +returns the `content` [2]. -``` -error: `..` can only be used once per tuple pattern - --> src/main.rs:5:22 - | -5 | (.., second, ..) => { - | -- ^^ can only be used once per tuple pattern - | | - | previously used here -``` +We still have a `Post::new` function, but instead of returning an instance of +`Post`, it returns an instance of `DraftPost` [1]. Because `content` is private +and there aren’t any functions that return `Post`, it’s not possible to create +an instance of `Post` right now. -It’s impossible for Rust to determine how many values in the tuple to ignore -before matching a value with `second` and then how many further values to -ignore thereafter. This code could mean that we want to ignore `2`, bind -`second` to `4`, and then ignore `8`, `16`, and `32`; or that we want to ignore -`2` and `4`, bind `second` to `8`, and then ignore `16` and `32`; and so forth. -The variable name `second` doesn’t mean anything special to Rust, so we get a -compiler error because using `..` in two places like this is ambiguous. +The `DraftPost` struct has an `add_text` method, so we can add text to +`content` as before [3], but note that `DraftPost` does not have a `content` +method defined! So now the program ensures all posts start as draft posts, and +draft posts don’t have their content available for display. Any attempt to get +around these constraints will result in a compiler error. -### Extra Conditionals with Match Guards +#### Implementing Transitions as Transformations into Different Types -A *match guard* is an additional `if` condition, specified after the pattern in -a `match` arm, that must also match for that arm to be chosen. Match guards are -useful for expressing more complex ideas than a pattern alone allows. +So how do we get a published post? We want to enforce the rule that a draft +post has to be reviewed and approved before it can be published. A post in the +pending review state should still not display any content. Let’s implement +these constraints by adding another struct, `PendingReviewPost`, defining the +`request_review` method on `DraftPost` to return a `PendingReviewPost` and +defining an `approve` method on `PendingReviewPost` to return a `Post`, as +shown in Listing 17-20. -The condition can use variables created in the pattern. Listing 18-26 shows a -`match` where the first arm has the pattern `Some(x)` and also has a match -guard of `if x % 2 == 0` (which will be `true` if the number is even). - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let num = Some(4); - -match num { - Some(x) if x % 2 == 0 => println!("The number {x} is even"), - Some(x) => println!("The number {x} is odd"), - None => (), +impl DraftPost { + --snip-- + pub fn request_review(self) -> PendingReviewPost { + PendingReviewPost { + content: self.content, + } + } } -``` - -Listing 18-26: Adding a match guard to a pattern - -This example will print `The number 4 is even`. When `num` is compared to the -pattern in the first arm, it matches because `Some(4)` matches `Some(x)`. Then -the match guard checks whether the remainder of dividing `x` by 2 is equal to -0, and because it is, the first arm is selected. -If `num` had been `Some(5)` instead, the match guard in the first arm would -have been `false` because the remainder of 5 divided by 2 is 1, which is not -equal to 0. Rust would then go to the second arm, which would match because the -second arm doesn’t have a match guard and therefore matches any `Some` variant. - -There is no way to express the `if x % 2 == 0` condition within a pattern, so -the match guard gives us the ability to express this logic. The downside of -this additional expressiveness is that the compiler doesn’t try to check for -exhaustiveness when match guard expressions are involved. - -In Listing 18-11, we mentioned that we could use match guards to solve our -pattern-shadowing problem. Recall that we created a new variable inside the -pattern in the `match` expression instead of using the variable outside the -`match`. That new variable meant we couldn’t test against the value of the -outer variable. Listing 18-27 shows how we can use a match guard to fix this -problem. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn main() { - let x = Some(5); - let y = 10; +pub struct PendingReviewPost { + content: String, +} - match x { - Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), - Some(n) if n == y => println!("Matched, n = {n}"), - _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), +impl PendingReviewPost { + pub fn approve(self) -> Post { + Post { + content: self.content, + } } - - println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {y}", x); } ``` -Listing 18-27: Using a match guard to test for equality with an outer variable - -This code will now print `Default case, x = Some(5)`. The pattern in the second -match arm doesn’t introduce a new variable `y` that would shadow the outer `y`, -meaning we can use the outer `y` in the match guard. Instead of specifying the -pattern as `Some(y)`, which would have shadowed the outer `y`, we specify -`Some(n)`. This creates a new variable `n` that doesn’t shadow anything because -there is no `n` variable outside the `match`. - -The match guard `if n == y` is not a pattern and therefore doesn’t introduce -new variables. This `y` *is* the outer `y` rather than a new shadowed `y`, and -we can look for a value that has the same value as the outer `y` by comparing -`n` to `y`. - -You can also use the *or* operator `|` in a match guard to specify multiple -patterns; the match guard condition will apply to all the patterns. Listing -18-28 shows the precedence when combining a pattern that uses `|` with a match -guard. The important part of this example is that the `if y` match guard -applies to `4`, `5`, *and* `6`, even though it might look like `if y` only -applies to `6`. +Listing 17-20: A `PendingReviewPost` that gets created by calling +`request_review` on `DraftPost` and an `approve` method that turns a +`PendingReviewPost` into a published `Post` + +The `request_review` and `approve` methods take ownership of `self`, thus +consuming the `DraftPost` and `PendingReviewPost` instances and transforming +them into a `PendingReviewPost` and a published `Post`, respectively. This way, +we won’t have any lingering `DraftPost` instances after we’ve called +`request_review` on them, and so forth. The `PendingReviewPost` struct doesn’t +have a `content` method defined on it, so attempting to read its content +results in a compiler error, as with `DraftPost`. Because the only way to get a +published `Post` instance that does have a `content` method defined is to call +the `approve` method on a `PendingReviewPost`, and the only way to get a +`PendingReviewPost` is to call the `request_review` method on a `DraftPost`, +we’ve now encoded the blog post workflow into the type system. + +But we also have to make some small changes to `main`. The `request_review` and +`approve` methods return new instances rather than modifying the struct they’re +called on, so we need to add more `let post =` shadowing assignments to save +the returned instances. We also can’t have the assertions about the draft and +pending review posts’ contents be empty strings, nor do we need them: we can’t +compile code that tries to use the content of posts in those states any longer. +The updated code in `main` is shown in Listing 17-21. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let x = 4; -let y = false; - -match x { - 4 | 5 | 6 if y => println!("yes"), - _ => println!("no"), -} -``` - -Listing 18-28: Combining multiple patterns with a match guard - -The match condition states that the arm only matches if the value of `x` is -equal to `4`, `5`, or `6` *and* if `y` is `true`. When this code runs, the -pattern of the first arm matches because `x` is `4`, but the match guard `if y` -is `false`, so the first arm is not chosen. The code moves on to the second -arm, which does match, and this program prints `no`. The reason is that the -`if` condition applies to the whole pattern `4 | 5 | 6`, not just to the last -value `6`. In other words, the precedence of a match guard in relation to a -pattern behaves like this: - -``` -(4 | 5 | 6) if y => ... -``` - -rather than this: - -``` -4 | 5 | (6 if y) => ... -``` - -After running the code, the precedence behavior is evident: if the match guard -were applied only to the final value in the list of values specified using the -`|` operator, the arm would have matched and the program would have printed -`yes`. +use blog::Post; -### @ Bindings - -The *at* operator `@` lets us create a variable that holds a value at the same -time we’re testing that value for a pattern match. In Listing 18-29, we want to -test that a `Message::Hello` `id` field is within the range `3..=7`. We also -want to bind the value to the variable `id_variable` so we can use it in the -code associated with the arm. We could name this variable `id`, the same as the -field, but for this example we’ll use a different name. +fn main() { + let mut post = Post::new(); -Filename: src/main.rs + post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); -``` -enum Message { - Hello { id: i32 }, -} + let post = post.request_review(); -let msg = Message::Hello { id: 5 }; + let post = post.approve(); -match msg { - Message::Hello { - id: id_variable @ 3..=7, - } => println!("Found an id in range: {id_variable}"), - Message::Hello { id: 10..=12 } => { - println!("Found an id in another range") - } - Message::Hello { id } => println!("Some other id: {id}"), + assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); } ``` -Listing 18-29: Using `@` to bind to a value in a pattern while also testing it +Listing 17-21: Modifications to `main` to use the new implementation of the +blog post workflow -This example will print `Found an id in range: 5`. By specifying `id_variable -@` before the range `3..=7`, we’re capturing whatever value matched the range -while also testing that the value matched the range pattern. +The changes we needed to make to `main` to reassign `post` mean that this +implementation doesn’t quite follow the object-oriented state pattern anymore: +the transformations between the states are no longer encapsulated entirely +within the `Post` implementation. However, our gain is that invalid states are +now impossible because of the type system and the type checking that happens at +compile time! This ensures that certain bugs, such as display of the content of +an unpublished post, will be discovered before they make it to production. -In the second arm, where we only have a range specified in the pattern, the -code associated with the arm doesn’t have a variable that contains the actual -value of the `id` field. The `id` field’s value could have been 10, 11, or 12, -but the code that goes with that pattern doesn’t know which it is. The pattern -code isn’t able to use the value from the `id` field because we haven’t saved -the `id` value in a variable. +Try the tasks suggested at the start of this section on the `blog` crate as it +is after Listing 17-21 to see what you think about the design of this version +of the code. Note that some of the tasks might be completed already in this +design. -In the last arm, where we’ve specified a variable without a range, we do have -the value available to use in the arm’s code in a variable named `id`. The -reason is that we’ve used the struct field shorthand syntax. But we haven’t -applied any test to the value in the `id` field in this arm, as we did with the -first two arms: any value would match this pattern. - -Using `@` lets us test a value and save it in a variable within one pattern. +We’ve seen that even though Rust is capable of implementing object-oriented +design patterns, other patterns, such as encoding state into the type system, +are also available in Rust. These patterns have different trade-offs. Although +you might be very familiar with object-oriented patterns, rethinking the +problem to take advantage of Rust’s features can provide benefits, such as +preventing some bugs at compile time. Object-oriented patterns won’t always be +the best solution in Rust due to certain features, like ownership, that +object-oriented languages don’t have. ## Summary -Rust’s patterns are very useful in distinguishing between different kinds of -data. When used in `match` expressions, Rust ensures your patterns cover every -possible value, or your program won’t compile. Patterns in `let` statements and -function parameters make those constructs more useful, enabling the -destructuring of values into smaller parts at the same time as assigning to -variables. We can create simple or complex patterns to suit our needs. - -Next, for the penultimate chapter of the book, we’ll look at some advanced -aspects of a variety of Rust’s features. +Regardless of whether you think Rust is an object-oriented language after +reading this chapter, you now know that you can use trait objects to get some +object-oriented features in Rust. Dynamic dispatch can give your code some +flexibility in exchange for a bit of runtime performance. You can use this +flexibility to implement object-oriented patterns that can help your code’s +maintainability. Rust also has other features, like ownership, that +object-oriented languages don’t have. An object-oriented pattern won’t always +be the best way to take advantage of Rust’s strengths, but it is an available +option. + +Next, we’ll look at patterns, which are another of Rust’s features that enable +lots of flexibility. We’ve looked at them briefly throughout the book but +haven’t seen their full capability yet. Let’s go! diff --git a/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter19.md b/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter19.md index 410e7eb62..40c7f10a1 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter19.md +++ b/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter19.md @@ -6,2291 +6,1287 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. [TOC] -# Advanced Features - -By now, you’ve learned the most commonly used parts of the Rust programming -language. Before we do one more project, in Chapter 20, we’ll look at a few -aspects of the language you might run into every once in a while, but may not -use every day. You can use this chapter as a reference for when you encounter -any unknowns. The features covered here are useful in very specific situations. -Although you might not reach for them often, we want to make sure you have a -grasp of all the features Rust has to offer. - -In this chapter, we’ll cover: - -* Unsafe Rust: how to opt out of some of Rust’s guarantees and take -responsibility for manually upholding those guarantees -* Advanced traits: associated types, default type parameters, fully qualified -syntax, supertraits, and the newtype pattern in relation to traits -* Advanced types: more about the newtype pattern, type aliases, the never type, -and dynamically sized types -* Advanced functions and closures: function pointers and returning closures -* Macros: ways to define code that defines more code at compile time - -It’s a panoply of Rust features with something for everyone! Let’s dive in! - -## Unsafe Rust - -All the code we’ve discussed so far has had Rust’s memory safety guarantees -enforced at compile time. However, Rust has a second language hidden inside it -that doesn’t enforce these memory safety guarantees: it’s called *unsafe Rust* -and works just like regular Rust, but gives us extra superpowers. - -Unsafe Rust exists because, by nature, static analysis is conservative. When -the compiler tries to determine whether or not code upholds the guarantees, -it’s better for it to reject some valid programs than to accept some invalid -programs. Although the code *might* be okay, if the Rust compiler doesn’t have -enough information to be confident, it will reject the code. In these cases, -you can use unsafe code to tell the compiler, “Trust me, I know what I’m -doing.” Be warned, however, that you use unsafe Rust at your own risk: if you -use unsafe code incorrectly, problems can occur due to memory unsafety, such as -null pointer dereferencing. - -Another reason Rust has an unsafe alter ego is that the underlying computer -hardware is inherently unsafe. If Rust didn’t let you do unsafe operations, you -couldn’t do certain tasks. Rust needs to allow you to do low-level systems -programming, such as directly interacting with the operating system or even -writing your own operating system. Working with low-level systems programming -is one of the goals of the language. Let’s explore what we can do with unsafe -Rust and how to do it. - -### Unsafe Superpowers - -To switch to unsafe Rust, use the `unsafe` keyword and then start a new block -that holds the unsafe code. You can take five actions in unsafe Rust that you -can’t in safe Rust, which we call *unsafe superpowers*. Those superpowers -include the ability to: - -1. Dereference a raw pointer -1. Call an unsafe function or method -1. Access or modify a mutable static variable -1. Implement an unsafe trait -1. Access fields of `union`s - -It’s important to understand that `unsafe` doesn’t turn off the borrow checker -or disable any of Rust’s other safety checks: if you use a reference in unsafe -code, it will still be checked. The `unsafe` keyword only gives you access to -these five features that are then not checked by the compiler for memory -safety. You’ll still get some degree of safety inside an unsafe block. - -In addition, `unsafe` does not mean the code inside the block is necessarily -dangerous or that it will definitely have memory safety problems: the intent is -that as the programmer, you’ll ensure the code inside an `unsafe` block will -access memory in a valid way. - -People are fallible and mistakes will happen, but by requiring these five -unsafe operations to be inside blocks annotated with `unsafe`, you’ll know that -any errors related to memory safety must be within an `unsafe` block. Keep -`unsafe` blocks small; you’ll be thankful later when you investigate memory -bugs. - -To isolate unsafe code as much as possible, it’s best to enclose such code -within a safe abstraction and provide a safe API, which we’ll discuss later in -the chapter when we examine unsafe functions and methods. Parts of the standard -library are implemented as safe abstractions over unsafe code that has been -audited. Wrapping unsafe code in a safe abstraction prevents uses of `unsafe` -from leaking out into all the places that you or your users might want to use -the functionality implemented with `unsafe` code, because using a safe -abstraction is safe. - -Let’s look at each of the five unsafe superpowers in turn. We’ll also look at -some abstractions that provide a safe interface to unsafe code. - -### Dereferencing a Raw Pointer - -In “Dangling References” on page XX, we mentioned that the compiler ensures -references are always valid. Unsafe Rust has two new types called *raw -pointers* that are similar to references. As with references, raw pointers can -be immutable or mutable and are written as `*const T` and `*mut T`, -respectively. The asterisk isn’t the dereference operator; it’s part of the -type name. In the context of raw pointers, *immutable* means that the pointer -can’t be directly assigned to after being dereferenced. - -Different from references and smart pointers, raw pointers: - -* Are allowed to ignore the borrowing rules by having both immutable and -mutable pointers or multiple mutable pointers to the same location -* Aren’t guaranteed to point to valid memory -* Are allowed to be null -* Don’t implement any automatic cleanup +# Patterns and Matching -By opting out of having Rust enforce these guarantees, you can give up -guaranteed safety in exchange for greater performance or the ability to -interface with another language or hardware where Rust’s guarantees don’t apply. +*Patterns* are a special syntax in Rust for matching against the structure of +types, both complex and simple. Using patterns in conjunction with `match` +expressions and other constructs gives you more control over a program’s +control flow. A pattern consists of some combination of the following: -Listing 19-1 shows how to create an immutable and a mutable raw pointer from -references. - -``` -let mut num = 5; - -let r1 = &num as *const i32; -let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; -``` +* Literals +* Destructured arrays, enums, structs, or tuples +* Variables +* Wildcards +* Placeholders -Listing 19-1: Creating raw pointers from references +Some example patterns include `x`, `(a, 3)`, and `Some(Color::Red)`. In the +contexts in which patterns are valid, these components describe the shape of +data. Our program then matches values against the patterns to determine whether +it has the correct shape of data to continue running a particular piece of code. -Notice that we don’t include the `unsafe` keyword in this code. We can create -raw pointers in safe code; we just can’t dereference raw pointers outside an -unsafe block, as you’ll see in a bit. +To use a pattern, we compare it to some value. If the pattern matches the +value, we use the value parts in our code. Recall the `match` expressions in +Chapter 6 that used patterns, such as the coin-sorting machine example. If the +value fits the shape of the pattern, we can use the named pieces. If it +doesn’t, the code associated with the pattern won’t run. -We’ve created raw pointers by using `as` to cast an immutable and a mutable -reference into their corresponding raw pointer types. Because we created them -directly from references guaranteed to be valid, we know these particular raw -pointers are valid, but we can’t make that assumption about just any raw -pointer. +This chapter is a reference on all things related to patterns. We’ll cover the +valid places to use patterns, the difference between refutable and irrefutable +patterns, and the different kinds of pattern syntax that you might see. By the +end of the chapter, you’ll know how to use patterns to express many concepts in +a clear way. -To demonstrate this, next we’ll create a raw pointer whose validity we can’t be -so certain of. Listing 19-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary -location in memory. Trying to use arbitrary memory is undefined: there might be -data at that address or there might not, the compiler might optimize the code -so there is no memory access, or the program might terminate with a -segmentation fault. Usually, there is no good reason to write code like this, -but it is possible. +## All the Places Patterns Can Be Used -``` -let address = 0x012345usize; -let r = address as *const i32; -``` +Patterns pop up in a number of places in Rust, and you’ve been using them a lot +without realizing it! This section discusses all the places where patterns are +valid. -Listing 19-2: Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary memory address +### match Arms -Recall that we can create raw pointers in safe code, but we can’t *dereference* -raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. In Listing 19-3, we use the -dereference operator `*` on a raw pointer that requires an `unsafe` block. +As discussed in Chapter 6, we use patterns in the arms of `match` expressions. +Formally, `match` expressions are defined as the keyword `match`, a value to +match on, and one or more match arms that consist of a pattern and an +expression to run if the value matches that arm’s pattern, like this: ``` -let mut num = 5; - -let r1 = &num as *const i32; -let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; - -unsafe { - println!("r1 is: {}", *r1); - println!("r2 is: {}", *r2); +match VALUE { + PATTERN => EXPRESSION, + PATTERN => EXPRESSION, + PATTERN => EXPRESSION, } ``` -Listing 19-3: Dereferencing raw pointers within an `unsafe` block - -Creating a pointer does no harm; it’s only when we try to access the value that -it points at that we might end up dealing with an invalid value. - -Note also that in Listings 19-1 and 19-3, we created `*const i32` and `*mut -i32` raw pointers that both pointed to the same memory location, where `num` is -stored. If we instead tried to create an immutable and a mutable reference to -`num`, the code would not have compiled because Rust’s ownership rules don’t -allow a mutable reference at the same time as any immutable references. With -raw pointers, we can create a mutable pointer and an immutable pointer to the -same location and change data through the mutable pointer, potentially creating -a data race. Be careful! - -With all of these dangers, why would you ever use raw pointers? One major use -case is when interfacing with C code, as you’ll see in “Calling an Unsafe -Function or Method” on page XX. Another case is when building up safe -abstractions that the borrow checker doesn’t understand. We’ll introduce unsafe -functions and then look at an example of a safe abstraction that uses unsafe -code. - -### Calling an Unsafe Function or Method - -The second type of operation you can perform in an unsafe block is calling -unsafe functions. Unsafe functions and methods look exactly like regular -functions and methods, but they have an extra `unsafe` before the rest of the -definition. The `unsafe` keyword in this context indicates the function has -requirements we need to uphold when we call this function, because Rust can’t -guarantee we’ve met these requirements. By calling an unsafe function within an -`unsafe` block, we’re saying that we’ve read this function’s documentation and -we take responsibility for upholding the function’s contracts. - -Here is an unsafe function named `dangerous` that doesn’t do anything in its -body: - -``` -unsafe fn dangerous() {} - -unsafe { - dangerous(); -} -``` - -We must call the `dangerous` function within a separate `unsafe` block. If we -try to call `dangerous` without the `unsafe` block, we’ll get an error: - -``` -error[E0133]: call to unsafe function is unsafe and requires -unsafe function or block - --> src/main.rs:4:5 - | -4 | dangerous(); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^ call to unsafe function - | - = note: consult the function's documentation for information on -how to avoid undefined behavior -``` - -With the `unsafe` block, we’re asserting to Rust that we’ve read the function’s -documentation, we understand how to use it properly, and we’ve verified that -we’re fulfilling the contract of the function. - -Bodies of unsafe functions are effectively `unsafe` blocks, so to perform other -unsafe operations within an unsafe function, we don’t need to add another -`unsafe` block. - -#### Creating a Safe Abstraction over Unsafe Code - -Just because a function contains unsafe code doesn’t mean we need to mark the -entire function as unsafe. In fact, wrapping unsafe code in a safe function is -a common abstraction. As an example, let’s study the `split_at_mut` function -from the standard library, which requires some unsafe code. We’ll explore how -we might implement it. This safe method is defined on mutable slices: it takes -one slice and makes it two by splitting the slice at the index given as an -argument. Listing 19-4 shows how to use `split_at_mut`. - -``` -let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]; - -let r = &mut v[..]; - -let (a, b) = r.split_at_mut(3); +For example, here’s the `match` expression from Listing 6-5 that matches on an +`Option<i32>` value in the variable `x`: -assert_eq!(a, &mut [1, 2, 3]); -assert_eq!(b, &mut [4, 5, 6]); ``` - -Listing 19-4: Using the safe `split_at_mut` function - -We can’t implement this function using only safe Rust. An attempt might look -something like Listing 19-5, which won’t compile. For simplicity, we’ll -implement `split_at_mut` as a function rather than a method and only for slices -of `i32` values rather than for a generic type `T`. - -``` -fn split_at_mut( - values: &mut [i32], - mid: usize, -) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { - let len = values.len(); - - assert!(mid <= len); - - (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) +match x { + None => None, + Some(i) => Some(i + 1), } ``` -Listing 19-5: An attempted implementation of `split_at_mut` using only safe Rust - -This function first gets the total length of the slice. Then it asserts that -the index given as a parameter is within the slice by checking whether it’s -less than or equal to the length. The assertion means that if we pass an index -that is greater than the length to split the slice at, the function will panic -before it attempts to use that index. - -Then we return two mutable slices in a tuple: one from the start of the -original slice to the `mid` index and another from `mid` to the end of the -slice. - -When we try to compile the code in Listing 19-5, we’ll get an error: - -``` -error[E0499]: cannot borrow `*values` as mutable more than once at a time - --> src/main.rs:9:31 - | -2 | values: &mut [i32], - | - let's call the lifetime of this reference `'1` -... -9 | (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) - | --------------------------^^^^^^-------- - | | | | - | | | second mutable borrow occurs here - | | first mutable borrow occurs here - | returning this value requires that `*values` is borrowed for `'1` -``` - -Rust’s borrow checker can’t understand that we’re borrowing different parts of -the slice; it only knows that we’re borrowing from the same slice twice. -Borrowing different parts of a slice is fundamentally okay because the two -slices aren’t overlapping, but Rust isn’t smart enough to know this. When we -know code is okay, but Rust doesn’t, it’s time to reach for unsafe code. - -Listing 19-6 shows how to use an `unsafe` block, a raw pointer, and some calls -to unsafe functions to make the implementation of `split_at_mut` work. - -``` -use std::slice; - -fn split_at_mut( - values: &mut [i32], - mid: usize, -) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { - 1 let len = values.len(); - 2 let ptr = values.as_mut_ptr(); - - 3 assert!(mid <= len); - - 4 unsafe { - ( - 5 slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr, mid), - 6 slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr.add(mid), len - mid), - ) - } -} -``` +The patterns in this `match` expression are the `None` and `Some(i)` to the +left of each arrow. -Listing 19-6: Using unsafe code in the implementation of the `split_at_mut` -function - -Recall from “The Slice Type” on page XX that a slice is a pointer to some data -and the length of the slice. We use the `len` method to get the length of a -slice [1] and the `as_mut_ptr` method to access the raw pointer of a slice [2]. -In this case, because we have a mutable slice to `i32` values, `as_mut_ptr` -returns a raw pointer with the type `*mut i32`, which we’ve stored in the -variable `ptr`. - -We keep the assertion that the `mid` index is within the slice [3]. Then we get -to the unsafe code [4]: the `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` function takes a raw -pointer and a length, and it creates a slice. We use it to create a slice that -starts from `ptr` and is `mid` items long [5]. Then we call the `add` method on -`ptr` with `mid` as an argument to get a raw pointer that starts at `mid`, and -we create a slice using that pointer and the remaining number of items after -`mid` as the length [6]. - -The function `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` is unsafe because it takes a raw -pointer and must trust that this pointer is valid. The `add` method on raw -pointers is also unsafe because it must trust that the offset location is also -a valid pointer. Therefore, we had to put an `unsafe` block around our calls to -`slice::from_raw_parts_mut` and `add` so we could call them. By looking at the -code and by adding the assertion that `mid` must be less than or equal to -`len`, we can tell that all the raw pointers used within the `unsafe` block -will be valid pointers to data within the slice. This is an acceptable and -appropriate use of `unsafe`. - -Note that we don’t need to mark the resultant `split_at_mut` function as -`unsafe`, and we can call this function from safe Rust. We’ve created a safe -abstraction to the unsafe code with an implementation of the function that uses -`unsafe` code in a safe way, because it creates only valid pointers from the -data this function has access to. - -In contrast, the use of `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` in Listing 19-7 would -likely crash when the slice is used. This code takes an arbitrary memory -location and creates a slice 10,000 items long. - -``` -use std::slice; - -let address = 0x01234usize; -let r = address as *mut i32; - -let values: &[i32] = unsafe { - slice::from_raw_parts_mut(r, 10000) -}; -``` +One requirement for `match` expressions is that they need to be *exhaustive* in +the sense that all possibilities for the value in the `match` expression must +be accounted for. One way to ensure you’ve covered every possibility is to have +a catchall pattern for the last arm: for example, a variable name matching any +value can never fail and thus covers every remaining case. -Listing 19-7: Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory location +The particular pattern `_` will match anything, but it never binds to a +variable, so it’s often used in the last match arm. The `_` pattern can be +useful when you want to ignore any value not specified, for example. We’ll +cover the `_` pattern in more detail in “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” on page +XX. -We don’t own the memory at this arbitrary location, and there is no guarantee -that the slice this code creates contains valid `i32` values. Attempting to use -`values` as though it’s a valid slice results in undefined behavior. +### Conditional if let Expressions -#### Using extern Functions to Call External Code +In Chapter 6, we discussed how to use `if let` expressions mainly as a shorter +way to write the equivalent of a `match` that only matches one case. +Optionally, `if let` can have a corresponding `else` containing code to run if +the pattern in the `if let` doesn’t match. -Sometimes your Rust code might need to interact with code written in another -language. For this, Rust has the keyword `extern` that facilitates the creation -and use of a *Foreign Function Interface* *(FFI)*, which is a way for a -programming language to define functions and enable a different (foreign) -programming language to call those functions. +Listing 18-1 shows that it’s also possible to mix and match `if let`, `else +if`, and `else if let` expressions. Doing so gives us more flexibility than a +`match` expression in which we can express only one value to compare with the +patterns. Also, Rust doesn’t require that the conditions in a series of `if +let`, `else if`, and `else if let` arms relate to each other. -Listing 19-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the `abs` function -from the C standard library. Functions declared within `extern` blocks are -always unsafe to call from Rust code. The reason is that other languages don’t -enforce Rust’s rules and guarantees, and Rust can’t check them, so -responsibility falls on the programmer to ensure safety. +The code in Listing 18-1 determines what color to make your background based on +a series of checks for several conditions. For this example, we’ve created +variables with hardcoded values that a real program might receive from user +input. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -extern "C" { - fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; -} - fn main() { - unsafe { - println!( - "Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}", - abs(-3) + let favorite_color: Option<&str> = None; + let is_tuesday = false; + let age: Result<u8, _> = "34".parse(); + + 1 if let Some(color) = favorite_color { + 2 println!( + "Using your favorite, {color}, as the background" ); + 3 } else if is_tuesday { + 4 println!("Tuesday is green day!"); + 5 } else if let Ok(age) = age { + 6 if age > 30 { + 7 println!("Using purple as the background color"); + } else { + 8 println!("Using orange as the background color"); + } + 9 } else { + 10 println!("Using blue as the background color"); } } ``` -Listing 19-8: Declaring and calling an `extern` function defined in another -language - -Within the `extern "C"` block, we list the names and signatures of external -functions from another language we want to call. The `"C"` part defines which -*application binary interface* *(ABI)* the external function uses: the ABI -defines how to call the function at the assembly level. The `"C"` ABI is the -most common and follows the C programming language’s ABI. - -> ### Calling Rust Functions from Other Languages -> -> We can also use `extern` to create an interface that allows other languages -to call Rust functions. Instead of creating a whole `extern` block, we add the -`extern` keyword and specify the ABI to use just before the `fn` keyword for -the relevant function. We also need to add a `#[no_mangle]` annotation to tell -the Rust compiler not to mangle the name of this function. *Mangling* is when a -compiler changes the name we’ve given a function to a different name that -contains more information for other parts of the compilation process to consume -but is less human readable. Every programming language compiler mangles names -slightly differently, so for a Rust function to be nameable by other languages, -we must disable the Rust compiler’s name mangling. -> -> In the following example, we make the `call_from_c` function accessible from -C code, after it’s compiled to a shared library and linked from C: -> -> ``` -> #[no_mangle] -> pub extern "C" fn call_from_c() { -> println!("Just called a Rust function from C!"); -> } -> ``` -> -> This usage of `extern` does not require `unsafe`. - -### Accessing or Modifying a Mutable Static Variable - -In this book, we’ve not yet talked about global variables, which Rust does -support but can be problematic with Rust’s ownership rules. If two threads are -accessing the same mutable global variable, it can cause a data race. - -In Rust, global variables are called *static* variables. Listing 19-9 shows an -example declaration and use of a static variable with a string slice as a value. +Listing 18-1: Mixing `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, and `else` -Filename: src/main.rs +If the user specifies a favorite color [1], that color is used as the +background [2]. If no favorite color is specified and today is Tuesday [3], the +background color is green [4]. Otherwise, if the user specifies their age as a +string and we can parse it as a number successfully [5], the color is either +purple [7] or orange [8] depending on the value of the number [6]. If none of +these conditions apply [9], the background color is blue [10]. -``` -static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!"; +This conditional structure lets us support complex requirements. With the +hardcoded values we have here, this example will print `Using purple as the +background color`. -fn main() { - println!("value is: {HELLO_WORLD}"); -} -``` +You can see that `if let` can also introduce shadowed variables in the same way +that `match` arms can: the line `if let Ok(age) = age` [5] introduces a new +shadowed `age` variable that contains the value inside the `Ok` variant. This +means we need to place the `if age > 30` condition [6] within that block: we +can’t combine these two conditions into `if let Ok(age) = age && age > 30`. The +shadowed `age` we want to compare to 30 isn’t valid until the new scope starts +with the curly bracket. -Listing 19-9: Defining and using an immutable static variable +The downside of using `if let` expressions is that the compiler doesn’t check +for exhaustiveness, whereas with `match` expressions it does. If we omitted the +last `else` block [9] and therefore missed handling some cases, the compiler +would not alert us to the possible logic bug. -Static variables are similar to constants, which we discussed in “Constants” on -page XX. The names of static variables are in `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE` by -convention. Static variables can only store references with the `'static` -lifetime, which means the Rust compiler can figure out the lifetime and we -aren’t required to annotate it explicitly. Accessing an immutable static -variable is safe. +### while let Conditional Loops -A subtle difference between constants and immutable static variables is that -values in a static variable have a fixed address in memory. Using the value -will always access the same data. Constants, on the other hand, are allowed to -duplicate their data whenever they’re used. Another difference is that static -variables can be mutable. Accessing and modifying mutable static variables is -*unsafe*. Listing 19-10 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable -static variable named `COUNTER`. +Similar in construction to `if let`, the `while let` conditional loop allows a +`while` loop to run for as long as a pattern continues to match. In Listing +18-2, we code a `while let` loop that uses a vector as a stack and prints the +values in the vector in the opposite order in which they were pushed. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; +let mut stack = Vec::new(); -fn add_to_count(inc: u32) { - unsafe { - COUNTER += inc; - } -} - -fn main() { - add_to_count(3); +stack.push(1); +stack.push(2); +stack.push(3); - unsafe { - println!("COUNTER: {COUNTER}"); - } +while let Some(top) = stack.pop() { + println!("{top}"); } ``` -Listing 19-10: Reading from or writing to a mutable static variable is unsafe. +Listing 18-2: Using a `while let` loop to print values for as long as +`stack.pop()` returns `Some` -As with regular variables, we specify mutability using the `mut` keyword. Any -code that reads or writes from `COUNTER` must be within an `unsafe` block. This -code compiles and prints `COUNTER: 3` as we would expect because it’s single -threaded. Having multiple threads access `COUNTER` would likely result in data -races. +This example prints `3`, `2`, and then `1`. The `pop` method takes the last +element out of the vector and returns `Some(value)`. If the vector is empty, +`pop` returns `None`. The `while` loop continues running the code in its block +as long as `pop` returns `Some`. When `pop` returns `None`, the loop stops. We +can use `while let` to pop every element off our stack. -With mutable data that is globally accessible, it’s difficult to ensure there -are no data races, which is why Rust considers mutable static variables to be -unsafe. Where possible, it’s preferable to use the concurrency techniques and -thread-safe smart pointers we discussed in Chapter 16 so the compiler checks -that data access from different threads is done safely. +### for Loops -### Implementing an Unsafe Trait +In a `for` loop, the value that directly follows the keyword `for` is a +pattern. For example, in `for x in y`, the `x` is the pattern. Listing 18-3 +demonstrates how to use a pattern in a `for` loop to *destructure*, or break +apart, a tuple as part of the `for` loop. -We can use `unsafe` to implement an unsafe trait. A trait is unsafe when at -least one of its methods has some invariant that the compiler can’t verify. We -declare that a trait is `unsafe` by adding the `unsafe` keyword before `trait` -and marking the implementation of the trait as `unsafe` too, as shown in -Listing 19-11. +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -unsafe trait Foo { - // methods go here -} +let v = vec!['a', 'b', 'c']; -unsafe impl Foo for i32 { - // method implementations go here +for (index, value) in v.iter().enumerate() { + println!("{value} is at index {index}"); } ``` -Listing 19-11: Defining and implementing an unsafe trait - -By using `unsafe impl`, we’re promising that we’ll uphold the invariants that -the compiler can’t verify. - -As an example, recall the `Send` and `Sync` marker traits we discussed in -“Extensible Concurrency with the Send and Sync Traits” on page XX: the compiler -implements these traits automatically if our types are composed entirely of -`Send` and `Sync` types. If we implement a type that contains a type that is -not `Send` or `Sync`, such as raw pointers, and we want to mark that type as -`Send` or `Sync`, we must use `unsafe`. Rust can’t verify that our type upholds -the guarantees that it can be safely sent across threads or accessed from -multiple threads; therefore, we need to do those checks manually and indicate -as such with `unsafe`. - -### Accessing Fields of a Union - -The final action that works only with `unsafe` is accessing fields of a union. -A `union` is similar to a `struct`, but only one declared field is used in a -particular instance at one time. Unions are primarily used to interface with -unions in C code. Accessing union fields is unsafe because Rust can’t guarantee -the type of the data currently being stored in the union instance. You can -learn more about unions in the Rust Reference at -*https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/unions.html**.* +Listing 18-3: Using a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure a tuple -### When to Use Unsafe Code - -Using `unsafe` to use one of the five superpowers just discussed isn’t wrong or -even frowned upon, but it is trickier to get `unsafe` code correct because the -compiler can’t help uphold memory safety. When you have a reason to use -`unsafe` code, you can do so, and having the explicit `unsafe` annotation makes -it easier to track down the source of problems when they occur. - -## Advanced Traits - -We first covered traits in “Traits: Defining Shared Behavior” on page XX, but -we didn’t discuss the more advanced details. Now that you know more about Rust, -we can get into the nitty-gritty. - -### Associated Types - -*Associated types* connect a type placeholder with a trait such that the trait -method definitions can use these placeholder types in their signatures. The -implementor of a trait will specify the concrete type to be used instead of the -placeholder type for the particular implementation. That way, we can define a -trait that uses some types without needing to know exactly what those types are -until the trait is implemented. - -We’ve described most of the advanced features in this chapter as being rarely -needed. Associated types are somewhere in the middle: they’re used more rarely -than features explained in the rest of the book but more commonly than many of -the other features discussed in this chapter. - -One example of a trait with an associated type is the `Iterator` trait that the -standard library provides. The associated type is named `Item` and stands in -for the type of the values the type implementing the `Iterator` trait is -iterating over. The definition of the `Iterator` trait is as shown in Listing -19-12. +The code in Listing 18-3 will print the following: ``` -pub trait Iterator { - type Item; - - fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item>; -} +a is at index 0 +b is at index 1 +c is at index 2 ``` -Listing 19-12: The definition of the `Iterator` trait that has an associated -type `Item` +We adapt an iterator using the `enumerate` method so it produces a value and +the index for that value, placed into a tuple. The first value produced is the +tuple `(0, 'a')`. When this value is matched to the pattern `(index, value)`, +`index` will be `0` and `value` will be `'a'`, printing the first line of the +output. -The type `Item` is a placeholder, and the `next` method’s definition shows that -it will return values of type `Option<Self::Item>`. Implementors of the -`Iterator` trait will specify the concrete type for `Item`, and the `next` -method will return an `Option` containing a value of that concrete type. +### let Statements -Associated types might seem like a similar concept to generics, in that the -latter allow us to define a function without specifying what types it can -handle. To examine the difference between the two concepts, we’ll look at an -implementation of the `Iterator` trait on a type named `Counter` that specifies -the `Item` type is `u32`: - -Filename: src/lib.rs +Prior to this chapter, we had only explicitly discussed using patterns with +`match` and `if let`, but in fact, we’ve used patterns in other places as well, +including in `let` statements. For example, consider this straightforward +variable assignment with `let`: ``` -impl Iterator for Counter { - type Item = u32; - - fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> { - --snip-- +let x = 5; ``` -This syntax seems comparable to that of generics. So why not just define the -`Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 19-13? +Every time you’ve used a `let` statement like this you’ve been using patterns, +although you might not have realized it! More formally, a `let` statement looks +like this: ``` -pub trait Iterator<T> { - fn next(&mut self) -> Option<T>; -} +let PATTERN = EXPRESSION; ``` -Listing 19-13: A hypothetical definition of the `Iterator` trait using generics - -The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 19-13, we must -annotate the types in each implementation; because we can also implement -`Iterator<``String``> for Counter` or any other type, we could have multiple -implementations of `Iterator` for `Counter`. In other words, when a trait has a -generic parameter, it can be implemented for a type multiple times, changing -the concrete types of the generic type parameters each time. When we use the -`next` method on `Counter`, we would have to provide type annotations to -indicate which implementation of `Iterator` we want to use. - -With associated types, we don’t need to annotate types because we can’t -implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 19-12 with the -definition that uses associated types, we can choose what the type of `Item` -will be only once because there can be only one `impl Iterator for Counter`. We -don’t have to specify that we want an iterator of `u32` values everywhere we -call `next` on `Counter`. - -Associated types also become part of the trait’s contract: implementors of the -trait must provide a type to stand in for the associated type placeholder. -Associated types often have a name that describes how the type will be used, -and documenting the associated type in the API documentation is a good practice. - -### Default Generic Type Parameters and Operator Overloading - -When we use generic type parameters, we can specify a default concrete type for -the generic type. This eliminates the need for implementors of the trait to -specify a concrete type if the default type works. You specify a default type -when declaring a generic type with the `<`PlaceholderType`=`ConcreteType`>` -syntax. - -A great example of a situation where this technique is useful is with *operator -overloading*, in which you customize the behavior of an operator (such as `+`) -in particular situations. - -Rust doesn’t allow you to create your own operators or overload arbitrary -operators. But you can overload the operations and corresponding traits listed -in `std::ops` by implementing the traits associated with the operator. For -example, in Listing 19-14 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` -instances together. We do this by implementing the `Add` trait on a `Point` -struct. +In statements like `let x = 5;` with a variable name in the PATTERN slot, the +variable name is just a particularly simple form of a pattern. Rust compares +the expression against the pattern and assigns any names it finds. So, in the +`let x = 5;` example, `x` is a pattern that means “bind what matches here to +the variable `x`.” Because the name `x` is the whole pattern, this pattern +effectively means “bind everything to the variable `x`, whatever the value is.” -Filename: src/main.rs +To see the pattern-matching aspect of `let` more clearly, consider Listing +18-4, which uses a pattern with `let` to destructure a tuple. ``` -use std::ops::Add; - -#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)] -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, -} - -impl Add for Point { - type Output = Point; - - fn add(self, other: Point) -> Point { - Point { - x: self.x + other.x, - y: self.y + other.y, - } - } -} - -fn main() { - assert_eq!( - Point { x: 1, y: 0 } + Point { x: 2, y: 3 }, - Point { x: 3, y: 3 } - ); -} +let (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3); ``` -Listing 19-14: Implementing the `Add` trait to overload the `+` operator for -`Point` instances +Listing 18-4: Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and create three variables +at once -The `add` method adds the `x` values of two `Point` instances and the `y` -values of two `Point` instances to create a new `Point`. The `Add` trait has an -associated type named `Output` that determines the type returned from the `add` -method. +Here, we match a tuple against a pattern. Rust compares the value `(1, 2, 3)` +to the pattern `(x, y, z)` and sees that the value matches the pattern, in that +it sees that the number of elements is the same in both, so Rust binds `1` to +`x`, `2` to `y`, and `3` to `z`. You can think of this tuple pattern as nesting +three individual variable patterns inside it. -The default generic type in this code is within the `Add` trait. Here is its -definition: +If the number of elements in the pattern doesn’t match the number of elements +in the tuple, the overall type won’t match and we’ll get a compiler error. For +example, Listing 18-5 shows an attempt to destructure a tuple with three +elements into two variables, which won’t work. ``` -trait Add<Rhs=Self> { - type Output; - - fn add(self, rhs: Rhs) -> Self::Output; -} +let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); ``` -This code should look generally familiar: a trait with one method and an -associated type. The new part is `Rhs=Self`: this syntax is called *default -type parameters*. The `Rhs` generic type parameter (short for “right-hand -side”) defines the type of the `rhs` parameter in the `add` method. If we don’t -specify a concrete type for `Rhs` when we implement the `Add` trait, the type -of `Rhs` will default to `Self`, which will be the type we’re implementing -`Add` on. +Listing 18-5: Incorrectly constructing a pattern whose variables don’t match +the number of elements in the tuple -When we implemented `Add` for `Point`, we used the default for `Rhs` because we -wanted to add two `Point` instances. Let’s look at an example of implementing -the `Add` trait where we want to customize the `Rhs` type rather than using the -default. - -We have two structs, `Millimeters` and `Meters`, holding values in different -units. This thin wrapping of an existing type in another struct is known as the -*newtype pattern*, which we describe in more detail in “Using the Newtype -Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types” on page XX. We want to -add values in millimeters to values in meters and have the implementation of -`Add` do the conversion correctly. We can implement `Add` for `Millimeters` -with `Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 19-15. - -Filename: src/lib.rs +Attempting to compile this code results in this type error: ``` -use std::ops::Add; - -struct Millimeters(u32); -struct Meters(u32); - -impl Add<Meters> for Millimeters { - type Output = Millimeters; - - fn add(self, other: Meters) -> Millimeters { - Millimeters(self.0 + (other.0 * 1000)) - } -} +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:2:9 + | +2 | let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); + | ^^^^^^ --------- this expression has type `({integer}, {integer}, +{integer})` + | | + | expected a tuple with 3 elements, found one with 2 elements + | + = note: expected tuple `({integer}, {integer}, {integer})` + found tuple `(_, _)` ``` -Listing 19-15: Implementing the `Add` trait on `Millimeters` to add -`Millimeters` and `Meters` - -To add `Millimeters` and `Meters`, we specify `impl Add<Meters>` to set the -value of the `Rhs` type parameter instead of using the default of `Self`. - -You’ll use default type parameters in two main ways: - -1. To extend a type without breaking existing code -1. To allow customization in specific cases most users won’t need +To fix the error, we could ignore one or more of the values in the tuple using +`_` or `..`, as you’ll see in “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” on page XX. If the +problem is that we have too many variables in the pattern, the solution is to +make the types match by removing variables so the number of variables equals +the number of elements in the tuple. -The standard library’s `Add` trait is an example of the second purpose: -usually, you’ll add two like types, but the `Add` trait provides the ability to -customize beyond that. Using a default type parameter in the `Add` trait -definition means you don’t have to specify the extra parameter most of the -time. In other words, a bit of implementation boilerplate isn’t needed, making -it easier to use the trait. +### Function Parameters -The first purpose is similar to the second but in reverse: if you want to add a -type parameter to an existing trait, you can give it a default to allow -extension of the functionality of the trait without breaking the existing -implementation code. - -### Disambiguating Between Methods with the Same Name - -Nothing in Rust prevents a trait from having a method with the same name as -another trait’s method, nor does Rust prevent you from implementing both traits -on one type. It’s also possible to implement a method directly on the type with -the same name as methods from traits. - -When calling methods with the same name, you’ll need to tell Rust which one you -want to use. Consider the code in Listing 19-16 where we’ve defined two traits, -`Pilot` and `Wizard`, that both have a method called `fly`. We then implement -both traits on a type `Human` that already has a method named `fly` implemented -on it. Each `fly` method does something different. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Function parameters can also be patterns. The code in Listing 18-6, which +declares a function named `foo` that takes one parameter named `x` of type +`i32`, should by now look familiar. ``` -trait Pilot { - fn fly(&self); -} - -trait Wizard { - fn fly(&self); -} - -struct Human; - -impl Pilot for Human { - fn fly(&self) { - println!("This is your captain speaking."); - } -} - -impl Wizard for Human { - fn fly(&self) { - println!("Up!"); - } -} - -impl Human { - fn fly(&self) { - println!("*waving arms furiously*"); - } +fn foo(x: i32) { + // code goes here } ``` -Listing 19-16: Two traits are defined to have a `fly` method and are -implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is implemented on `Human` -directly. +Listing 18-6: A function signature using patterns in the parameters -When we call `fly` on an instance of `Human`, the compiler defaults to calling -the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 19-17. +The `x` part is a pattern! As we did with `let`, we could match a tuple in a +function’s arguments to the pattern. Listing 18-7 splits the values in a tuple +as we pass it to a function. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn main() { - let person = Human; - person.fly(); +fn print_coordinates(&(x, y): &(i32, i32)) { + println!("Current location: ({x}, {y})"); } -``` - -Listing 19-17: Calling `fly` on an instance of `Human` -Running this code will print `*waving arms furiously*`, showing that Rust -called the `fly` method implemented on `Human` directly. - -To call the `fly` methods from either the `Pilot` trait or the `Wizard` trait, -we need to use more explicit syntax to specify which `fly` method we mean. -Listing 19-18 demonstrates this syntax. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` fn main() { - let person = Human; - Pilot::fly(&person); - Wizard::fly(&person); - person.fly(); + let point = (3, 5); + print_coordinates(&point); } ``` -Listing 19-18: Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we want to call +Listing 18-7: A function with parameters that destructure a tuple -Specifying the trait name before the method name clarifies to Rust which -implementation of `fly` we want to call. We could also write -`Human::fly(&person)`, which is equivalent to the `person.fly()` that we used -in Listing 19-18, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to -disambiguate. +This code prints `Current location: (3, 5)`. The values `&(3, 5)` match the +pattern `&(x, y)`, so `x` is the value `3` and `y` is the value `5`. -Running this code prints the following: +We can also use patterns in closure parameter lists in the same way as in +function parameter lists because closures are similar to functions, as +discussed in Chapter 13. -``` -This is your captain speaking. -Up! -*waving arms furiously* -``` +At this point, you’ve seen several ways to use patterns, but patterns don’t +work the same in every place we can use them. In some places, the patterns must +be irrefutable; in other circumstances, they can be refutable. We’ll discuss +these two concepts next. -Because the `fly` method takes a `self` parameter, if we had two *types* that -both implement one *trait*, Rust could figure out which implementation of a -trait to use based on the type of `self`. +## Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match -However, associated functions that are not methods don’t have a `self` -parameter. When there are multiple types or traits that define non-method -functions with the same function name, Rust doesn’t always know which type you -mean unless you use fully qualified syntax. For example, in Listing 19-19 we -create a trait for an animal shelter that wants to name all baby dogs Spot. We -make an `Animal` trait with an associated non-method function `baby_name`. The -`Animal` trait is implemented for the struct `Dog`, on which we also provide an -associated non-method function `baby_name` directly. +Patterns come in two forms: refutable and irrefutable. Patterns that will match +for any possible value passed are *irrefutable*. An example would be `x` in the +statement `let x = 5;` because `x` matches anything and therefore cannot fail +to match. Patterns that can fail to match for some possible value are +*refutable*. An example would be `Some(x)` in the expression `if let Some(x) = +a_value` because if the value in the `a_value` variable is `None` rather than +`Some`, the `Some(x)` pattern will not match. -Filename: src/main.rs +Function parameters, `let` statements, and `for` loops can only accept +irrefutable patterns because the program cannot do anything meaningful when +values don’t match. The `if let` and `while let` expressions accept refutable +and irrefutable patterns, but the compiler warns against irrefutable patterns +because, by definition, they’re intended to handle possible failure: the +functionality of a conditional is in its ability to perform differently +depending on success or failure. -``` -trait Animal { - fn baby_name() -> String; -} - -struct Dog; - -impl Dog { - fn baby_name() -> String { - String::from("Spot") - } -} +In general, you shouldn’t have to worry about the distinction between refutable +and irrefutable patterns; however, you do need to be familiar with the concept +of refutability so you can respond when you see it in an error message. In +those cases, you’ll need to change either the pattern or the construct you’re +using the pattern with, depending on the intended behavior of the code. -impl Animal for Dog { - fn baby_name() -> String { - String::from("puppy") - } -} +Let’s look at an example of what happens when we try to use a refutable pattern +where Rust requires an irrefutable pattern and vice versa. Listing 18-8 shows a +`let` statement, but for the pattern, we’ve specified `Some(x)`, a refutable +pattern. As you might expect, this code will not compile. -fn main() { - println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Dog::baby_name()); -} ``` - -Listing 19-19: A trait with an associated function and a type with an -associated function of the same name that also implements the trait - -We implement the code for naming all puppies Spot in the `baby_name` associated -function that is defined on `Dog`. The `Dog` type also implements the trait -`Animal`, which describes characteristics that all animals have. Baby dogs are -called puppies, and that is expressed in the implementation of the `Animal` -trait on `Dog` in the `baby_name` function associated with the `Animal` trait. - -In `main`, we call the `Dog::baby_name` function, which calls the associated -function defined on `Dog` directly. This code prints the following: - -``` -A baby dog is called a Spot +let Some(x) = some_option_value; ``` -This output isn’t what we wanted. We want to call the `baby_name` function that -is part of the `Animal` trait that we implemented on `Dog` so the code prints -`A baby dog is called a puppy`. The technique of specifying the trait name that -we used in Listing 19-18 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in -Listing 19-20, we’ll get a compilation error. +Listing 18-8: Attempting to use a refutable pattern with `let` -Filename: src/main.rs +If `some_option_value` were a `None` value, it would fail to match the pattern +`Some(x)`, meaning the pattern is refutable. However, the `let` statement can +only accept an irrefutable pattern because there is nothing valid the code can +do with a `None` value. At compile time, Rust will complain that we’ve tried to +use a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is required: ``` -fn main() { - println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); -} +error[E0005]: refutable pattern in local binding: `None` not covered + --> src/main.rs:3:9 + | +3 | let Some(x) = some_option_value; + | ^^^^^^^ pattern `None` not covered + | + = note: `let` bindings require an "irrefutable pattern", like a `struct` or +an `enum` with only one variant + = note: for more information, visit +https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch18-02-refutability.html + = note: the matched value is of type `Option<i32>` +help: you might want to use `if let` to ignore the variant that isn't matched + | +3 | let x = if let Some(x) = some_option_value { x } else { todo!() }; + | ++++++++++ ++++++++++++++++++++++ ``` -Listing 19-20: Attempting to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` -trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to use +Because we didn’t cover (and couldn’t cover!) every valid value with the +pattern `Some(x)`, Rust rightfully produces a compiler error. -Because `Animal::baby_name` doesn’t have a `self` parameter, and there could be -other types that implement the `Animal` trait, Rust can’t figure out which -implementation of `Animal::baby_name` we want. We’ll get this compiler error: +If we have a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is needed, we can +fix it by changing the code that uses the pattern: instead of using `let`, we +can use `if let`. Then, if the pattern doesn’t match, the code will just skip +the code in the curly brackets, giving it a way to continue validly. Listing +18-9 shows how to fix the code in Listing 18-8. ``` -error[E0283]: type annotations needed - --> src/main.rs:20:43 - | -20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot infer -type - | - = note: cannot satisfy `_: Animal` -``` - -To disambiguate and tell Rust that we want to use the implementation of -`Animal` for `Dog` as opposed to the implementation of `Animal` for some other -type, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 19-21 demonstrates how to -use fully qualified syntax. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn main() { - println!( - "A baby dog is called a {}", - <Dog as Animal>::baby_name() - ); +if let Some(x) = some_option_value { + println!("{x}"); } ``` -Listing 19-21: Using fully qualified syntax to specify that we want to call the -`baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as implemented on `Dog` +Listing 18-9: Using `if let` and a block with refutable patterns instead of +`let` -We’re providing Rust with a type annotation within the angle brackets, which -indicates we want to call the `baby_name` method from the `Animal` trait as -implemented on `Dog` by saying that we want to treat the `Dog` type as an -`Animal` for this function call. This code will now print what we want: +We’ve given the code an out! This code is perfectly valid, although it means we +cannot use an irrefutable pattern without receiving an error. If we give `if +let` a pattern that will always match, such as `x`, as shown in Listing 18-10, +the compiler will give a warning. ``` -A baby dog is called a puppy +if let x = 5 { + println!("{x}"); +}; ``` -In general, fully qualified syntax is defined as follows: +Listing 18-10: Attempting to use an irrefutable pattern with `if let` + +Rust complains that it doesn’t make sense to use `if let` with an irrefutable +pattern: ``` -<Type as Trait>::function(receiver_if_method, next_arg, ...); +warning: irrefutable `if let` pattern + --> src/main.rs:2:8 + | +2 | if let x = 5 { + | ^^^^^^^^^ + | + = note: `#[warn(irrefutable_let_patterns)]` on by default + = note: this pattern will always match, so the `if let` is +useless + = help: consider replacing the `if let` with a `let` ``` -For associated functions that aren’t methods, there would not be a `receiver`: -there would only be the list of other arguments. You could use fully qualified -syntax everywhere that you call functions or methods. However, you’re allowed -to omit any part of this syntax that Rust can figure out from other information -in the program. You only need to use this more verbose syntax in cases where -there are multiple implementations that use the same name and Rust needs help -to identify which implementation you want to call. +For this reason, match arms must use refutable patterns, except for the last +arm, which should match any remaining values with an irrefutable pattern. Rust +allows us to use an irrefutable pattern in a `match` with only one arm, but +this syntax isn’t particularly useful and could be replaced with a simpler +`let` statement. -### Using Supertraits +Now that you know where to use patterns and the difference between refutable +and irrefutable patterns, let’s cover all the syntax we can use to create +patterns. -Sometimes you might write a trait definition that depends on another trait: for -a type to implement the first trait, you want to require that type to also -implement the second trait. You would do this so that your trait definition can -make use of the associated items of the second trait. The trait your trait -definition is relying on is called a *supertrait* of your trait. +## Pattern Syntax -For example, let’s say we want to make an `OutlinePrint` trait with an -`outline_print` method that will print a given value formatted so that it’s -framed in asterisks. That is, given a `Point` struct that implements the -standard library trait `Display` to result in `(x, y)`, when we call -`outline_print` on a `Point` instance that has `1` for `x` and `3` for `y`, it -should print the following: +In this section, we gather all the syntax that is valid in patterns and discuss +why and when you might want to use each one. -``` -********** -* * -* (1, 3) * -* * -********** -``` +### Matching Literals -In the implementation of the `outline_print` method, we want to use the -`Display` trait’s functionality. Therefore, we need to specify that the -`OutlinePrint` trait will work only for types that also implement `Display` and -provide the functionality that `OutlinePrint` needs. We can do that in the -trait definition by specifying `OutlinePrint: Display`. This technique is -similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 19-22 shows an -implementation of the `OutlinePrint` trait. +As you saw in Chapter 6, you can match patterns against literals directly. The +following code gives some examples: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::fmt; +let x = 1; -trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { - fn outline_print(&self) { - let output = self.to_string(); - let len = output.len(); - println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); - println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); - println!("* {} *", output); - println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); - println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); - } +match x { + 1 => println!("one"), + 2 => println!("two"), + 3 => println!("three"), + _ => println!("anything"), } ``` -Listing 19-22: Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that requires the -functionality from `Display` +This code prints `one` because the value in `x` is `1`. This syntax is useful +when you want your code to take an action if it gets a particular concrete +value. -Because we’ve specified that `OutlinePrint` requires the `Display` trait, we -can use the `to_string` function that is automatically implemented for any type -that implements `Display`. If we tried to use `to_string` without adding a -colon and specifying the `Display` trait after the trait name, we’d get an -error saying that no method named `to_string` was found for the type `&Self` in -the current scope. +### Matching Named Variables -Let’s see what happens when we try to implement `OutlinePrint` on a type that -doesn’t implement `Display`, such as the `Point` struct: +Named variables are irrefutable patterns that match any value, and we’ve used +them many times in this book. However, there is a complication when you use +named variables in `match` expressions. Because `match` starts a new scope, +variables declared as part of a pattern inside the `match` expression will +shadow those with the same name outside the `match` construct, as is the case +with all variables. In Listing 18-11, we declare a variable named `x` with the +value `Some(5)` and a variable `y` with the value `10`. We then create a +`match` expression on the value `x`. Look at the patterns in the match arms and +`println!` at the end, and try to figure out what the code will print before +running this code or reading further. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, -} - -impl OutlinePrint for Point {} -``` +fn main() { + 1 let x = Some(5); + 2 let y = 10; -We get an error saying that `Display` is required but not implemented: + match x { + 3 Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), + 4 Some(y) => println!("Matched, y = {y}"), + 5 _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), + } -``` -error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` - --> src/main.rs:20:6 - | -20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {} - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter - | - = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point` - = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for -pretty-print) instead -note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint` - --> src/main.rs:3:21 - | -3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint` + 6 println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {y}", x); +} ``` -To fix this, we implement `Display` on `Point` and satisfy the constraint that -`OutlinePrint` requires, like so: +Listing 18-11: A `match` expression with an arm that introduces a shadowed +variable `y` -Filename: src/main.rs +Let’s walk through what happens when the `match` expression runs. The pattern +in the first match arm [3] doesn’t match the defined value of `x` [1], so the +code continues. -``` -use std::fmt; +The pattern in the second match arm [4] introduces a new variable named `y` +that will match any value inside a `Some` value. Because we’re in a new scope +inside the `match` expression, this is a new `y` variable, not the `y` we +declared at the beginning with the value `10` [2]. This new `y` binding will +match any value inside a `Some`, which is what we have in `x`. Therefore, this +new `y` binds to the inner value of the `Some` in `x`. That value is `5`, so +the expression for that arm executes and prints `Matched, y = 5`. -impl fmt::Display for Point { - fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { - write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y) - } -} -``` +If `x` had been a `None` value instead of `Some(5)`, the patterns in the first +two arms wouldn’t have matched, so the value would have matched to the +underscore [5]. We didn’t introduce the `x` variable in the pattern of the +underscore arm, so the `x` in the expression is still the outer `x` that hasn’t +been shadowed. In this hypothetical case, the `match` would print `Default +case, x = None`. -Then, implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait on `Point` will compile -successfully, and we can call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance to display -it within an outline of asterisks. +When the `match` expression is done, its scope ends, and so does the scope of +the inner `y`. The last `println!` [6] produces `at the end: x = Some(5), y = +10`. -### Using the Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits +To create a `match` expression that compares the values of the outer `x` and +`y`, rather than introducing a shadowed variable, we would need to use a match +guard conditional instead. We’ll talk about match guards in “Extra Conditionals +with Match Guards” on page XX. -In “Implementing a Trait on a Type” on page XX, we mentioned the orphan rule -that states we’re only allowed to implement a trait on a type if either the -trait or the type, or both, are local to our crate. It’s possible to get around -this restriction using the *newtype pattern*, which involves creating a new -type in a tuple struct. (We covered tuple structs in “Using Tuple Structs -Without Named Fields to Create Different Types” on page XX.) The tuple struct -will have one field and be a thin wrapper around the type for which we want to -implement a trait. Then the wrapper type is local to our crate, and we can -implement the trait on the wrapper. *Newtype* is a term that originates from -the Haskell programming language. There is no runtime performance penalty for -using this pattern, and the wrapper type is elided at compile time. +### Multiple Patterns -As an example, let’s say we want to implement `Display` on `Vec<T>`, which the -orphan rule prevents us from doing directly because the `Display` trait and the -`Vec<T>` type are defined outside our crate. We can make a `Wrapper` struct -that holds an instance of `Vec<T>`; then we can implement `Display` on -`Wrapper` and use the `Vec<T>` value, as shown in Listing 19-23. +In `match` expressions, you can match multiple patterns using the `|` syntax, +which is the pattern *or* operator. For example, in the following code we match +the value of `x` against the match arms, the first of which has an *or* option, +meaning if the value of `x` matches either of the values in that arm, that +arm’s code will run: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::fmt; - -struct Wrapper(Vec<String>); - -impl fmt::Display for Wrapper { - fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { - write!(f, "[{}]", self.0.join(", ")) - } -} +let x = 1; -fn main() { - let w = Wrapper(vec![ - String::from("hello"), - String::from("world"), - ]); - println!("w = {w}"); +match x { + 1 | 2 => println!("one or two"), + 3 => println!("three"), + _ => println!("anything"), } ``` -Listing 19-23: Creating a `Wrapper` type around `Vec<String>` to implement -`Display` - -The implementation of `Display` uses `self.0` to access the inner `Vec<T>` -because `Wrapper` is a tuple struct and `Vec<T>` is the item at index 0 in the -tuple. Then we can use the functionality of the `Display` type on `Wrapper`. - -The downside of using this technique is that `Wrapper` is a new type, so it -doesn’t have the methods of the value it’s holding. We would have to implement -all the methods of `Vec<T>` directly on `Wrapper` such that the methods -delegate to `self.0`, which would allow us to treat `Wrapper` exactly like a -`Vec<T>`. If we wanted the new type to have every method the inner type has, -implementing the `Deref` trait on the `Wrapper` to return the inner type would -be a solution (we discussed implementing the `Deref` trait in “Treating Smart -Pointers Like Regular References with Deref” on page XX). If we didn’t want the -`Wrapper` type to have all the methods of the inner type—for example, to -restrict the `Wrapper` type’s behavior—we would have to implement just the -methods we do want manually. - -This newtype pattern is also useful even when traits are not involved. Let’s -switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type system. - -## Advanced Types - -The Rust type system has some features that we’ve so far mentioned but haven’t -yet discussed. We’ll start by discussing newtypes in general as we examine why -newtypes are useful as types. Then we’ll move on to type aliases, a feature -similar to newtypes but with slightly different semantics. We’ll also discuss -the `!` type and dynamically sized types. +This code prints `one or two`. -### Using the Newtype Pattern for Type Safety and Abstraction +### Matching Ranges of Values with ..= -> Note: This section assumes you’ve read the earlier section “Using the Newtype -Pattern to Implement External Traits” on page XX. +The `..=` syntax allows us to match to an inclusive range of values. In the +following code, when a pattern matches any of the values within the given +range, that arm will execute: -The newtype pattern is also useful for tasks beyond those we’ve discussed so -far, including statically enforcing that values are never confused and -indicating the units of a value. You saw an example of using newtypes to -indicate units in Listing 19-15: recall that the `Millimeters` and `Meters` -structs wrapped `u32` values in a newtype. If we wrote a function with a -parameter of type `Millimeters`, we wouldn’t be able to compile a program that -accidentally tried to call that function with a value of type `Meters` or a -plain `u32`. - -We can also use the newtype pattern to abstract away some implementation -details of a type: the new type can expose a public API that is different from -the API of the private inner type. - -Newtypes can also hide internal implementation. For example, we could provide a -`People` type to wrap a `HashMap<i32, String>` that stores a person’s ID -associated with their name. Code using `People` would only interact with the -public API we provide, such as a method to add a name string to the `People` -collection; that code wouldn’t need to know that we assign an `i32` ID to names -internally. The newtype pattern is a lightweight way to achieve encapsulation -to hide implementation details, which we discussed in “Encapsulation That Hides -Implementation Details” on page XX. - -### Creating Type Synonyms with Type Aliases - -Rust provides the ability to declare a *type alias* to give an existing type -another name. For this we use the `type` keyword. For example, we can create -the alias `Kilometers` to `i32` like so: - -``` -type Kilometers = i32; -``` - -Now the alias `Kilometers` is a *synonym* for `i32`; unlike the `Millimeters` -and `Meters` types we created in Listing 19-15, `Kilometers` is not a separate, -new type. Values that have the type `Kilometers` will be treated the same as -values of type `i32`: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -type Kilometers = i32; +let x = 5; -let x: i32 = 5; -let y: Kilometers = 5; - -println!("x + y = {}", x + y); +match x { + 1..=5 => println!("one through five"), + _ => println!("something else"), +} ``` -Because `Kilometers` and `i32` are the same type, we can add values of both -types and we can pass `Kilometers` values to functions that take `i32` -parameters. However, using this method, we don’t get the type-checking benefits -that we get from the newtype pattern discussed earlier. In other words, if we -mix up `Kilometers` and `i32` values somewhere, the compiler will not give us -an error. +If `x` is `1`, `2`, `3`, `4`, or `5`, the first arm will match. This syntax is +more convenient for multiple match values than using the `|` operator to +express the same idea; if we were to use `|`, we would have to specify `1 | 2 | +3 | 4 | 5`. Specifying a range is much shorter, especially if we want to match, +say, any number between 1 and 1,000! -The main use case for type synonyms is to reduce repetition. For example, we -might have a lengthy type like this: +The compiler checks that the range isn’t empty at compile time, and because the +only types for which Rust can tell if a range is empty or not are `char` and +numeric values, ranges are only allowed with numeric or `char` values. -``` -Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> -``` +Here is an example using ranges of `char` values: -Writing this lengthy type in function signatures and as type annotations all -over the code can be tiresome and error prone. Imagine having a project full of -code like that in Listing 19-24. +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let f: Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> = Box::new(|| { - println!("hi"); -}); +let x = 'c'; -fn takes_long_type(f: Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static>) { - --snip-- +match x { + 'a'..='j' => println!("early ASCII letter"), + 'k'..='z' => println!("late ASCII letter"), + _ => println!("something else"), } - -fn returns_long_type() -> Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> { - --snip-- -} -``` - -Listing 19-24: Using a long type in many places - -A type alias makes this code more manageable by reducing the repetition. In -Listing 19-25, we’ve introduced an alias named `Thunk` for the verbose type and -can replace all uses of the type with the shorter alias `Thunk`. - ``` -type Thunk = Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static>; -let f: Thunk = Box::new(|| println!("hi")); +Rust can tell that `'c'` is within the first pattern’s range and prints `early +ASCII letter`. -fn takes_long_type(f: Thunk) { - --snip-- -} +### Destructuring to Break Apart Values -fn returns_long_type() -> Thunk { - --snip-- -} -``` +We can also use patterns to destructure structs, enums, and tuples to use +different parts of these values. Let’s walk through each value. -Listing 19-25: Introducing a type alias `Thunk` to reduce repetition +#### Destructuring Structs -This code is much easier to read and write! Choosing a meaningful name for a -type alias can help communicate your intent as well (*thunk* is a word for code -to be evaluated at a later time, so it’s an appropriate name for a closure that -gets stored). +Listing 18-12 shows a `Point` struct with two fields, `x` and `y`, that we can +break apart using a pattern with a `let` statement. -Type aliases are also commonly used with the `Result<T, E>` type for reducing -repetition. Consider the `std::io` module in the standard library. I/O -operations often return a `Result<T, E>` to handle situations when operations -fail to work. This library has a `std::io::Error` struct that represents all -possible I/O errors. Many of the functions in `std::io` will be returning -`Result<T, E>` where the `E` is `std::io::Error`, such as these functions in -the `Write` trait: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::fmt; -use std::io::Error; +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, +} -pub trait Write { - fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<usize, Error>; - fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<(), Error>; +fn main() { + let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; - fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<(), Error>; - fn write_fmt( - &mut self, - fmt: fmt::Arguments, - ) -> Result<(), Error>; + let Point { x: a, y: b } = p; + assert_eq!(0, a); + assert_eq!(7, b); } ``` -The `Result<..., Error>` is repeated a lot. As such, `std::io` has this type -alias declaration: +Listing 18-12: Destructuring a struct’s fields into separate variables -``` -type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, std::io::Error>; -``` +This code creates the variables `a` and `b` that match the values of the `x` +and `y` fields of the `p` struct. This example shows that the names of the +variables in the pattern don’t have to match the field names of the struct. +However, it’s common to match the variable names to the field names to make it +easier to remember which variables came from which fields. Because of this +common usage, and because writing `let Point { x: x, y: y } = p;` contains a +lot of duplication, Rust has a shorthand for patterns that match struct fields: +you only need to list the name of the struct field, and the variables created +from the pattern will have the same names. Listing 18-13 behaves in the same +way as the code in Listing 18-12, but the variables created in the `let` +pattern are `x` and `y` instead of `a` and `b`. -Because this declaration is in the `std::io` module, we can use the fully -qualified alias `std::io::Result<T>`; that is, a `Result<T, E>` with the `E` -filled in as `std::io::Error`. The `Write` trait function signatures end up -looking like this: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub trait Write { - fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<usize>; - fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()>; - - fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<()>; - fn write_fmt(&mut self, fmt: fmt::Arguments) -> Result<()>; +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, } -``` -The type alias helps in two ways: it makes code easier to write *and* it gives -us a consistent interface across all of `std::io`. Because it’s an alias, it’s -just another `Result<T, E>`, which means we can use any methods that work on -`Result<T, E>` with it, as well as special syntax like the `?` operator. - -### The Never Type That Never Returns - -Rust has a special type named `!` that’s known in type theory lingo as the -*empty type* because it has no values. We prefer to call it the *never type* -because it stands in the place of the return type when a function will never -return. Here is an example: +fn main() { + let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; -``` -fn bar() -> ! { - --snip-- + let Point { x, y } = p; + assert_eq!(0, x); + assert_eq!(7, y); } ``` -This code is read as “the function `bar` returns never.” Functions that return -never are called *diverging functions*. We can’t create values of the type `!`, -so `bar` can never possibly return. +Listing 18-13: Destructuring struct fields using struct field shorthand -But what use is a type you can never create values for? Recall the code from -Listing 2-5, part of the number-guessing game; we’ve reproduced a bit of it -here in Listing 19-26. +This code creates the variables `x` and `y` that match the `x` and `y` fields +of the `p` variable. The outcome is that the variables `x` and `y` contain the +values from the `p` struct. -``` -let guess: u32 = match guess.trim().parse() { - Ok(num) => num, - Err(_) => continue, -}; -``` +We can also destructure with literal values as part of the struct pattern +rather than creating variables for all the fields. Doing so allows us to test +some of the fields for particular values while creating variables to +destructure the other fields. -Listing 19-26: A `match` with an arm that ends in `continue` +In Listing 18-14, we have a `match` expression that separates `Point` values +into three cases: points that lie directly on the `x` axis (which is true when +`y = 0`), on the `y` axis (`x = 0`), or on neither axis. -At the time, we skipped over some details in this code. In “The match Control -Flow Construct” on page XX, we discussed that `match` arms must all return the -same type. So, for example, the following code doesn’t work: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let guess = match guess.trim().parse() { - Ok(_) => 5, - Err(_) => "hello", -}; -``` - -The type of `guess` in this code would have to be an integer *and* a string, -and Rust requires that `guess` have only one type. So what does `continue` -return? How were we allowed to return a `u32` from one arm and have another arm -that ends with `continue` in Listing 19-26? - -As you might have guessed, `continue` has a `!` value. That is, when Rust -computes the type of `guess`, it looks at both match arms, the former with a -value of `u32` and the latter with a `!` value. Because `!` can never have a -value, Rust decides that the type of `guess` is `u32`. - -The formal way of describing this behavior is that expressions of type `!` can -be coerced into any other type. We’re allowed to end this `match` arm with -`continue` because `continue` doesn’t return a value; instead, it moves control -back to the top of the loop, so in the `Err` case, we never assign a value to -`guess`. - -The never type is useful with the `panic!` macro as well. Recall the `unwrap` -function that we call on `Option<T>` values to produce a value or panic with -this definition: +fn main() { + let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; -``` -impl<T> Option<T> { - pub fn unwrap(self) -> T { - match self { - Some(val) => val, - None => panic!( - "called `Option::unwrap()` on a `None` value" - ), + match p { + Point { x, y: 0 } => println!("On the x axis at {x}"), + Point { x: 0, y } => println!("On the y axis at {y}"), + Point { x, y } => { + println!("On neither axis: ({x}, {y})"); } } } ``` -In this code, the same thing happens as in the `match` in Listing 19-26: Rust -sees that `val` has the type `T` and `panic!` has the type `!`, so the result -of the overall `match` expression is `T`. This code works because `panic!` -doesn’t produce a value; it ends the program. In the `None` case, we won’t be -returning a value from `unwrap`, so this code is valid. +Listing 18-14: Destructuring and matching literal values in one pattern -One final expression that has the type `!` is a `loop`: +The first arm will match any point that lies on the `x` axis by specifying that +the `y` field matches if its value matches the literal `0`. The pattern still +creates an `x` variable that we can use in the code for this arm. -``` -print!("forever "); +Similarly, the second arm matches any point on the `y` axis by specifying that +the `x` field matches if its value is `0` and creates a variable `y` for the +value of the `y` field. The third arm doesn’t specify any literals, so it +matches any other `Point` and creates variables for both the `x` and `y` fields. -loop { - print!("and ever "); -} -``` +In this example, the value `p` matches the second arm by virtue of `x` +containing a `0`, so this code will print `On the y axis at 7`. -Here, the loop never ends, so `!` is the value of the expression. However, this -wouldn’t be true if we included a `break`, because the loop would terminate -when it got to the `break`. - -### Dynamically Sized Types and the Sized Trait - -Rust needs to know certain details about its types, such as how much space to -allocate for a value of a particular type. This leaves one corner of its type -system a little confusing at first: the concept of *dynamically sized types*. -Sometimes referred to as *DSTs* or *unsized types*, these types let us write -code using values whose size we can know only at runtime. - -Let’s dig into the details of a dynamically sized type called `str`, which -we’ve been using throughout the book. That’s right, not `&str`, but `str` on -its own, is a DST. We can’t know how long the string is until runtime, meaning -we can’t create a variable of type `str`, nor can we take an argument of type -`str`. Consider the following code, which does not work: - -``` -let s1: str = "Hello there!"; -let s2: str = "How's it going?"; -``` - -Rust needs to know how much memory to allocate for any value of a particular -type, and all values of a type must use the same amount of memory. If Rust -allowed us to write this code, these two `str` values would need to take up the -same amount of space. But they have different lengths: `s1` needs 12 bytes of -storage and `s2` needs 15. This is why it’s not possible to create a variable -holding a dynamically sized type. - -So what do we do? In this case, you already know the answer: we make the types -of `s1` and `s2` a `&str` rather than a `str`. Recall from “String Slices” on -page XX that the slice data structure just stores the starting position and the -length of the slice. So, although a `&T` is a single value that stores the -memory address of where the `T` is located, a `&str` is *two* values: the -address of the `str` and its length. As such, we can know the size of a `&str` -value at compile time: it’s twice the length of a `usize`. That is, we always -know the size of a `&str`, no matter how long the string it refers to is. In -general, this is the way in which dynamically sized types are used in Rust: -they have an extra bit of metadata that stores the size of the dynamic -information. The golden rule of dynamically sized types is that we must always -put values of dynamically sized types behind a pointer of some kind. - -We can combine `str` with all kinds of pointers: for example, `Box<str>` or -`Rc<str>`. In fact, you’ve seen this before but with a different dynamically -sized type: traits. Every trait is a dynamically sized type we can refer to by -using the name of the trait. In “Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of -Different Types” on page XX, we mentioned that to use traits as trait objects, -we must put them behind a pointer, such as `&dyn Trait` or `Box<dyn Trait>` -(`Rc<dyn Trait>` would work too). - -To work with DSTs, Rust provides the `Sized` trait to determine whether or not -a type’s size is known at compile time. This trait is automatically implemented -for everything whose size is known at compile time. In addition, Rust -implicitly adds a bound on `Sized` to every generic function. That is, a -generic function definition like this: - -``` -fn generic<T>(t: T) { - --snip-- -} -``` +Remember that a `match` expression stops checking arms once it has found the +first matching pattern, so even though `Point { x: 0, y: 0}` is on the `x` axis +and the `y` axis, this code would only print `On the x axis at 0`. + +#### Destructuring Enums + +We’ve destructured enums in this book (for example, Listing 6-5), but we +haven’t yet explicitly discussed that the pattern to destructure an enum +corresponds to the way the data stored within the enum is defined. As an +example, in Listing 18-15 we use the `Message` enum from Listing 6-2 and write +a `match` with patterns that will destructure each inner value. -is actually treated as though we had written this: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn generic<T: Sized>(t: T) { - --snip-- +enum Message { + Quit, + Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, + Write(String), + ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32), } -``` -By default, generic functions will work only on types that have a known size at -compile time. However, you can use the following special syntax to relax this -restriction: +fn main() { + 1 let msg = Message::ChangeColor(0, 160, 255); -``` -fn generic<T: ?Sized>(t: &T) { - --snip-- + match msg { + 2 Message::Quit => { + println!( + "The Quit variant has no data to destructure." + ); + } + 3 Message::Move { x, y } => { + println!( + "Move in the x dir {x}, in the y dir {y}" + ); + } + 4 Message::Write(text) => { + println!("Text message: {text}"); + } + 5 Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => println!( + "Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}" + ), + } } ``` -A trait bound on `?Sized` means “`T` may or may not be `Sized`” and this -notation overrides the default that generic types must have a known size at -compile time. The `?Trait` syntax with this meaning is only available for -`Sized`, not any other traits. - -Also note that we switched the type of the `t` parameter from `T` to `&T`. -Because the type might not be `Sized`, we need to use it behind some kind of -pointer. In this case, we’ve chosen a reference. +Listing 18-15: Destructuring enum variants that hold different kinds of values -Next, we’ll talk about functions and closures! +This code will print `Change color to red 0, green 160, and blue 255`. Try +changing the value of `msg` [1] to see the code from the other arms run. -## Advanced Functions and Closures +For enum variants without any data, like `Message::Quit` [2], we can’t +destructure the value any further. We can only match on the literal +`Message::Quit` value, and no variables are in that pattern. -This section explores some advanced features related to functions and closures, -including function pointers and returning closures. +For struct-like enum variants, such as `Message::Move` [3], we can use a +pattern similar to the pattern we specify to match structs. After the variant +name, we place curly brackets and then list the fields with variables so we +break apart the pieces to use in the code for this arm. Here we use the +shorthand form as we did in Listing 18-13. -### Function Pointers +For tuple-like enum variants, like `Message::Write` that holds a tuple with one +element [4] and `Message::ChangeColor` that holds a tuple with three elements +[5], the pattern is similar to the pattern we specify to match tuples. The +number of variables in the pattern must match the number of elements in the +variant we’re matching. -We’ve talked about how to pass closures to functions; you can also pass regular -functions to functions! This technique is useful when you want to pass a -function you’ve already defined rather than defining a new closure. Functions -coerce to the type `fn` (with a lowercase *f*), not to be confused with the -`Fn` closure trait. The `fn` type is called a *function pointer*. Passing -functions with function pointers will allow you to use functions as arguments -to other functions. +#### Destructuring Nested Structs and Enums -The syntax for specifying that a parameter is a function pointer is similar to -that of closures, as shown in Listing 19-27, where we’ve defined a function -`add_one` that adds 1 to its parameter. The function `do_twice` takes two -parameters: a function pointer to any function that takes an `i32` parameter -and returns an `i32`, and one `i32 value`. The `do_twice` function calls the -function `f` twice, passing it the `arg` value, then adds the two function call -results together. The `main` function calls `do_twice` with the arguments -`add_one` and `5`. +So far, our examples have all been matching structs or enums one level deep, +but matching can work on nested items too! For example, we can refactor the +code in Listing 18-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor` +message, as shown in Listing 18-16. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 { - x + 1 +enum Color { + Rgb(i32, i32, i32), + Hsv(i32, i32, i32), } -fn do_twice(f: fn(i32) -> i32, arg: i32) -> i32 { - f(arg) + f(arg) +enum Message { + Quit, + Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, + Write(String), + ChangeColor(Color), } fn main() { - let answer = do_twice(add_one, 5); - - println!("The answer is: {answer}"); + let msg = Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(0, 160, 255)); + + match msg { + Message::ChangeColor(Color::Rgb(r, g, b)) => println!( + "Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}" + ), + Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(h, s, v)) => println!( + "Change color to hue {h}, saturation {s}, value {v}" + ), + _ => (), + } } ``` -Listing 19-27: Using the `fn` type to accept a function pointer as an argument - -This code prints `The answer is: 12`. We specify that the parameter `f` in -`do_twice` is an `fn` that takes one parameter of type `i32` and returns an -`i32`. We can then call `f` in the body of `do_twice`. In `main`, we can pass -the function name `add_one` as the first argument to `do_twice`. +Listing 18-16: Matching on nested enums -Unlike closures, `fn` is a type rather than a trait, so we specify `fn` as the -parameter type directly rather than declaring a generic type parameter with one -of the `Fn` traits as a trait bound. +The pattern of the first arm in the `match` expression matches a +`Message::ChangeColor` enum variant that contains a `Color::Rgb` variant; then +the pattern binds to the three inner `i32` values. The pattern of the second +arm also matches a `Message::ChangeColor` enum variant, but the inner enum +matches `Color::Hsv` instead. We can specify these complex conditions in one +`match` expression, even though two enums are involved. -Function pointers implement all three of the closure traits (`Fn`, `FnMut`, and -`FnOnce`), meaning you can always pass a function pointer as an argument for a -function that expects a closure. It’s best to write functions using a generic -type and one of the closure traits so your functions can accept either -functions or closures. +#### Destructuring Structs and Tuples -That said, one example of where you would want to only accept `fn` and not -closures is when interfacing with external code that doesn’t have closures: C -functions can accept functions as arguments, but C doesn’t have closures. - -As an example of where you could use either a closure defined inline or a named -function, let’s look at a use of the `map` method provided by the `Iterator` -trait in the standard library. To use the `map` function to turn a vector of -numbers into a vector of strings, we could use a closure, like this: +We can mix, match, and nest destructuring patterns in even more complex ways. +The following example shows a complicated destructure where we nest structs and +tuples inside a tuple and destructure all the primitive values out: ``` -let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; -let list_of_strings: Vec<String> = list_of_numbers - .iter() - .map(|i| i.to_string()) - .collect(); +let ((feet, inches), Point { x, y }) = + ((3, 10), Point { x: 3, y: -10 }); ``` -Or we could name a function as the argument to `map` instead of the closure, -like this: +This code lets us break complex types into their component parts so we can use +the values we’re interested in separately. -``` -let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; -let list_of_strings: Vec<String> = list_of_numbers - .iter() - .map(ToString::to_string) - .collect(); -``` +Destructuring with patterns is a convenient way to use pieces of values, such +as the value from each field in a struct, separately from each other. + +### Ignoring Values in a Pattern -Note that we must use the fully qualified syntax that we talked about in -“Advanced Traits” on page XX because there are multiple functions available -named `to_string`. +You’ve seen that it’s sometimes useful to ignore values in a pattern, such as +in the last arm of a `match`, to get a catchall that doesn’t actually do +anything but does account for all remaining possible values. There are a few +ways to ignore entire values or parts of values in a pattern: using the `_` +pattern (which you’ve seen), using the `_` pattern within another pattern, +using a name that starts with an underscore, or using `..` to ignore remaining +parts of a value. Let’s explore how and why to use each of these patterns. -Here, we’re using the `to_string` function defined in the `ToString` trait, -which the standard library has implemented for any type that implements -`Display`. +#### An Entire Value with _ -Recall from “Enum Values” on page XX that the name of each enum variant that we -define also becomes an initializer function. We can use these initializer -functions as function pointers that implement the closure traits, which means -we can specify the initializer functions as arguments for methods that take -closures, like so: +We’ve used the underscore as a wildcard pattern that will match any value but +not bind to the value. This is especially useful as the last arm in a `match` +expression, but we can also use it in any pattern, including function +parameters, as shown in Listing 18-17. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -enum Status { - Value(u32), - Stop, +fn foo(_: i32, y: i32) { + println!("This code only uses the y parameter: {y}"); } -let list_of_statuses: Vec<Status> = (0u32..20) - .map(Status::Value) - .collect(); +fn main() { + foo(3, 4); +} ``` -Here, we create `Status::Value` instances using each `u32` value in the range -that `map` is called on by using the initializer function of `Status::Value`. -Some people prefer this style and some people prefer to use closures. They -compile to the same code, so use whichever style is clearer to you. +Listing 18-17: Using `_` in a function signature -### Returning Closures +This code will completely ignore the value `3` passed as the first argument, +and will print `This code only uses the y parameter: 4`. -Closures are represented by traits, which means you can’t return closures -directly. In most cases where you might want to return a trait, you can instead -use the concrete type that implements the trait as the return value of the -function. However, you can’t do that with closures because they don’t have a -concrete type that is returnable; you’re not allowed to use the function -pointer `fn` as a return type, for example. +In most cases when you no longer need a particular function parameter, you +would change the signature so it doesn’t include the unused parameter. Ignoring +a function parameter can be especially useful in cases when, for example, +you’re implementing a trait when you need a certain type signature but the +function body in your implementation doesn’t need one of the parameters. You +then avoid getting a compiler warning about unused function parameters, as you +would if you used a name instead. -The following code tries to return a closure directly, but it won’t compile: +#### Parts of a Value with a Nested _ -``` -fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { - |x| x + 1 -} -``` +We can also use `_` inside another pattern to ignore just part of a value, for +example, when we want to test for only part of a value but have no use for the +other parts in the corresponding code we want to run. Listing 18-18 shows code +responsible for managing a setting’s value. The business requirements are that +the user should not be allowed to overwrite an existing customization of a +setting but can unset the setting and give it a value if it is currently unset. -The compiler error is as follows: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -error[E0746]: return type cannot have an unboxed trait object - --> src/lib.rs:1:25 - | -1 | fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ doesn't have a size known at -compile-time - | - = note: for information on `impl Trait`, see -<https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch10-02-traits.html#returning-types-that- -implement-traits> -help: use `impl Fn(i32) -> i32` as the return type, as all return paths are of -type `[closure@src/lib.rs:2:5: 2:14]`, which implements `Fn(i32) -> i32` - | -1 | fn returns_closure() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 { - | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -``` +let mut setting_value = Some(5); +let new_setting_value = Some(10); -The error references the `Sized` trait again! Rust doesn’t know how much space -it will need to store the closure. We saw a solution to this problem earlier. -We can use a trait object: - -``` -fn returns_closure() -> Box<dyn Fn(i32) -> i32> { - Box::new(|x| x + 1) +match (setting_value, new_setting_value) { + (Some(_), Some(_)) => { + println!("Can't overwrite an existing customized value"); + } + _ => { + setting_value = new_setting_value; + } } -``` - -This code will compile just fine. For more about trait objects, refer to “Using -Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types” on page XX. -Next, let’s look at macros! - -## Macros +println!("setting is {:?}", setting_value); +``` -We’ve used macros like `println!` throughout this book, but we haven’t fully -explored what a macro is and how it works. The term *macro* refers to a family -of features in Rust: *declarative* macros with `macro_rules!` and three kinds -of *procedural* macros: +Listing 18-18: Using an underscore within patterns that match `Some` variants +when we don’t need to use the value inside the `Some` -* Custom `#[derive]` macros that specify code added with the `derive` attribute -used on structs and enums -* Attribute-like macros that define custom attributes usable on any item -* Function-like macros that look like function calls but operate on the tokens -specified as their argument +This code will print `Can't overwrite an existing customized value` and then +`setting is Some(5)`. In the first match arm, we don’t need to match on or use +the values inside either `Some` variant, but we do need to test for the case +when `setting_value` and `new_setting_value` are the `Some` variant. In that +case, we print the reason for not changing `setting_value`, and it doesn’t get +changed. -We’ll talk about each of these in turn, but first, let’s look at why we even -need macros when we already have functions. +In all other cases (if either `setting_value` or `new_setting_value` is `None`) +expressed by the `_` pattern in the second arm, we want to allow +`new_setting_value` to become `setting_value`. -### The Difference Between Macros and Functions +We can also use underscores in multiple places within one pattern to ignore +particular values. Listing 18-19 shows an example of ignoring the second and +fourth values in a tuple of five items. -Fundamentally, macros are a way of writing code that writes other code, which -is known as *metaprogramming*. In Appendix C, we discuss the `derive` -attribute, which generates an implementation of various traits for you. We’ve -also used the `println!` and `vec!` macros throughout the book. All of these -macros *expand* to produce more code than the code you’ve written manually. +Filename: src/main.rs -Metaprogramming is useful for reducing the amount of code you have to write and -maintain, which is also one of the roles of functions. However, macros have -some additional powers that functions don’t have. +``` +let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); -A function signature must declare the number and type of parameters the -function has. Macros, on the other hand, can take a variable number of -parameters: we can call `println!("hello")` with one argument or -`println!("hello {}", name)` with two arguments. Also, macros are expanded -before the compiler interprets the meaning of the code, so a macro can, for -example, implement a trait on a given type. A function can’t, because it gets -called at runtime and a trait needs to be implemented at compile time. +match numbers { + (first, _, third, _, fifth) => { + println!("Some numbers: {first}, {third}, {fifth}"); + } +} +``` -The downside to implementing a macro instead of a function is that macro -definitions are more complex than function definitions because you’re writing -Rust code that writes Rust code. Due to this indirection, macro definitions are -generally more difficult to read, understand, and maintain than function -definitions. +Listing 18-19: Ignoring multiple parts of a tuple -Another important difference between macros and functions is that you must -define macros or bring them into scope *before* you call them in a file, as -opposed to functions you can define anywhere and call anywhere. +This code will print `Some numbers: 2, 8, 32`, and the values `4` and `16` will +be ignored. -### Declarative Macros with macro_rules! for General Metaprogramming +#### An Unused Variable by Starting Its Name with _ -The most widely used form of macros in Rust is the *declarative macro*. These -are also sometimes referred to as “macros by example,” “`macro_rules!` macros,” -or just plain “macros.” At their core, declarative macros allow you to write -something similar to a Rust `match` expression. As discussed in Chapter 6, -`match` expressions are control structures that take an expression, compare the -resultant value of the expression to patterns, and then run the code associated -with the matching pattern. Macros also compare a value to patterns that are -associated with particular code: in this situation, the value is the literal -Rust source code passed to the macro; the patterns are compared with the -structure of that source code; and the code associated with each pattern, when -matched, replaces the code passed to the macro. This all happens during -compilation. +If you create a variable but don’t use it anywhere, Rust will usually issue a +warning because an unused variable could be a bug. However, sometimes it’s +useful to be able to create a variable you won’t use yet, such as when you’re +prototyping or just starting a project. In this situation, you can tell Rust +not to warn you about the unused variable by starting the name of the variable +with an underscore. In Listing 18-20, we create two unused variables, but when +we compile this code, we should only get a warning about one of them. -To define a macro, you use the `macro_rules!` construct. Let’s explore how to -use `macro_rules!` by looking at how the `vec!` macro is defined. Chapter 8 -covered how we can use the `vec!` macro to create a new vector with particular -values. For example, the following macro creates a new vector containing three -integers: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let v: Vec<u32> = vec![1, 2, 3]; +fn main() { + let _x = 5; + let y = 10; +} ``` -We could also use the `vec!` macro to make a vector of two integers or a vector -of five string slices. We wouldn’t be able to use a function to do the same -because we wouldn’t know the number or type of values up front. +Listing 18-20: Starting a variable name with an underscore to avoid getting +unused variable warnings -Listing 19-28 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro. +Here, we get a warning about not using the variable `y`, but we don’t get a +warning about not using `_x`. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Note that there is a subtle difference between using only `_` and using a name +that starts with an underscore. The syntax `_x` still binds the value to the +variable, whereas `_` doesn’t bind at all. To show a case where this +distinction matters, Listing 18-21 will provide us with an error. -``` -1 #[macro_export] -2 macro_rules! vec { - 3 ( $( $x:expr ),* ) => { - { - let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); - 4 $( - 5 temp_vec.push(6 $x); - )* - 7 temp_vec - } - }; -} -``` +Filename: src/main.rs -Listing 19-28: A simplified version of the `vec!` macro definition - -> Note: The actual definition of the `vec!` macro in the standard library -includes code to pre-allocate the correct amount of memory up front. That code -is an optimization that we don’t include here, to make the example simpler. - -The `#[macro_export]` annotation [1] indicates that this macro should be made -available whenever the crate in which the macro is defined is brought into -scope. Without this annotation, the macro can’t be brought into scope. - -We then start the macro definition with `macro_rules!` and the name of the -macro we’re defining *without* the exclamation mark [2]. The name, in this case -`vec`, is followed by curly brackets denoting the body of the macro definition. - -The structure in the `vec!` body is similar to the structure of a `match` -expression. Here we have one arm with the pattern `( $( $x:expr ),* )`, -followed by `=>` and the block of code associated with this pattern [3]. If the -pattern matches, the associated block of code will be emitted. Given that this -is the only pattern in this macro, there is only one valid way to match; any -other pattern will result in an error. More complex macros will have more than -one arm. - -Valid pattern syntax in macro definitions is different from the pattern syntax -covered in Chapter 18 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code -structure rather than values. Let’s walk through what the pattern pieces in -Listing 19-28 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the Rust Reference -at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/macros-by-example.html*. - -First we use a set of parentheses to encompass the whole pattern. We use a -dollar sign (`$`) to declare a variable in the macro system that will contain -the Rust code matching the pattern. The dollar sign makes it clear this is a -macro variable as opposed to a regular Rust variable. Next comes a set of -parentheses that captures values that match the pattern within the parentheses -for use in the replacement code. Within `$()` is `$x:expr`, which matches any -Rust expression and gives the expression the name `$x`. - -The comma following `$()` indicates that a literal comma separator character -could optionally appear after the code that matches the code in `$()`. The `*` -specifies that the pattern matches zero or more of whatever precedes the `*`. - -When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the `$x` pattern matches three -times with the three expressions `1`, `2`, and `3`. - -Now let’s look at the pattern in the body of the code associated with this arm: -`temp_vec.push()` [5] within `$()* at [4] and [7] is generated for each part -that matches `$()` in the pattern zero or more times depending on how many -times the pattern matches. The `$x` [6] is replaced with each expression -matched. When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the code generated that -replaces this macro call will be the following: - -``` -{ - let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); - temp_vec.push(1); - temp_vec.push(2); - temp_vec.push(3); - temp_vec -} ``` +let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); -We’ve defined a macro that can take any number of arguments of any type and can -generate code to create a vector containing the specified elements. - -To learn more about how to write macros, consult the online documentation or -other resources, such as “The Little Book of Rust Macros” at -*https://veykril.github.io/tlborm* started by Daniel Keep and continued by -Lukas Wirth. +if let Some(_s) = s { + println!("found a string"); +} -### Procedural Macros for Generating Code from Attributes +println!("{:?}", s); +``` -The second form of macros is the procedural macro, which acts more like a -function (and is a type of procedure). *Procedural macros* accept some code as -an input, operate on that code, and produce some code as an output rather than -matching against patterns and replacing the code with other code as declarative -macros do. The three kinds of procedural macros are custom `derive`, -attribute-like, and function-like, and all work in a similar fashion. +Listing 18-21: An unused variable starting with an underscore still binds the +value, which might take ownership of the value. -When creating procedural macros, the definitions must reside in their own crate -with a special crate type. This is for complex technical reasons that we hope -to eliminate in the future. In Listing 19-29, we show how to define a -procedural macro, where `some_attribute` is a placeholder for using a specific -macro variety. +We’ll receive an error because the `s` value will still be moved into `_s`, +which prevents us from using `s` again. However, using the underscore by itself +doesn’t ever bind to the value. Listing 18-22 will compile without any errors +because `s` doesn’t get moved into `_`. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use proc_macro::TokenStream; +let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); -#[some_attribute] -pub fn some_name(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { +if let Some(_) = s { + println!("found a string"); } -``` -Listing 19-29: An example of defining a procedural macro +println!("{:?}", s); +``` -The function that defines a procedural macro takes a `TokenStream` as an input -and produces a `TokenStream` as an output. The `TokenStream` type is defined by -the `proc_macro` crate that is included with Rust and represents a sequence of -tokens. This is the core of the macro: the source code that the macro is -operating on makes up the input `TokenStream`, and the code the macro produces -is the output `TokenStream`. The function also has an attribute attached to it -that specifies which kind of procedural macro we’re creating. We can have -multiple kinds of procedural macros in the same crate. +Listing 18-22: Using an underscore does not bind the value. -Let’s look at the different kinds of procedural macros. We’ll start with a -custom `derive` macro and then explain the small dissimilarities that make the -other forms different. +This code works just fine because we never bind `s` to anything; it isn’t moved. -### How to Write a Custom derive Macro +#### Remaining Parts of a Value with .. -Let’s create a crate named `hello_macro` that defines a trait named -`HelloMacro` with one associated function named `hello_macro`. Rather than -making our users implement the `HelloMacro` trait for each of their types, -we’ll provide a procedural macro so users can annotate their type with -`#[derive(HelloMacro)]` to get a default implementation of the `hello_macro` -function. The default implementation will print `Hello, Macro! My name is` -TypeName`!` where TypeName is the name of the type on which this trait has been -defined. In other words, we’ll write a crate that enables another programmer to -write code like Listing 19-30 using our crate. +With values that have many parts, we can use the `..` syntax to use specific +parts and ignore the rest, avoiding the need to list underscores for each +ignored value. The `..` pattern ignores any parts of a value that we haven’t +explicitly matched in the rest of the pattern. In Listing 18-23, we have a +`Point` struct that holds a coordinate in three-dimensional space. In the +`match` expression, we want to operate only on the `x` coordinate and ignore +the values in the `y` and `z` fields. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use hello_macro::HelloMacro; -use hello_macro_derive::HelloMacro; +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, + z: i32, +} -#[derive(HelloMacro)] -struct Pancakes; +let origin = Point { x: 0, y: 0, z: 0 }; -fn main() { - Pancakes::hello_macro(); +match origin { + Point { x, .. } => println!("x is {x}"), } ``` -Listing 19-30: The code a user of our crate will be able to write when using -our procedural macro +Listing 18-23: Ignoring all fields of a `Point` except for `x` by using `..` -This code will print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` when we’re done. The -first step is to make a new library crate, like this: +We list the `x` value and then just include the `..` pattern. This is quicker +than having to list `y: _` and `z: _`, particularly when we’re working with +structs that have lots of fields in situations where only one or two fields are +relevant. -``` -$ cargo new hello_macro --lib -``` +The syntax `..` will expand to as many values as it needs to be. Listing 18-24 +shows how to use `..` with a tuple. -Next, we’ll define the `HelloMacro` trait and its associated function: - -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub trait HelloMacro { - fn hello_macro(); +fn main() { + let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); + + match numbers { + (first, .., last) => { + println!("Some numbers: {first}, {last}"); + } + } } ``` -We have a trait and its function. At this point, our crate user could implement -the trait to achieve the desired functionality, like so: +Listing 18-24: Matching only the first and last values in a tuple and ignoring +all other values -``` -use hello_macro::HelloMacro; +In this code, the first and last values are matched with `first` and `last`. +The `..` will match and ignore everything in the middle. -struct Pancakes; +However, using `..` must be unambiguous. If it is unclear which values are +intended for matching and which should be ignored, Rust will give us an error. +Listing 18-25 shows an example of using `..` ambiguously, so it will not +compile. -impl HelloMacro for Pancakes { - fn hello_macro() { - println!("Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!"); - } -} +Filename: src/main.rs +``` fn main() { - Pancakes::hello_macro(); + let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); + + match numbers { + (.., second, ..) => { + println!("Some numbers: {second}"); + }, + } } ``` -However, they would need to write the implementation block for each type they -wanted to use with `hello_macro`; we want to spare them from having to do this -work. - -Additionally, we can’t yet provide the `hello_macro` function with default -implementation that will print the name of the type the trait is implemented -on: Rust doesn’t have reflection capabilities, so it can’t look up the type’s -name at runtime. We need a macro to generate code at compile time. +Listing 18-25: An attempt to use `..` in an ambiguous way -The next step is to define the procedural macro. At the time of this writing, -procedural macros need to be in their own crate. Eventually, this restriction -might be lifted. The convention for structuring crates and macro crates is as -follows: for a crate named foo, a custom `derive` procedural macro crate is -called foo`_derive`. Let’s start a new crate called `hello_macro_derive` inside -our `hello_macro` project: +When we compile this example, we get this error: ``` -$ cargo new hello_macro_derive --lib +error: `..` can only be used once per tuple pattern + --> src/main.rs:5:22 + | +5 | (.., second, ..) => { + | -- ^^ can only be used once per tuple pattern + | | + | previously used here ``` -Our two crates are tightly related, so we create the procedural macro crate -within the directory of our `hello_macro` crate. If we change the trait -definition in `hello_macro`, we’ll have to change the implementation of the -procedural macro in `hello_macro_derive` as well. The two crates will need to -be published separately, and programmers using these crates will need to add -both as dependencies and bring them both into scope. We could instead have the -`hello_macro` crate use `hello_macro_derive` as a dependency and re-export the -procedural macro code. However, the way we’ve structured the project makes it -possible for programmers to use `hello_macro` even if they don’t want the -`derive` functionality. +It’s impossible for Rust to determine how many values in the tuple to ignore +before matching a value with `second` and then how many further values to +ignore thereafter. This code could mean that we want to ignore `2`, bind +`second` to `4`, and then ignore `8`, `16`, and `32`; or that we want to ignore +`2` and `4`, bind `second` to `8`, and then ignore `16` and `32`; and so forth. +The variable name `second` doesn’t mean anything special to Rust, so we get a +compiler error because using `..` in two places like this is ambiguous. + +### Extra Conditionals with Match Guards + +A *match guard* is an additional `if` condition, specified after the pattern in +a `match` arm, that must also match for that arm to be chosen. Match guards are +useful for expressing more complex ideas than a pattern alone allows. -We need to declare the `hello_macro_derive` crate as a procedural macro crate. -We’ll also need functionality from the `syn` and `quote` crates, as you’ll see -in a moment, so we need to add them as dependencies. Add the following to the -*Cargo.toml* file for `hello_macro_derive`: +The condition can use variables created in the pattern. Listing 18-26 shows a +`match` where the first arm has the pattern `Some(x)` and also has a match +guard of `if x % 2 == 0` (which will be `true` if the number is even). -Filename: hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -[lib] -proc-macro = true +let num = Some(4); -[dependencies] -syn = "1.0" -quote = "1.0" +match num { + Some(x) if x % 2 == 0 => println!("The number {x} is even"), + Some(x) => println!("The number {x} is odd"), + None => (), +} ``` -To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 19-31 into -your *src/lib.rs* file for the `hello_macro_derive` crate. Note that this code -won’t compile until we add a definition for the `impl_hello_macro` function. +Listing 18-26: Adding a match guard to a pattern -Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs +This example will print `The number 4 is even`. When `num` is compared to the +pattern in the first arm, it matches because `Some(4)` matches `Some(x)`. Then +the match guard checks whether the remainder of dividing `x` by 2 is equal to +0, and because it is, the first arm is selected. -``` -use proc_macro::TokenStream; -use quote::quote; -use syn; +If `num` had been `Some(5)` instead, the match guard in the first arm would +have been `false` because the remainder of 5 divided by 2 is 1, which is not +equal to 0. Rust would then go to the second arm, which would match because the +second arm doesn’t have a match guard and therefore matches any `Some` variant. -#[proc_macro_derive(HelloMacro)] -pub fn hello_macro_derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { - // Construct a representation of Rust code as a syntax tree - // that we can manipulate - let ast = syn::parse(input).unwrap(); +There is no way to express the `if x % 2 == 0` condition within a pattern, so +the match guard gives us the ability to express this logic. The downside of +this additional expressiveness is that the compiler doesn’t try to check for +exhaustiveness when match guard expressions are involved. - // Build the trait implementation - impl_hello_macro(&ast) -} -``` +In Listing 18-11, we mentioned that we could use match guards to solve our +pattern-shadowing problem. Recall that we created a new variable inside the +pattern in the `match` expression instead of using the variable outside the +`match`. That new variable meant we couldn’t test against the value of the +outer variable. Listing 18-27 shows how we can use a match guard to fix this +problem. -Listing 19-31: Code that most procedural macro crates will require in order to -process Rust code - -Notice that we’ve split the code into the `hello_macro_derive` function, which -is responsible for parsing the `TokenStream`, and the `impl_hello_macro` -function, which is responsible for transforming the syntax tree: this makes -writing a procedural macro more convenient. The code in the outer function -(`hello_macro_derive` in this case) will be the same for almost every -procedural macro crate you see or create. The code you specify in the body of -the inner function (`impl_hello_macro` in this case) will be different -depending on your procedural macro’s purpose. - -We’ve introduced three new crates: `proc_macro`, `syn` (available from -*https://crates.io/crates/syn*), and `quote` (available from -*https://crates.io/crates/quote*). The `proc_macro` crate comes with Rust, so -we didn’t need to add that to the dependencies in *Cargo.toml*. The -`proc_macro` crate is the compiler’s API that allows us to read and manipulate -Rust code from our code. - -The `syn` crate parses Rust code from a string into a data structure that we -can perform operations on. The `quote` crate turns `syn` data structures back -into Rust code. These crates make it much simpler to parse any sort of Rust -code we might want to handle: writing a full parser for Rust code is no simple -task. - -The `hello_macro_derive` function will be called when a user of our library -specifies `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` on a type. This is possible because we’ve -annotated the `hello_macro_derive` function here with `proc_macro_derive` and -specified the name `HelloMacro`, which matches our trait name; this is the -convention most procedural macros follow. - -The `hello_macro_derive` function first converts the `input` from a -`TokenStream` to a data structure that we can then interpret and perform -operations on. This is where `syn` comes into play. The `parse` function in -`syn` takes a `TokenStream` and returns a `DeriveInput` struct representing the -parsed Rust code. Listing 19-32 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput` -struct we get from parsing the `struct Pancakes;` string. - -``` -DeriveInput { - --snip-- - - ident: Ident { - ident: "Pancakes", - span: #0 bytes(95..103) - }, - data: Struct( - DataStruct { - struct_token: Struct, - fields: Unit, - semi_token: Some( - Semi - ) - } - ) -} -``` +Filename: src/main.rs -Listing 19-32: The `DeriveInput` instance we get when parsing the code that has -the macro’s attribute in Listing 19-30 - -The fields of this struct show that the Rust code we’ve parsed is a unit struct -with the `ident` (*identifier*, meaning the name) of `Pancakes`. There are more -fields on this struct for describing all sorts of Rust code; check the `syn` -documentation for `DeriveInput` at -*https://docs.rs/syn/1.0/syn/struct.DeriveInput.html* for more information. - -Soon we’ll define the `impl_hello_macro` function, which is where we’ll build -the new Rust code we want to include. But before we do, note that the output -for our `derive` macro is also a `TokenStream`. The returned `TokenStream` is -added to the code that our crate users write, so when they compile their crate, -they’ll get the extra functionality that we provide in the modified -`TokenStream`. - -You might have noticed that we’re calling `unwrap` to cause the -`hello_macro_derive` function to panic if the call to the `syn::parse` function -fails here. It’s necessary for our procedural macro to panic on errors because -`proc_macro_derive` functions must return `TokenStream` rather than `Result` to -conform to the procedural macro API. We’ve simplified this example by using -`unwrap`; in production code, you should provide more specific error messages -about what went wrong by using `panic!` or `expect`. - -Now that we have the code to turn the annotated Rust code from a `TokenStream` -into a `DeriveInput` instance, let’s generate the code that implements the -`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 19-33. - -Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs - -``` -fn impl_hello_macro(ast: &syn::DeriveInput) -> TokenStream { - let name = &ast.ident; - let gen = quote! { - impl HelloMacro for #name { - fn hello_macro() { - println!( - "Hello, Macro! My name is {}!", - stringify!(#name) - ); - } - } - }; - gen.into() -} ``` +fn main() { + let x = Some(5); + let y = 10; -Listing 19-33: Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using the parsed Rust code + match x { + Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), + Some(n) if n == y => println!("Matched, n = {n}"), + _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), + } -We get an `Ident` struct instance containing the name (identifier) of the -annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 19-32 shows that when -we run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 19-30, the -`ident` we get will have the `ident` field with a value of `"Pancakes"`. Thus -the `name` variable in Listing 19-33 will contain an `Ident` struct instance -that, when printed, will be the string `"Pancakes"`, the name of the struct in -Listing 19-30. + println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {y}", x); +} +``` -The `quote!` macro lets us define the Rust code that we want to return. The -compiler expects something different to the direct result of the `quote!` -macro’s execution, so we need to convert it to a `TokenStream`. We do this by -calling the `into` method, which consumes this intermediate representation and -returns a value of the required `TokenStream` type. +Listing 18-27: Using a match guard to test for equality with an outer variable -The `quote!` macro also provides some very cool templating mechanics: we can -enter `#name`, and `quote!` will replace it with the value in the variable -`name`. You can even do some repetition similar to the way regular macros work. -Check out the `quote` crate’s docs at *https://docs.rs/quote* for a thorough -introduction. +This code will now print `Default case, x = Some(5)`. The pattern in the second +match arm doesn’t introduce a new variable `y` that would shadow the outer `y`, +meaning we can use the outer `y` in the match guard. Instead of specifying the +pattern as `Some(y)`, which would have shadowed the outer `y`, we specify +`Some(n)`. This creates a new variable `n` that doesn’t shadow anything because +there is no `n` variable outside the `match`. -We want our procedural macro to generate an implementation of our `HelloMacro` -trait for the type the user annotated, which we can get by using `#name`. The -trait implementation has the one function `hello_macro`, whose body contains -the functionality we want to provide: printing `Hello, Macro! My name is` and -then the name of the annotated type. +The match guard `if n == y` is not a pattern and therefore doesn’t introduce +new variables. This `y` *is* the outer `y` rather than a new shadowed `y`, and +we can look for a value that has the same value as the outer `y` by comparing +`n` to `y`. -The `stringify!` macro used here is built into Rust. It takes a Rust -expression, such as `1 + 2`, and at compile time turns the expression into a -string literal, such as `"1 + 2"`. This is different from `format!` or -`println!`, macros which evaluate the expression and then turn the result into -a `String`. There is a possibility that the `#name` input might be an -expression to print literally, so we use `stringify!`. Using `stringify!` also -saves an allocation by converting `#name` to a string literal at compile time. +You can also use the *or* operator `|` in a match guard to specify multiple +patterns; the match guard condition will apply to all the patterns. Listing +18-28 shows the precedence when combining a pattern that uses `|` with a match +guard. The important part of this example is that the `if y` match guard +applies to `4`, `5`, *and* `6`, even though it might look like `if y` only +applies to `6`. -At this point, `cargo build` should complete successfully in both `hello_macro` -and `hello_macro_derive`. Let’s hook up these crates to the code in Listing -19-30 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in -your *projects* directory using `cargo new pancakes`. We need to add -`hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive` as dependencies in the `pancakes` -crate’s *Cargo.toml*. If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` and -`hello_macro_derive` to *https://crates.io*, they would be regular -dependencies; if not, you can specify them as `path` dependencies as follows: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -[dependencies] -hello_macro = { path = "../hello_macro" } -hello_macro_derive = { path = "../hello_macro/hello_macro_derive" } -``` +let x = 4; +let y = false; -Put the code in Listing 19-30 into *src/main.rs*, and run `cargo run`: it -should print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` The implementation of the -`HelloMacro` trait from the procedural macro was included without the -`pancakes` crate needing to implement it; the `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` added the -trait implementation. - -Next, let’s explore how the other kinds of procedural macros differ from custom -`derive` macros. +match x { + 4 | 5 | 6 if y => println!("yes"), + _ => println!("no"), +} +``` -### Attribute-like Macros +Listing 18-28: Combining multiple patterns with a match guard -Attribute-like macros are similar to custom `derive` macros, but instead of -generating code for the `derive` attribute, they allow you to create new -attributes. They’re also more flexible: `derive` only works for structs and -enums; attributes can be applied to other items as well, such as functions. -Here’s an example of using an attribute-like macro. Say you have an attribute -named `route` that annotates functions when using a web application framework: +The match condition states that the arm only matches if the value of `x` is +equal to `4`, `5`, or `6` *and* if `y` is `true`. When this code runs, the +pattern of the first arm matches because `x` is `4`, but the match guard `if y` +is `false`, so the first arm is not chosen. The code moves on to the second +arm, which does match, and this program prints `no`. The reason is that the +`if` condition applies to the whole pattern `4 | 5 | 6`, not just to the last +value `6`. In other words, the precedence of a match guard in relation to a +pattern behaves like this: ``` -#[route(GET, "/")] -fn index() { +(4 | 5 | 6) if y => ... ``` -This `#[route]` attribute would be defined by the framework as a procedural -macro. The signature of the macro definition function would look like this: +rather than this: ``` -#[proc_macro_attribute] -pub fn route( - attr: TokenStream, - item: TokenStream -) -> TokenStream { +4 | 5 | (6 if y) => ... ``` -Here, we have two parameters of type `TokenStream`. The first is for the -contents of the attribute: the `GET, "/"` part. The second is the body of the -item the attribute is attached to: in this case, `fn index() {}` and the rest -of the function’s body. +After running the code, the precedence behavior is evident: if the match guard +were applied only to the final value in the list of values specified using the +`|` operator, the arm would have matched and the program would have printed +`yes`. -Other than that, attribute-like macros work the same way as custom `derive` -macros: you create a crate with the `proc-macro` crate type and implement a -function that generates the code you want! +### @ Bindings -### Function-like Macros +The *at* operator `@` lets us create a variable that holds a value at the same +time we’re testing that value for a pattern match. In Listing 18-29, we want to +test that a `Message::Hello` `id` field is within the range `3..=7`. We also +want to bind the value to the variable `id_variable` so we can use it in the +code associated with the arm. We could name this variable `id`, the same as the +field, but for this example we’ll use a different name. -Function-like macros define macros that look like function calls. Similarly to -`macro_rules!` macros, they’re more flexible than functions; for example, they -can take an unknown number of arguments. However, `macro_rules!` macros can -only be defined using the match-like syntax we discussed in “Declarative Macros -with macro_rules! for General Metaprogramming” on page XX. Function-like macros -take a `TokenStream` parameter, and their definition manipulates that -`TokenStream` using Rust code as the other two types of procedural macros do. -An example of a function-like macro is an `sql!` macro that might be called -like so: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let sql = sql!(SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id=1); -``` +enum Message { + Hello { id: i32 }, +} -This macro would parse the SQL statement inside it and check that it’s -syntactically correct, which is much more complex processing than a -`macro_rules!` macro can do. The `sql!` macro would be defined like this: +let msg = Message::Hello { id: 5 }; +match msg { + Message::Hello { + id: id_variable @ 3..=7, + } => println!("Found an id in range: {id_variable}"), + Message::Hello { id: 10..=12 } => { + println!("Found an id in another range") + } + Message::Hello { id } => println!("Some other id: {id}"), +} ``` -#[proc_macro] -pub fn sql(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { -``` -This definition is similar to the custom `derive` macro’s signature: we receive -the tokens that are inside the parentheses and return the code we wanted to -generate. +Listing 18-29: Using `@` to bind to a value in a pattern while also testing it + +This example will print `Found an id in range: 5`. By specifying `id_variable +@` before the range `3..=7`, we’re capturing whatever value matched the range +while also testing that the value matched the range pattern. + +In the second arm, where we only have a range specified in the pattern, the +code associated with the arm doesn’t have a variable that contains the actual +value of the `id` field. The `id` field’s value could have been 10, 11, or 12, +but the code that goes with that pattern doesn’t know which it is. The pattern +code isn’t able to use the value from the `id` field because we haven’t saved +the `id` value in a variable. + +In the last arm, where we’ve specified a variable without a range, we do have +the value available to use in the arm’s code in a variable named `id`. The +reason is that we’ve used the struct field shorthand syntax. But we haven’t +applied any test to the value in the `id` field in this arm, as we did with the +first two arms: any value would match this pattern. + +Using `@` lets us test a value and save it in a variable within one pattern. ## Summary -Whew! Now you have some Rust features in your toolbox that you likely won’t use -often, but you’ll know they’re available in very particular circumstances. -We’ve introduced several complex topics so that when you encounter them in -error message suggestions or in other people’s code, you’ll be able to -recognize these concepts and syntax. Use this chapter as a reference to guide -you to solutions. +Rust’s patterns are very useful in distinguishing between different kinds of +data. When used in `match` expressions, Rust ensures your patterns cover every +possible value, or your program won’t compile. Patterns in `let` statements and +function parameters make those constructs more useful, enabling the +destructuring of values into smaller parts at the same time as assigning to +variables. We can create simple or complex patterns to suit our needs. -Next, we’ll put everything we’ve discussed throughout the book into practice -and do one more project! +Next, for the penultimate chapter of the book, we’ll look at some advanced +aspects of a variety of Rust’s features. diff --git a/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter20.md b/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter20.md index 9d4e22cd7..410e7eb62 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter20.md +++ b/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter20.md @@ -6,1989 +6,2291 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. [TOC] -# Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server +# Advanced Features + +By now, you’ve learned the most commonly used parts of the Rust programming +language. Before we do one more project, in Chapter 20, we’ll look at a few +aspects of the language you might run into every once in a while, but may not +use every day. You can use this chapter as a reference for when you encounter +any unknowns. The features covered here are useful in very specific situations. +Although you might not reach for them often, we want to make sure you have a +grasp of all the features Rust has to offer. + +In this chapter, we’ll cover: + +* Unsafe Rust: how to opt out of some of Rust’s guarantees and take +responsibility for manually upholding those guarantees +* Advanced traits: associated types, default type parameters, fully qualified +syntax, supertraits, and the newtype pattern in relation to traits +* Advanced types: more about the newtype pattern, type aliases, the never type, +and dynamically sized types +* Advanced functions and closures: function pointers and returning closures +* Macros: ways to define code that defines more code at compile time + +It’s a panoply of Rust features with something for everyone! Let’s dive in! + +## Unsafe Rust + +All the code we’ve discussed so far has had Rust’s memory safety guarantees +enforced at compile time. However, Rust has a second language hidden inside it +that doesn’t enforce these memory safety guarantees: it’s called *unsafe Rust* +and works just like regular Rust, but gives us extra superpowers. + +Unsafe Rust exists because, by nature, static analysis is conservative. When +the compiler tries to determine whether or not code upholds the guarantees, +it’s better for it to reject some valid programs than to accept some invalid +programs. Although the code *might* be okay, if the Rust compiler doesn’t have +enough information to be confident, it will reject the code. In these cases, +you can use unsafe code to tell the compiler, “Trust me, I know what I’m +doing.” Be warned, however, that you use unsafe Rust at your own risk: if you +use unsafe code incorrectly, problems can occur due to memory unsafety, such as +null pointer dereferencing. + +Another reason Rust has an unsafe alter ego is that the underlying computer +hardware is inherently unsafe. If Rust didn’t let you do unsafe operations, you +couldn’t do certain tasks. Rust needs to allow you to do low-level systems +programming, such as directly interacting with the operating system or even +writing your own operating system. Working with low-level systems programming +is one of the goals of the language. Let’s explore what we can do with unsafe +Rust and how to do it. + +### Unsafe Superpowers + +To switch to unsafe Rust, use the `unsafe` keyword and then start a new block +that holds the unsafe code. You can take five actions in unsafe Rust that you +can’t in safe Rust, which we call *unsafe superpowers*. Those superpowers +include the ability to: + +1. Dereference a raw pointer +1. Call an unsafe function or method +1. Access or modify a mutable static variable +1. Implement an unsafe trait +1. Access fields of `union`s + +It’s important to understand that `unsafe` doesn’t turn off the borrow checker +or disable any of Rust’s other safety checks: if you use a reference in unsafe +code, it will still be checked. The `unsafe` keyword only gives you access to +these five features that are then not checked by the compiler for memory +safety. You’ll still get some degree of safety inside an unsafe block. + +In addition, `unsafe` does not mean the code inside the block is necessarily +dangerous or that it will definitely have memory safety problems: the intent is +that as the programmer, you’ll ensure the code inside an `unsafe` block will +access memory in a valid way. + +People are fallible and mistakes will happen, but by requiring these five +unsafe operations to be inside blocks annotated with `unsafe`, you’ll know that +any errors related to memory safety must be within an `unsafe` block. Keep +`unsafe` blocks small; you’ll be thankful later when you investigate memory +bugs. + +To isolate unsafe code as much as possible, it’s best to enclose such code +within a safe abstraction and provide a safe API, which we’ll discuss later in +the chapter when we examine unsafe functions and methods. Parts of the standard +library are implemented as safe abstractions over unsafe code that has been +audited. Wrapping unsafe code in a safe abstraction prevents uses of `unsafe` +from leaking out into all the places that you or your users might want to use +the functionality implemented with `unsafe` code, because using a safe +abstraction is safe. + +Let’s look at each of the five unsafe superpowers in turn. We’ll also look at +some abstractions that provide a safe interface to unsafe code. + +### Dereferencing a Raw Pointer + +In “Dangling References” on page XX, we mentioned that the compiler ensures +references are always valid. Unsafe Rust has two new types called *raw +pointers* that are similar to references. As with references, raw pointers can +be immutable or mutable and are written as `*const T` and `*mut T`, +respectively. The asterisk isn’t the dereference operator; it’s part of the +type name. In the context of raw pointers, *immutable* means that the pointer +can’t be directly assigned to after being dereferenced. + +Different from references and smart pointers, raw pointers: + +* Are allowed to ignore the borrowing rules by having both immutable and +mutable pointers or multiple mutable pointers to the same location +* Aren’t guaranteed to point to valid memory +* Are allowed to be null +* Don’t implement any automatic cleanup -It’s been a long journey, but we’ve reached the end of the book. In this -chapter, we’ll build one more project together to demonstrate some of the -concepts we covered in the final chapters, as well as recap some earlier -lessons. +By opting out of having Rust enforce these guarantees, you can give up +guaranteed safety in exchange for greater performance or the ability to +interface with another language or hardware where Rust’s guarantees don’t apply. -For our final project, we’ll make a web server that says “hello” and looks like -Figure 20-1 in a web browser. - -Figure 20-1: Our final shared project - -Here is our plan for building the web server: - -1. Learn a bit about TCP and HTTP. -1. Listen for TCP connections on a socket. -1. Parse a small number of HTTP requests. -1. Create a proper HTTP response. -1. Improve the throughput of our server with a thread pool. - -Before we get started, we should mention one detail: the method we’ll use won’t -be the best way to build a web server with Rust. Community members have -published a number of production-ready crates available at *https://crates.io* -that provide more complete web server and thread pool implementations than -we’ll build. However, our intention in this chapter is to help you learn, not -to take the easy route. Because Rust is a systems programming language, we can -choose the level of abstraction we want to work with and can go to a lower -level than is possible or practical in other languages. We’ll therefore write -the basic HTTP server and thread pool manually so you can learn the general -ideas and techniques behind the crates you might use in the future. - -## Building a Single-Threaded Web Server +Listing 19-1 shows how to create an immutable and a mutable raw pointer from +references. + +``` +let mut num = 5; -We’ll start by getting a single-threaded web server working. Before we begin, -let’s look at a quick overview of the protocols involved in building web -servers. The details of these protocols are beyond the scope of this book, but -a brief overview will give you the information you need. +let r1 = &num as *const i32; +let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; +``` -The two main protocols involved in web servers are *Hypertext Transfer -Protocol* *(HTTP)* and *Transmission Control Protocol* *(TCP)*. Both protocols -are *request-response* protocols, meaning a *client* initiates requests and a -*server* listens to the requests and provides a response to the client. The -contents of those requests and responses are defined by the protocols. +Listing 19-1: Creating raw pointers from references -TCP is the lower-level protocol that describes the details of how information -gets from one server to another but doesn’t specify what that information is. -HTTP builds on top of TCP by defining the contents of the requests and -responses. It’s technically possible to use HTTP with other protocols, but in -the vast majority of cases, HTTP sends its data over TCP. We’ll work with the -raw bytes of TCP and HTTP requests and responses. +Notice that we don’t include the `unsafe` keyword in this code. We can create +raw pointers in safe code; we just can’t dereference raw pointers outside an +unsafe block, as you’ll see in a bit. -### Listening to the TCP Connection +We’ve created raw pointers by using `as` to cast an immutable and a mutable +reference into their corresponding raw pointer types. Because we created them +directly from references guaranteed to be valid, we know these particular raw +pointers are valid, but we can’t make that assumption about just any raw +pointer. -Our web server needs to listen to a TCP connection, so that’s the first part -we’ll work on. The standard library offers a `std::net` module that lets us do -this. Let’s make a new project in the usual fashion: +To demonstrate this, next we’ll create a raw pointer whose validity we can’t be +so certain of. Listing 19-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary +location in memory. Trying to use arbitrary memory is undefined: there might be +data at that address or there might not, the compiler might optimize the code +so there is no memory access, or the program might terminate with a +segmentation fault. Usually, there is no good reason to write code like this, +but it is possible. ``` -$ cargo new hello - Created binary (application) `hello` project -$ cd hello +let address = 0x012345usize; +let r = address as *const i32; ``` -Now enter the code in Listing 20-1 in *src/main.rs* to start. This code will -listen at the local address `127.0.0.1:7878` for incoming TCP streams. When it -gets an incoming stream, it will print `Connection established!`. +Listing 19-2: Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary memory address -Filename: src/main.rs +Recall that we can create raw pointers in safe code, but we can’t *dereference* +raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. In Listing 19-3, we use the +dereference operator `*` on a raw pointer that requires an `unsafe` block. ``` -use std::net::TcpListener; - -fn main() { - 1 let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); +let mut num = 5; - 2 for stream in listener.incoming() { - 3 let stream = stream.unwrap(); +let r1 = &num as *const i32; +let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; - 4 println!("Connection established!"); - } +unsafe { + println!("r1 is: {}", *r1); + println!("r2 is: {}", *r2); } ``` -Listing 20-1: Listening for incoming streams and printing a message when we -receive a stream - -Using `TcpListener`, we can listen for TCP connections at the address -`127.0.0.1:7878` [1]. In the address, the section before the colon is an IP -address representing your computer (this is the same on every computer and -doesn’t represent the authors’ computer specifically), and `7878` is the port. -We’ve chosen this port for two reasons: HTTP isn’t normally accepted on this -port, so our server is unlikely to conflict with any other web server you might -have running on your machine, and 7878 is *rust* typed on a telephone. - -The `bind` function in this scenario works like the `new` function in that it -will return a new `TcpListener` instance. The function is called `bind` -because, in networking, connecting to a port to listen to is known as “binding -to a port.” - -The `bind` function returns a `Result<T, E>`, which indicates that it’s -possible for binding to fail. For example, connecting to port 80 requires -administrator privileges (non-administrators can listen only on ports higher -than 1023), so if we tried to connect to port 80 without being an -administrator, binding wouldn’t work. Binding also wouldn’t work, for example, -if we ran two instances of our program and so had two programs listening to the -same port. Because we’re writing a basic server just for learning purposes, we -won’t worry about handling these kinds of errors; instead, we use `unwrap` to -stop the program if errors happen. - -The `incoming` method on `TcpListener` returns an iterator that gives us a -sequence of streams [2] (more specifically, streams of type `TcpStream`). A -single *stream* represents an open connection between the client and the -server. A *connection* is the name for the full request and response process in -which a client connects to the server, the server generates a response, and the -server closes the connection. As such, we will read from the `TcpStream` to see -what the client sent and then write our response to the stream to send data -back to the client. Overall, this `for` loop will process each connection in -turn and produce a series of streams for us to handle. - -For now, our handling of the stream consists of calling `unwrap` to terminate -our program if the stream has any errors [3]; if there aren’t any errors, the -program prints a message [4]. We’ll add more functionality for the success case -in the next listing. The reason we might receive errors from the `incoming` -method when a client connects to the server is that we’re not actually -iterating over connections. Instead, we’re iterating over *connection -attempts*. The connection might not be successful for a number of reasons, many -of them operating system specific. For example, many operating systems have a -limit to the number of simultaneous open connections they can support; new -connection attempts beyond that number will produce an error until some of the -open connections are closed. - -Let’s try running this code! Invoke `cargo run` in the terminal and then load -*127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser. The browser should show an error message -like “Connection reset” because the server isn’t currently sending back any -data. But when you look at your terminal, you should see several messages that -were printed when the browser connected to the server! - -``` - Running `target/debug/hello` -Connection established! -Connection established! -Connection established! -``` - -Sometimes you’ll see multiple messages printed for one browser request; the -reason might be that the browser is making a request for the page as well as a -request for other resources, like the *favicon.ico* icon that appears in the -browser tab. - -It could also be that the browser is trying to connect to the server multiple -times because the server isn’t responding with any data. When `stream` goes out -of scope and is dropped at the end of the loop, the connection is closed as -part of the `drop` implementation. Browsers sometimes deal with closed -connections by retrying, because the problem might be temporary. The important -factor is that we’ve successfully gotten a handle to a TCP connection! - -Remember to stop the program by pressing ctrl-C when you’re done running a -particular version of the code. Then restart the program by invoking the `cargo -run` command after you’ve made each set of code changes to make sure you’re -running the newest code. - -### Reading the Request - -Let’s implement the functionality to read the request from the browser! To -separate the concerns of first getting a connection and then taking some action -with the connection, we’ll start a new function for processing connections. In -this new `handle_connection` function, we’ll read data from the TCP stream and -print it so we can see the data being sent from the browser. Change the code to -look like Listing 20-2. +Listing 19-3: Dereferencing raw pointers within an `unsafe` block -Filename: src/main.rs +Creating a pointer does no harm; it’s only when we try to access the value that +it points at that we might end up dealing with an invalid value. -``` -1 use std::{ - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, -}; +Note also that in Listings 19-1 and 19-3, we created `*const i32` and `*mut +i32` raw pointers that both pointed to the same memory location, where `num` is +stored. If we instead tried to create an immutable and a mutable reference to +`num`, the code would not have compiled because Rust’s ownership rules don’t +allow a mutable reference at the same time as any immutable references. With +raw pointers, we can create a mutable pointer and an immutable pointer to the +same location and change data through the mutable pointer, potentially creating +a data race. Be careful! -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); +With all of these dangers, why would you ever use raw pointers? One major use +case is when interfacing with C code, as you’ll see in “Calling an Unsafe +Function or Method” on page XX. Another case is when building up safe +abstractions that the borrow checker doesn’t understand. We’ll introduce unsafe +functions and then look at an example of a safe abstraction that uses unsafe +code. - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); +### Calling an Unsafe Function or Method - 2 handle_connection(stream); - } -} +The second type of operation you can perform in an unsafe block is calling +unsafe functions. Unsafe functions and methods look exactly like regular +functions and methods, but they have an extra `unsafe` before the rest of the +definition. The `unsafe` keyword in this context indicates the function has +requirements we need to uphold when we call this function, because Rust can’t +guarantee we’ve met these requirements. By calling an unsafe function within an +`unsafe` block, we’re saying that we’ve read this function’s documentation and +we take responsibility for upholding the function’s contracts. + +Here is an unsafe function named `dangerous` that doesn’t do anything in its +body: -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - 3 let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - 4 let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader - 5 .lines() - 6 .map(|result| result.unwrap()) - 7 .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) - .collect(); - - 8 println!("Request: {:#?}", http_request); -} -``` - -Listing 20-2: Reading from the `TcpStream` and printing the data - -We bring `std::io::prelude` and `std::io::BufReader` into scope to get access -to traits and types that let us read from and write to the stream [1]. In the -`for` loop in the `main` function, instead of printing a message that says we -made a connection, we now call the new `handle_connection` function and pass -the `stream` to it [2]. - -In the `handle_connection` function, we create a new `BufReader` instance that -wraps a mutable reference to the `stream` [3]. `BufReader` adds buffering by -managing calls to the `std::io::Read` trait methods for us. - -We create a variable named `http_request` to collect the lines of the request -the browser sends to our server. We indicate that we want to collect these -lines in a vector by adding the `Vec<_>` type annotation [4]. - -`BufReader` implements the `std::io::BufRead` trait, which provides the `lines` -method [5]. The `lines` method returns an iterator of `Result<String, -std::io::Error>` by splitting the stream of data whenever it sees a newline -byte. To get each `String`, we map and `unwrap` each `Result` [6]. The `Result` -might be an error if the data isn’t valid UTF-8 or if there was a problem -reading from the stream. Again, a production program should handle these errors -more gracefully, but we’re choosing to stop the program in the error case for -simplicity. +``` +unsafe fn dangerous() {} -The browser signals the end of an HTTP request by sending two newline -characters in a row, so to get one request from the stream, we take lines until -we get a line that is the empty string [7]. Once we’ve collected the lines into -the vector, we’re printing them out using pretty debug formatting [8] so we can -take a look at the instructions the web browser is sending to our server. +unsafe { + dangerous(); +} +``` -Let’s try this code! Start the program and make a request in a web browser -again. Note that we’ll still get an error page in the browser, but our -program’s output in the terminal will now look similar to this: +We must call the `dangerous` function within a separate `unsafe` block. If we +try to call `dangerous` without the `unsafe` block, we’ll get an error: ``` -$ cargo run - Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.42s - Running `target/debug/hello` -Request: [ - "GET / HTTP/1.1", - "Host: 127.0.0.1:7878", - "User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10.15; rv:99.0) -Gecko/20100101 Firefox/99.0", - "Accept: -text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,*/* -;q=0.8", - "Accept-Language: en-US,en;q=0.5", - "Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate, br", - "DNT: 1", - "Connection: keep-alive", - "Upgrade-Insecure-Requests: 1", - "Sec-Fetch-Dest: document", - "Sec-Fetch-Mode: navigate", - "Sec-Fetch-Site: none", - "Sec-Fetch-User: ?1", - "Cache-Control: max-age=0", -] +error[E0133]: call to unsafe function is unsafe and requires +unsafe function or block + --> src/main.rs:4:5 + | +4 | dangerous(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^ call to unsafe function + | + = note: consult the function's documentation for information on +how to avoid undefined behavior ``` -Depending on your browser, you might get slightly different output. Now that -we’re printing the request data, we can see why we get multiple connections -from one browser request by looking at the path after `GET` in the first line -of the request. If the repeated connections are all requesting */*, we know the -browser is trying to fetch */* repeatedly because it’s not getting a response -from our program. +With the `unsafe` block, we’re asserting to Rust that we’ve read the function’s +documentation, we understand how to use it properly, and we’ve verified that +we’re fulfilling the contract of the function. -Let’s break down this request data to understand what the browser is asking of -our program. +Bodies of unsafe functions are effectively `unsafe` blocks, so to perform other +unsafe operations within an unsafe function, we don’t need to add another +`unsafe` block. -### A Closer Look at an HTTP Request +#### Creating a Safe Abstraction over Unsafe Code -HTTP is a text-based protocol, and a request takes this format: +Just because a function contains unsafe code doesn’t mean we need to mark the +entire function as unsafe. In fact, wrapping unsafe code in a safe function is +a common abstraction. As an example, let’s study the `split_at_mut` function +from the standard library, which requires some unsafe code. We’ll explore how +we might implement it. This safe method is defined on mutable slices: it takes +one slice and makes it two by splitting the slice at the index given as an +argument. Listing 19-4 shows how to use `split_at_mut`. ``` -Method Request-URI HTTP-Version CRLF -headers CRLF -message-body -``` +let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]; -The first line is the *request line* that holds information about what the -client is requesting. The first part of the request line indicates the *method* -being used, such as `GET` or `POST`, which describes how the client is making -this request. Our client used a `GET` request, which means it is asking for -information. +let r = &mut v[..]; -The next part of the request line is */*, which indicates the *uniform resource -identifier* *(URI)* the client is requesting: a URI is almost, but not quite, -the same as a *uniform resource locator* *(URL)*. The difference between URIs -and URLs isn’t important for our purposes in this chapter, but the HTTP spec -uses the term *URI*, so we can just mentally substitute *URL* for *URI* here. +let (a, b) = r.split_at_mut(3); -The last part is the HTTP version the client uses, and then the request line -ends in a CRLF sequence. (CRLF stands for *carriage return* and *line feed*, -which are terms from the typewriter days!) The CRLF sequence can also be -written as `\r\n`, where `\r` is a carriage return and `\n` is a line feed. The -*CRLF sequence* separates the request line from the rest of the request data. -Note that when the CRLF is printed, we see a new line start rather than `\r\n`. +assert_eq!(a, &mut [1, 2, 3]); +assert_eq!(b, &mut [4, 5, 6]); +``` -Looking at the request line data we received from running our program so far, -we see that `GET` is the method, */* is the request URI, and `HTTP/1.1` is the -version. +Listing 19-4: Using the safe `split_at_mut` function -After the request line, the remaining lines starting from `Host:` onward are -headers. `GET` requests have no body. +We can’t implement this function using only safe Rust. An attempt might look +something like Listing 19-5, which won’t compile. For simplicity, we’ll +implement `split_at_mut` as a function rather than a method and only for slices +of `i32` values rather than for a generic type `T`. -Try making a request from a different browser or asking for a different -address, such as *127.0.0.1:7878/test*, to see how the request data changes. +``` +fn split_at_mut( + values: &mut [i32], + mid: usize, +) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { + let len = values.len(); -Now that we know what the browser is asking for, let’s send back some data! + assert!(mid <= len); -### Writing a Response + (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) +} +``` -We’re going to implement sending data in response to a client request. -Responses have the following format: +Listing 19-5: An attempted implementation of `split_at_mut` using only safe Rust -``` -HTTP-Version Status-Code Reason-Phrase CRLF -headers CRLF -message-body -``` +This function first gets the total length of the slice. Then it asserts that +the index given as a parameter is within the slice by checking whether it’s +less than or equal to the length. The assertion means that if we pass an index +that is greater than the length to split the slice at, the function will panic +before it attempts to use that index. -The first line is a *status line* that contains the HTTP version used in the -response, a numeric status code that summarizes the result of the request, and -a reason phrase that provides a text description of the status code. After the -CRLF sequence are any headers, another CRLF sequence, and the body of the -response. +Then we return two mutable slices in a tuple: one from the start of the +original slice to the `mid` index and another from `mid` to the end of the +slice. -Here is an example response that uses HTTP version 1.1, and has a status code -of 200, an OK reason phrase, no headers, and no body: +When we try to compile the code in Listing 19-5, we’ll get an error: ``` -HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n +error[E0499]: cannot borrow `*values` as mutable more than once at a time + --> src/main.rs:9:31 + | +2 | values: &mut [i32], + | - let's call the lifetime of this reference `'1` +... +9 | (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) + | --------------------------^^^^^^-------- + | | | | + | | | second mutable borrow occurs here + | | first mutable borrow occurs here + | returning this value requires that `*values` is borrowed for `'1` ``` -The status code 200 is the standard success response. The text is a tiny -successful HTTP response. Let’s write this to the stream as our response to a -successful request! From the `handle_connection` function, remove the -`println!` that was printing the request data and replace it with the code in -Listing 20-3. +Rust’s borrow checker can’t understand that we’re borrowing different parts of +the slice; it only knows that we’re borrowing from the same slice twice. +Borrowing different parts of a slice is fundamentally okay because the two +slices aren’t overlapping, but Rust isn’t smart enough to know this. When we +know code is okay, but Rust doesn’t, it’s time to reach for unsafe code. -Filename: src/main.rs +Listing 19-6 shows how to use an `unsafe` block, a raw pointer, and some calls +to unsafe functions to make the implementation of `split_at_mut` work. ``` -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader - .lines() - .map(|result| result.unwrap()) - .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) - .collect(); +use std::slice; + +fn split_at_mut( + values: &mut [i32], + mid: usize, +) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { + 1 let len = values.len(); + 2 let ptr = values.as_mut_ptr(); - 1 let response = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n"; + 3 assert!(mid <= len); - 2 stream.write_all(response.3 as_bytes()).unwrap(); + 4 unsafe { + ( + 5 slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr, mid), + 6 slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr.add(mid), len - mid), + ) + } } ``` -Listing 20-3: Writing a tiny successful HTTP response to the stream +Listing 19-6: Using unsafe code in the implementation of the `split_at_mut` +function + +Recall from “The Slice Type” on page XX that a slice is a pointer to some data +and the length of the slice. We use the `len` method to get the length of a +slice [1] and the `as_mut_ptr` method to access the raw pointer of a slice [2]. +In this case, because we have a mutable slice to `i32` values, `as_mut_ptr` +returns a raw pointer with the type `*mut i32`, which we’ve stored in the +variable `ptr`. + +We keep the assertion that the `mid` index is within the slice [3]. Then we get +to the unsafe code [4]: the `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` function takes a raw +pointer and a length, and it creates a slice. We use it to create a slice that +starts from `ptr` and is `mid` items long [5]. Then we call the `add` method on +`ptr` with `mid` as an argument to get a raw pointer that starts at `mid`, and +we create a slice using that pointer and the remaining number of items after +`mid` as the length [6]. + +The function `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` is unsafe because it takes a raw +pointer and must trust that this pointer is valid. The `add` method on raw +pointers is also unsafe because it must trust that the offset location is also +a valid pointer. Therefore, we had to put an `unsafe` block around our calls to +`slice::from_raw_parts_mut` and `add` so we could call them. By looking at the +code and by adding the assertion that `mid` must be less than or equal to +`len`, we can tell that all the raw pointers used within the `unsafe` block +will be valid pointers to data within the slice. This is an acceptable and +appropriate use of `unsafe`. + +Note that we don’t need to mark the resultant `split_at_mut` function as +`unsafe`, and we can call this function from safe Rust. We’ve created a safe +abstraction to the unsafe code with an implementation of the function that uses +`unsafe` code in a safe way, because it creates only valid pointers from the +data this function has access to. + +In contrast, the use of `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` in Listing 19-7 would +likely crash when the slice is used. This code takes an arbitrary memory +location and creates a slice 10,000 items long. + +``` +use std::slice; + +let address = 0x01234usize; +let r = address as *mut i32; + +let values: &[i32] = unsafe { + slice::from_raw_parts_mut(r, 10000) +}; +``` -The first new line defines the `response` variable that holds the success -message’s data [1]. Then we call `as_bytes` on our `response` to convert the -string data to bytes [3]. The `write_all` method on `stream` takes a `&[u8]` -and sends those bytes directly down the connection [2]. Because the `write_all` -operation could fail, we use `unwrap` on any error result as before. Again, in -a real application you would add error handling here. +Listing 19-7: Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory location -With these changes, let’s run our code and make a request. We’re no longer -printing any data to the terminal, so we won’t see any output other than the -output from Cargo. When you load *127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser, you should -get a blank page instead of an error. You’ve just handcoded receiving an HTTP -request and sending a response! +We don’t own the memory at this arbitrary location, and there is no guarantee +that the slice this code creates contains valid `i32` values. Attempting to use +`values` as though it’s a valid slice results in undefined behavior. -### Returning Real HTML +#### Using extern Functions to Call External Code -Let’s implement the functionality for returning more than a blank page. Create -the new file *hello.html* in the root of your project directory, not in the -*src* directory. You can input any HTML you want; Listing 20-4 shows one -possibility. +Sometimes your Rust code might need to interact with code written in another +language. For this, Rust has the keyword `extern` that facilitates the creation +and use of a *Foreign Function Interface* *(FFI)*, which is a way for a +programming language to define functions and enable a different (foreign) +programming language to call those functions. -Filename: hello.html +Listing 19-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the `abs` function +from the C standard library. Functions declared within `extern` blocks are +always unsafe to call from Rust code. The reason is that other languages don’t +enforce Rust’s rules and guarantees, and Rust can’t check them, so +responsibility falls on the programmer to ensure safety. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html lang="en"> - <head> - <meta charset="utf-8"> - <title>Hello! - - -

Hello!

-

Hi from Rust

- - -``` +extern "C" { + fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; +} -Listing 20-4: A sample HTML file to return in a response +fn main() { + unsafe { + println!( + "Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}", + abs(-3) + ); + } +} +``` -This is a minimal HTML5 document with a heading and some text. To return this -from the server when a request is received, we’ll modify `handle_connection` as -shown in Listing 20-5 to read the HTML file, add it to the response as a body, -and send it. +Listing 19-8: Declaring and calling an `extern` function defined in another +language + +Within the `extern "C"` block, we list the names and signatures of external +functions from another language we want to call. The `"C"` part defines which +*application binary interface* *(ABI)* the external function uses: the ABI +defines how to call the function at the assembly level. The `"C"` ABI is the +most common and follows the C programming language’s ABI. + +> ### Calling Rust Functions from Other Languages +> +> We can also use `extern` to create an interface that allows other languages +to call Rust functions. Instead of creating a whole `extern` block, we add the +`extern` keyword and specify the ABI to use just before the `fn` keyword for +the relevant function. We also need to add a `#[no_mangle]` annotation to tell +the Rust compiler not to mangle the name of this function. *Mangling* is when a +compiler changes the name we’ve given a function to a different name that +contains more information for other parts of the compilation process to consume +but is less human readable. Every programming language compiler mangles names +slightly differently, so for a Rust function to be nameable by other languages, +we must disable the Rust compiler’s name mangling. +> +> In the following example, we make the `call_from_c` function accessible from +C code, after it’s compiled to a shared library and linked from C: +> +> ``` +> #[no_mangle] +> pub extern "C" fn call_from_c() { +> println!("Just called a Rust function from C!"); +> } +> ``` +> +> This usage of `extern` does not require `unsafe`. + +### Accessing or Modifying a Mutable Static Variable + +In this book, we’ve not yet talked about global variables, which Rust does +support but can be problematic with Rust’s ownership rules. If two threads are +accessing the same mutable global variable, it can cause a data race. + +In Rust, global variables are called *static* variables. Listing 19-9 shows an +example declaration and use of a static variable with a string slice as a value. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::{ - 1 fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, -}; ---snip-- - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader - .lines() - .map(|result| result.unwrap()) - .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) - .collect(); - - let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; - let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - 2 let response = format!( - "{status_line}\r\n\ - Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ - {contents}" - ); +static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!"; - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +fn main() { + println!("value is: {HELLO_WORLD}"); } ``` -Listing 20-5: Sending the contents of *hello.html* as the body of the response - -We’ve added `fs` to the `use` statement to bring the standard library’s -filesystem module into scope [1]. The code for reading the contents of a file -to a string should look familiar; we used it when we read the contents of a -file for our I/O project in Listing 12-4. +Listing 19-9: Defining and using an immutable static variable -Next, we use `format!` to add the file’s contents as the body of the success -response [2]. To ensure a valid HTTP response, we add the `Content-Length` -header which is set to the size of our response body, in this case the size of -`hello.html`. +Static variables are similar to constants, which we discussed in “Constants” on +page XX. The names of static variables are in `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE` by +convention. Static variables can only store references with the `'static` +lifetime, which means the Rust compiler can figure out the lifetime and we +aren’t required to annotate it explicitly. Accessing an immutable static +variable is safe. -Run this code with `cargo run` and load *127.0.0.1:7878* in your browser; you -should see your HTML rendered! +A subtle difference between constants and immutable static variables is that +values in a static variable have a fixed address in memory. Using the value +will always access the same data. Constants, on the other hand, are allowed to +duplicate their data whenever they’re used. Another difference is that static +variables can be mutable. Accessing and modifying mutable static variables is +*unsafe*. Listing 19-10 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable +static variable named `COUNTER`. -Currently, we’re ignoring the request data in `http_request` and just sending -back the contents of the HTML file unconditionally. That means if you try -requesting *127.0.0.1:7878/something-else* in your browser, you’ll still get -back this same HTML response. At the moment, our server is very limited and -does not do what most web servers do. We want to customize our responses -depending on the request and only send back the HTML file for a well-formed -request to */*. +Filename: src/main.rs -### Validating the Request and Selectively Responding +``` +static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; -Right now, our web server will return the HTML in the file no matter what the -client requested. Let’s add functionality to check that the browser is -requesting */* before returning the HTML file, and return an error if the -browser requests anything else. For this we need to modify `handle_connection`, -as shown in Listing 20-6. This new code checks the content of the request -received against what we know a request for */* looks like and adds `if` and -`else` blocks to treat requests differently. +fn add_to_count(inc: u32) { + unsafe { + COUNTER += inc; + } +} -Filename: src/main.rs +fn main() { + add_to_count(3); + unsafe { + println!("COUNTER: {COUNTER}"); + } +} ``` ---snip-- -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - 1 let request_line = buf_reader - .lines() - .next() - .unwrap() - .unwrap(); +Listing 19-10: Reading from or writing to a mutable static variable is unsafe. - 2 if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { - let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; - let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); +As with regular variables, we specify mutability using the `mut` keyword. Any +code that reads or writes from `COUNTER` must be within an `unsafe` block. This +code compiles and prints `COUNTER: 3` as we would expect because it’s single +threaded. Having multiple threads access `COUNTER` would likely result in data +races. - let response = format!( - "{status_line}\r\n\ - Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ - {contents}" - ); +With mutable data that is globally accessible, it’s difficult to ensure there +are no data races, which is why Rust considers mutable static variables to be +unsafe. Where possible, it’s preferable to use the concurrency techniques and +thread-safe smart pointers we discussed in Chapter 16 so the compiler checks +that data access from different threads is done safely. - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); - 3 } else { - // some other request - } +### Implementing an Unsafe Trait + +We can use `unsafe` to implement an unsafe trait. A trait is unsafe when at +least one of its methods has some invariant that the compiler can’t verify. We +declare that a trait is `unsafe` by adding the `unsafe` keyword before `trait` +and marking the implementation of the trait as `unsafe` too, as shown in +Listing 19-11. + +``` +unsafe trait Foo { + // methods go here +} + +unsafe impl Foo for i32 { + // method implementations go here } ``` -Listing 20-6: Handling requests to */* differently from other requests +Listing 19-11: Defining and implementing an unsafe trait -We’re only going to be looking at the first line of the HTTP request, so rather -than reading the entire request into a vector, we’re calling `next` to get the -first item from the iterator [1]. The first `unwrap` takes care of the `Option` -and stops the program if the iterator has no items. The second `unwrap` handles -the `Result` and has the same effect as the `unwrap` that was in the `map` -added in Listing 20-2. +By using `unsafe impl`, we’re promising that we’ll uphold the invariants that +the compiler can’t verify. -Next, we check the `request_line` to see if it equals the request line of a GET -request to the */* path [2]. If it does, the `if` block returns the contents of -our HTML file. +As an example, recall the `Send` and `Sync` marker traits we discussed in +“Extensible Concurrency with the Send and Sync Traits” on page XX: the compiler +implements these traits automatically if our types are composed entirely of +`Send` and `Sync` types. If we implement a type that contains a type that is +not `Send` or `Sync`, such as raw pointers, and we want to mark that type as +`Send` or `Sync`, we must use `unsafe`. Rust can’t verify that our type upholds +the guarantees that it can be safely sent across threads or accessed from +multiple threads; therefore, we need to do those checks manually and indicate +as such with `unsafe`. -If the `request_line` does *not* equal the GET request to the */* path, it -means we’ve received some other request. We’ll add code to the `else` block [3] -in a moment to respond to all other requests. +### Accessing Fields of a Union -Run this code now and request *127.0.0.1:7878*; you should get the HTML in -*hello.html*. If you make any other request, such as -*127.0.0.1:7878/something-else*, you’ll get a connection error like those you -saw when running the code in Listing 20-1 and Listing 20-2. +The final action that works only with `unsafe` is accessing fields of a union. +A `union` is similar to a `struct`, but only one declared field is used in a +particular instance at one time. Unions are primarily used to interface with +unions in C code. Accessing union fields is unsafe because Rust can’t guarantee +the type of the data currently being stored in the union instance. You can +learn more about unions in the Rust Reference at +*https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/unions.html**.* -Now let’s add the code in Listing 20-7 to the `else` block to return a response -with the status code 404, which signals that the content for the request was -not found. We’ll also return some HTML for a page to render in the browser -indicating the response to the end user. +### When to Use Unsafe Code -Filename: src/main.rs +Using `unsafe` to use one of the five superpowers just discussed isn’t wrong or +even frowned upon, but it is trickier to get `unsafe` code correct because the +compiler can’t help uphold memory safety. When you have a reason to use +`unsafe` code, you can do so, and having the explicit `unsafe` annotation makes +it easier to track down the source of problems when they occur. -``` ---snip-- -} else { - 1 let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND"; - 2 let contents = fs::read_to_string("404.html").unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); +## Advanced Traits - let response = format!( - "{status_line}\r\n\ - Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n - {contents}" - ); +We first covered traits in “Traits: Defining Shared Behavior” on page XX, but +we didn’t discuss the more advanced details. Now that you know more about Rust, +we can get into the nitty-gritty. + +### Associated Types - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +*Associated types* connect a type placeholder with a trait such that the trait +method definitions can use these placeholder types in their signatures. The +implementor of a trait will specify the concrete type to be used instead of the +placeholder type for the particular implementation. That way, we can define a +trait that uses some types without needing to know exactly what those types are +until the trait is implemented. + +We’ve described most of the advanced features in this chapter as being rarely +needed. Associated types are somewhere in the middle: they’re used more rarely +than features explained in the rest of the book but more commonly than many of +the other features discussed in this chapter. + +One example of a trait with an associated type is the `Iterator` trait that the +standard library provides. The associated type is named `Item` and stands in +for the type of the values the type implementing the `Iterator` trait is +iterating over. The definition of the `Iterator` trait is as shown in Listing +19-12. + +``` +pub trait Iterator { + type Item; + + fn next(&mut self) -> Option; } ``` -Listing 20-7: Responding with status code 404 and an error page if anything -other than */* was requested +Listing 19-12: The definition of the `Iterator` trait that has an associated +type `Item` -Here, our response has a status line with status code 404 and the reason phrase -`NOT FOUND` [1]. The body of the response will be the HTML in the file -*404.html* [1]. You’ll need to create a *404.html* file next to *hello.html* -for the error page; again feel free to use any HTML you want, or use the -example HTML in Listing 20-8. +The type `Item` is a placeholder, and the `next` method’s definition shows that +it will return values of type `Option`. Implementors of the +`Iterator` trait will specify the concrete type for `Item`, and the `next` +method will return an `Option` containing a value of that concrete type. -Filename: 404.html +Associated types might seem like a similar concept to generics, in that the +latter allow us to define a function without specifying what types it can +handle. To examine the difference between the two concepts, we’ll look at an +implementation of the `Iterator` trait on a type named `Counter` that specifies +the `Item` type is `u32`: + +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` - - - - - Hello! - - -

Oops!

-

Sorry, I don't know what you're asking for.

- - -``` +impl Iterator for Counter { + type Item = u32; -Listing 20-8: Sample content for the page to send back with any 404 response + fn next(&mut self) -> Option { + --snip-- +``` -With these changes, run your server again. Requesting *127.0.0.1:7878* should -return the contents of *hello.html*, and any other request, like -*127.0.0.1:7878/foo*, should return the error HTML from *404.html*. +This syntax seems comparable to that of generics. So why not just define the +`Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 19-13? -### A Touch of Refactoring +``` +pub trait Iterator { + fn next(&mut self) -> Option; +} +``` -At the moment, the `if` and `else` blocks have a lot of repetition: they’re -both reading files and writing the contents of the files to the stream. The -only differences are the status line and the filename. Let’s make the code more -concise by pulling out those differences into separate `if` and `else` lines -that will assign the values of the status line and the filename to variables; -we can then use those variables unconditionally in the code to read the file -and write the response. Listing 20-9 shows the resultant code after replacing -the large `if` and `else` blocks. +Listing 19-13: A hypothetical definition of the `Iterator` trait using generics + +The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 19-13, we must +annotate the types in each implementation; because we can also implement +`Iterator<``String``> for Counter` or any other type, we could have multiple +implementations of `Iterator` for `Counter`. In other words, when a trait has a +generic parameter, it can be implemented for a type multiple times, changing +the concrete types of the generic type parameters each time. When we use the +`next` method on `Counter`, we would have to provide type annotations to +indicate which implementation of `Iterator` we want to use. + +With associated types, we don’t need to annotate types because we can’t +implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 19-12 with the +definition that uses associated types, we can choose what the type of `Item` +will be only once because there can be only one `impl Iterator for Counter`. We +don’t have to specify that we want an iterator of `u32` values everywhere we +call `next` on `Counter`. + +Associated types also become part of the trait’s contract: implementors of the +trait must provide a type to stand in for the associated type placeholder. +Associated types often have a name that describes how the type will be used, +and documenting the associated type in the API documentation is a good practice. + +### Default Generic Type Parameters and Operator Overloading + +When we use generic type parameters, we can specify a default concrete type for +the generic type. This eliminates the need for implementors of the trait to +specify a concrete type if the default type works. You specify a default type +when declaring a generic type with the `<`PlaceholderType`=`ConcreteType`>` +syntax. + +A great example of a situation where this technique is useful is with *operator +overloading*, in which you customize the behavior of an operator (such as `+`) +in particular situations. + +Rust doesn’t allow you to create your own operators or overload arbitrary +operators. But you can overload the operations and corresponding traits listed +in `std::ops` by implementing the traits associated with the operator. For +example, in Listing 19-14 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` +instances together. We do this by implementing the `Add` trait on a `Point` +struct. Filename: src/main.rs ``` ---snip-- +use std::ops::Add; -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - --snip-- +#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)] +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, +} - let (status_line, filename) = - if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } else { - ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html") - }; +impl Add for Point { + type Output = Point; - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); + fn add(self, other: Point) -> Point { + Point { + x: self.x + other.x, + y: self.y + other.y, + } + } +} - let response = format!( - "{status_line}\r\n\ - Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ - {contents}" +fn main() { + assert_eq!( + Point { x: 1, y: 0 } + Point { x: 2, y: 3 }, + Point { x: 3, y: 3 } ); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); } ``` -Listing 20-9: Refactoring the `if` and `else` blocks to contain only the code -that differs between the two cases - -Now the `if` and `else` blocks only return the appropriate values for the -status line and filename in a tuple; we then use destructuring to assign these -two values to `status_line` and `filename` using a pattern in the `let` -statement, as discussed in Chapter 18. +Listing 19-14: Implementing the `Add` trait to overload the `+` operator for +`Point` instances -The previously duplicated code is now outside the `if` and `else` blocks and -uses the `status_line` and `filename` variables. This makes it easier to see -the difference between the two cases, and it means we have only one place to -update the code if we want to change how the file reading and response writing -work. The behavior of the code in Listing 20-9 will be the same as that in -Listing 20-8. +The `add` method adds the `x` values of two `Point` instances and the `y` +values of two `Point` instances to create a new `Point`. The `Add` trait has an +associated type named `Output` that determines the type returned from the `add` +method. -Awesome! We now have a simple web server in approximately 40 lines of Rust code -that responds to one request with a page of content and responds to all other -requests with a 404 response. +The default generic type in this code is within the `Add` trait. Here is its +definition: -Currently, our server runs in a single thread, meaning it can only serve one -request at a time. Let’s examine how that can be a problem by simulating some -slow requests. Then we’ll fix it so our server can handle multiple requests at -once. +``` +trait Add { + type Output; -## Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server + fn add(self, rhs: Rhs) -> Self::Output; +} +``` -Right now, the server will process each request in turn, meaning it won’t -process a second connection until the first is finished processing. If the -server received more and more requests, this serial execution would be less and -less optimal. If the server receives a request that takes a long time to -process, subsequent requests will have to wait until the long request is -finished, even if the new requests can be processed quickly. We’ll need to fix -this, but first we’ll look at the problem in action. +This code should look generally familiar: a trait with one method and an +associated type. The new part is `Rhs=Self`: this syntax is called *default +type parameters*. The `Rhs` generic type parameter (short for “right-hand +side”) defines the type of the `rhs` parameter in the `add` method. If we don’t +specify a concrete type for `Rhs` when we implement the `Add` trait, the type +of `Rhs` will default to `Self`, which will be the type we’re implementing +`Add` on. -### Simulating a Slow Request +When we implemented `Add` for `Point`, we used the default for `Rhs` because we +wanted to add two `Point` instances. Let’s look at an example of implementing +the `Add` trait where we want to customize the `Rhs` type rather than using the +default. -We’ll look at how a slow-processing request can affect other requests made to -our current server implementation. Listing 20-10 implements handling a request -to */sleep* with a simulated slow response that will cause the server to sleep -for five seconds before responding. +We have two structs, `Millimeters` and `Meters`, holding values in different +units. This thin wrapping of an existing type in another struct is known as the +*newtype pattern*, which we describe in more detail in “Using the Newtype +Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types” on page XX. We want to +add values in millimeters to values in meters and have the implementation of +`Add` do the conversion correctly. We can implement `Add` for `Millimeters` +with `Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 19-15. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; ---snip-- +use std::ops::Add; -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - --snip-- +struct Millimeters(u32); +struct Meters(u32); - let (status_line, filename) = 1 match &request_line[..] { - 2 "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - 3 "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - 4 _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; +impl Add for Millimeters { + type Output = Millimeters; - --snip-- + fn add(self, other: Meters) -> Millimeters { + Millimeters(self.0 + (other.0 * 1000)) + } } ``` -Listing 20-10: Simulating a slow request by sleeping for five seconds - -We switched from `if` to `match` now that we have three cases [1]. We need to -explicitly match on a slice of `request_line` to pattern-match against the -string literal values; `match` doesn’t do automatic referencing and -dereferencing, like the equality method does. - -The first arm [2] is the same as the `if` block from Listing 20-9. The second -arm [3] matches a request to */sleep*. When that request is received, the -server will sleep for five seconds before rendering the successful HTML page. -The third arm [4] is the same as the `else` block from Listing 20-9. - -You can see how primitive our server is: real libraries would handle the -recognition of multiple requests in a much less verbose way! - -Start the server using `cargo run`. Then open two browser windows: one for -*http://127.0.0.1:7878* and the other for *http://127.0.0.1:7878/sleep*. If you -enter the */* URI a few times, as before, you’ll see it respond quickly. But if -you enter */sleep* and then load */*, you’ll see that */* waits until `sleep` -has slept for its full five seconds before loading. - -There are multiple techniques we could use to avoid requests backing up behind -a slow request; the one we’ll implement is a thread pool. - -### Improving Throughput with a Thread Pool - -A *thread pool* is a group of spawned threads that are waiting and ready to -handle a task. When the program receives a new task, it assigns one of the -threads in the pool to the task, and that thread will process the task. The -remaining threads in the pool are available to handle any other tasks that come -in while the first thread is processing. When the first thread is done -processing its task, it’s returned to the pool of idle threads, ready to handle -a new task. A thread pool allows you to process connections concurrently, -increasing the throughput of your server. - -We’ll limit the number of threads in the pool to a small number to protect us -from DoS attacks; if we had our program create a new thread for each request as -it came in, someone making 10 million requests to our server could create havoc -by using up all our server’s resources and grinding the processing of requests -to a halt. - -Rather than spawning unlimited threads, then, we’ll have a fixed number of -threads waiting in the pool. Requests that come in are sent to the pool for -processing. The pool will maintain a queue of incoming requests. Each of the -threads in the pool will pop off a request from this queue, handle the request, -and then ask the queue for another request. With this design, we can process up -to N requests concurrently, where N is the number of threads. If each thread is -responding to a long-running request, subsequent requests can still back up in -the queue, but we’ve increased the number of long-running requests we can -handle before reaching that point. - -This technique is just one of many ways to improve the throughput of a web -server. Other options you might explore are the fork/join model, the -single-threaded async I/O model, and the multithreaded async I/O model. If -you’re interested in this topic, you can read more about other solutions and -try to implement them; with a low-level language like Rust, all of these -options are possible. - -Before we begin implementing a thread pool, let’s talk about what using the -pool should look like. When you’re trying to design code, writing the client -interface first can help guide your design. Write the API of the code so it’s -structured in the way you want to call it; then implement the functionality -within that structure rather than implementing the functionality and then -designing the public API. - -Similar to how we used test-driven development in the project in Chapter 12, -we’ll use compiler-driven development here. We’ll write the code that calls the -functions we want, and then we’ll look at errors from the compiler to determine -what we should change next to get the code to work. Before we do that, however, -we’ll explore the technique we’re not going to use as a starting point. - -#### Spawning a Thread for Each Request - -First, let’s explore how our code might look if it did create a new thread for -every connection. As mentioned earlier, this isn’t our final plan due to the -problems with potentially spawning an unlimited number of threads, but it is a -starting point to get a working multithreaded server first. Then we’ll add the -thread pool as an improvement, and contrasting the two solutions will be easier. - -Listing 20-11 shows the changes to make to `main` to spawn a new thread to -handle each stream within the `for` loop. +Listing 19-15: Implementing the `Add` trait on `Millimeters` to add +`Millimeters` and `Meters` + +To add `Millimeters` and `Meters`, we specify `impl Add` to set the +value of the `Rhs` type parameter instead of using the default of `Self`. + +You’ll use default type parameters in two main ways: + +1. To extend a type without breaking existing code +1. To allow customization in specific cases most users won’t need + +The standard library’s `Add` trait is an example of the second purpose: +usually, you’ll add two like types, but the `Add` trait provides the ability to +customize beyond that. Using a default type parameter in the `Add` trait +definition means you don’t have to specify the extra parameter most of the +time. In other words, a bit of implementation boilerplate isn’t needed, making +it easier to use the trait. + +The first purpose is similar to the second but in reverse: if you want to add a +type parameter to an existing trait, you can give it a default to allow +extension of the functionality of the trait without breaking the existing +implementation code. + +### Disambiguating Between Methods with the Same Name + +Nothing in Rust prevents a trait from having a method with the same name as +another trait’s method, nor does Rust prevent you from implementing both traits +on one type. It’s also possible to implement a method directly on the type with +the same name as methods from traits. + +When calling methods with the same name, you’ll need to tell Rust which one you +want to use. Consider the code in Listing 19-16 where we’ve defined two traits, +`Pilot` and `Wizard`, that both have a method called `fly`. We then implement +both traits on a type `Human` that already has a method named `fly` implemented +on it. Each `fly` method does something different. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); +trait Pilot { + fn fly(&self); +} - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); +trait Wizard { + fn fly(&self); +} - thread::spawn(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); +struct Human; + +impl Pilot for Human { + fn fly(&self) { + println!("This is your captain speaking."); } } -``` -Listing 20-11: Spawning a new thread for each stream +impl Wizard for Human { + fn fly(&self) { + println!("Up!"); + } +} -As you learned in Chapter 16, `thread::spawn` will create a new thread and then -run the code in the closure in the new thread. If you run this code and load -*/sleep* in your browser, then */* in two more browser tabs, you’ll indeed see -that the requests to */* don’t have to wait for */sleep* to finish. However, as -we mentioned, this will eventually overwhelm the system because you’d be making -new threads without any limit. +impl Human { + fn fly(&self) { + println!("*waving arms furiously*"); + } +} +``` -#### Creating a Finite Number of Threads +Listing 19-16: Two traits are defined to have a `fly` method and are +implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is implemented on `Human` +directly. -We want our thread pool to work in a similar, familiar way so that switching -from threads to a thread pool doesn’t require large changes to the code that -uses our API. Listing 20-12 shows the hypothetical interface for a `ThreadPool` -struct we want to use instead of `thread::spawn`. +When we call `fly` on an instance of `Human`, the compiler defaults to calling +the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 19-17. Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - 1 let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - 2 pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } + let person = Human; + person.fly(); } ``` -Listing 20-12: Our ideal `ThreadPool` interface +Listing 19-17: Calling `fly` on an instance of `Human` -We use `ThreadPool::new` to create a new thread pool with a configurable number -of threads, in this case four [1]. Then, in the `for` loop, `pool.execute` has -a similar interface as `thread::spawn` in that it takes a closure the pool -should run for each stream [2]. We need to implement `pool.execute` so it takes -the closure and gives it to a thread in the pool to run. This code won’t yet -compile, but we’ll try so that the compiler can guide us in how to fix it. +Running this code will print `*waving arms furiously*`, showing that Rust +called the `fly` method implemented on `Human` directly. -#### Building ThreadPool Using Compiler-Driven Development +To call the `fly` methods from either the `Pilot` trait or the `Wizard` trait, +we need to use more explicit syntax to specify which `fly` method we mean. +Listing 19-18 demonstrates this syntax. -Make the changes in Listing 20-12 to *src/main.rs*, and then let’s use the -compiler errors from `cargo check` to drive our development. Here is the first -error we get: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0433]: failed to resolve: use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` - --> src/main.rs:11:16 - | -11 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - | ^^^^^^^^^^ use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` +fn main() { + let person = Human; + Pilot::fly(&person); + Wizard::fly(&person); + person.fly(); +} ``` -Great! This error tells us we need a `ThreadPool` type or module, so we’ll -build one now. Our `ThreadPool` implementation will be independent of the kind -of work our web server is doing. So let’s switch the `hello` crate from a -binary crate to a library crate to hold our `ThreadPool` implementation. After -we change to a library crate, we could also use the separate thread pool -library for any work we want to do using a thread pool, not just for serving -web requests. +Listing 19-18: Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we want to call -Create a *src/lib.rs* file that contains the following, which is the simplest -definition of a `ThreadPool` struct that we can have for now: +Specifying the trait name before the method name clarifies to Rust which +implementation of `fly` we want to call. We could also write +`Human::fly(&person)`, which is equivalent to the `person.fly()` that we used +in Listing 19-18, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to +disambiguate. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Running this code prints the following: ``` -pub struct ThreadPool; +This is your captain speaking. +Up! +*waving arms furiously* ``` -Then edit the *main.rs* file to bring `ThreadPool` into scope from the library -crate by adding the following code to the top of *src/main.rs*: +Because the `fly` method takes a `self` parameter, if we had two *types* that +both implement one *trait*, Rust could figure out which implementation of a +trait to use based on the type of `self`. + +However, associated functions that are not methods don’t have a `self` +parameter. When there are multiple types or traits that define non-method +functions with the same function name, Rust doesn’t always know which type you +mean unless you use fully qualified syntax. For example, in Listing 19-19 we +create a trait for an animal shelter that wants to name all baby dogs Spot. We +make an `Animal` trait with an associated non-method function `baby_name`. The +`Animal` trait is implemented for the struct `Dog`, on which we also provide an +associated non-method function `baby_name` directly. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use hello::ThreadPool; +trait Animal { + fn baby_name() -> String; +} + +struct Dog; + +impl Dog { + fn baby_name() -> String { + String::from("Spot") + } +} + +impl Animal for Dog { + fn baby_name() -> String { + String::from("puppy") + } +} + +fn main() { + println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Dog::baby_name()); +} ``` -This code still won’t work, but let’s check it again to get the next error that -we need to address: +Listing 19-19: A trait with an associated function and a type with an +associated function of the same name that also implements the trait + +We implement the code for naming all puppies Spot in the `baby_name` associated +function that is defined on `Dog`. The `Dog` type also implements the trait +`Animal`, which describes characteristics that all animals have. Baby dogs are +called puppies, and that is expressed in the implementation of the `Animal` +trait on `Dog` in the `baby_name` function associated with the `Animal` trait. + +In `main`, we call the `Dog::baby_name` function, which calls the associated +function defined on `Dog` directly. This code prints the following: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0599]: no function or associated item named `new` found for struct -`ThreadPool` in the current scope - --> src/main.rs:12:28 - | -12 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - | ^^^ function or associated item not found in -`ThreadPool` +A baby dog is called a Spot ``` -This error indicates that next we need to create an associated function named -`new` for `ThreadPool`. We also know that `new` needs to have one parameter -that can accept `4` as an argument and should return a `ThreadPool` instance. -Let’s implement the simplest `new` function that will have those -characteristics: +This output isn’t what we wanted. We want to call the `baby_name` function that +is part of the `Animal` trait that we implemented on `Dog` so the code prints +`A baby dog is called a puppy`. The technique of specifying the trait name that +we used in Listing 19-18 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in +Listing 19-20, we’ll get a compilation error. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub struct ThreadPool; - -impl ThreadPool { - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - ThreadPool - } +fn main() { + println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); } ``` -We chose `usize` as the type of the `size` parameter because we know that a -negative number of threads doesn’t make any sense. We also know we’ll use this -`4` as the number of elements in a collection of threads, which is what the -`usize` type is for, as discussed in “Integer Types” on page XX. +Listing 19-20: Attempting to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` +trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to use -Let’s check the code again: +Because `Animal::baby_name` doesn’t have a `self` parameter, and there could be +other types that implement the `Animal` trait, Rust can’t figure out which +implementation of `Animal::baby_name` we want. We’ll get this compiler error: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0599]: no method named `execute` found for struct `ThreadPool` in the -current scope - --> src/main.rs:17:14 +error[E0283]: type annotations needed + --> src/main.rs:20:43 + | +20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot infer +type | -17 | pool.execute(|| { - | ^^^^^^^ method not found in `ThreadPool` -``` - -Now the error occurs because we don’t have an `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. -Recall from “Creating a Finite Number of Threads” on page XX that we decided -our thread pool should have an interface similar to `thread::spawn`. In -addition, we’ll implement the `execute` function so it takes the closure it’s -given and gives it to an idle thread in the pool to run. - -We’ll define the `execute` method on `ThreadPool` to take a closure as a -parameter. Recall from “Moving Captured Values Out of Closures and the Fn -Traits” on page XX that we can take closures as parameters with three different -traits: `Fn`, `FnMut`, and `FnOnce`. We need to decide which kind of closure to -use here. We know we’ll end up doing something similar to the standard library -`thread::spawn` implementation, so we can look at what bounds the signature of -`thread::spawn` has on its parameter. The documentation shows us the following: - -``` -pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle - where - F: FnOnce() -> T, - F: Send + 'static, - T: Send + 'static, -``` - -The `F` type parameter is the one we’re concerned with here; the `T` type -parameter is related to the return value, and we’re not concerned with that. We -can see that `spawn` uses `FnOnce` as the trait bound on `F`. This is probably -what we want as well, because we’ll eventually pass the argument we get in -`execute` to `spawn`. We can be further confident that `FnOnce` is the trait we -want to use because the thread for running a request will only execute that -request’s closure one time, which matches the `Once` in `FnOnce`. - -The `F` type parameter also has the trait bound `Send` and the lifetime bound -`'static`, which are useful in our situation: we need `Send` to transfer the -closure from one thread to another and `'static` because we don’t know how long -the thread will take to execute. Let’s create an `execute` method on -`ThreadPool` that will take a generic parameter of type `F` with these bounds: + = note: cannot satisfy `_: Animal` +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +To disambiguate and tell Rust that we want to use the implementation of +`Animal` for `Dog` as opposed to the implementation of `Animal` for some other +type, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 19-21 demonstrates how to +use fully qualified syntax. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- - pub fn execute(&self, f: F) - where - F: FnOnce() 1 + Send + 'static, - { - } +fn main() { + println!( + "A baby dog is called a {}", + ::baby_name() + ); } ``` -We still use the `()` after `FnOnce` [1] because this `FnOnce` represents a -closure that takes no parameters and returns the unit type `()`. Just like -function definitions, the return type can be omitted from the signature, but -even if we have no parameters, we still need the parentheses. +Listing 19-21: Using fully qualified syntax to specify that we want to call the +`baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as implemented on `Dog` -Again, this is the simplest implementation of the `execute` method: it does -nothing, but we’re only trying to make our code compile. Let’s check it again: +We’re providing Rust with a type annotation within the angle brackets, which +indicates we want to call the `baby_name` method from the `Animal` trait as +implemented on `Dog` by saying that we want to treat the `Dog` type as an +`Animal` for this function call. This code will now print what we want: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.24s +A baby dog is called a puppy ``` -It compiles! But note that if you try `cargo run` and make a request in the -browser, you’ll see the errors in the browser that we saw at the beginning of -the chapter. Our library isn’t actually calling the closure passed to `execute` -yet! +In general, fully qualified syntax is defined as follows: -> Note: A saying you might hear about languages with strict compilers, such as -Haskell and Rust, is “if the code compiles, it works.” But this saying is not -universally true. Our project compiles, but it does absolutely nothing! If we -were building a real, complete project, this would be a good time to start -writing unit tests to check that the code compiles *and* has the behavior we -want. +``` +::function(receiver_if_method, next_arg, ...); +``` -#### Validating the Number of Threads in new +For associated functions that aren’t methods, there would not be a `receiver`: +there would only be the list of other arguments. You could use fully qualified +syntax everywhere that you call functions or methods. However, you’re allowed +to omit any part of this syntax that Rust can figure out from other information +in the program. You only need to use this more verbose syntax in cases where +there are multiple implementations that use the same name and Rust needs help +to identify which implementation you want to call. -We aren’t doing anything with the parameters to `new` and `execute`. Let’s -implement the bodies of these functions with the behavior we want. To start, -let’s think about `new`. Earlier we chose an unsigned type for the `size` -parameter because a pool with a negative number of threads makes no sense. -However, a pool with zero threads also makes no sense, yet zero is a perfectly -valid `usize`. We’ll add code to check that `size` is greater than zero before -we return a `ThreadPool` instance and have the program panic if it receives a -zero by using the `assert!` macro, as shown in Listing 20-13. +### Using Supertraits -Filename: src/lib.rs +Sometimes you might write a trait definition that depends on another trait: for +a type to implement the first trait, you want to require that type to also +implement the second trait. You would do this so that your trait definition can +make use of the associated items of the second trait. The trait your trait +definition is relying on is called a *supertrait* of your trait. +For example, let’s say we want to make an `OutlinePrint` trait with an +`outline_print` method that will print a given value formatted so that it’s +framed in asterisks. That is, given a `Point` struct that implements the +standard library trait `Display` to result in `(x, y)`, when we call +`outline_print` on a `Point` instance that has `1` for `x` and `3` for `y`, it +should print the following: + +``` +********** +* * +* (1, 3) * +* * +********** ``` -impl ThreadPool { - /// Create a new ThreadPool. - /// - /// The size is the number of threads in the pool. - /// - 1 /// # Panics - /// - /// The `new` function will panic if the size is zero. - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - 2 assert!(size > 0); - ThreadPool - } +In the implementation of the `outline_print` method, we want to use the +`Display` trait’s functionality. Therefore, we need to specify that the +`OutlinePrint` trait will work only for types that also implement `Display` and +provide the functionality that `OutlinePrint` needs. We can do that in the +trait definition by specifying `OutlinePrint: Display`. This technique is +similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 19-22 shows an +implementation of the `OutlinePrint` trait. - --snip-- +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::fmt; + +trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { + fn outline_print(&self) { + let output = self.to_string(); + let len = output.len(); + println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); + println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); + println!("* {} *", output); + println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); + println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); + } } ``` -Listing 20-13: Implementing `ThreadPool::new` to panic if `size` is zero +Listing 19-22: Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that requires the +functionality from `Display` -We’ve also added some documentation for our `ThreadPool` with doc comments. -Note that we followed good documentation practices by adding a section that -calls out the situations in which our function can panic [1], as discussed in -Chapter 14. Try running `cargo doc --open` and clicking the `ThreadPool` struct -to see what the generated docs for `new` look like! +Because we’ve specified that `OutlinePrint` requires the `Display` trait, we +can use the `to_string` function that is automatically implemented for any type +that implements `Display`. If we tried to use `to_string` without adding a +colon and specifying the `Display` trait after the trait name, we’d get an +error saying that no method named `to_string` was found for the type `&Self` in +the current scope. -Instead of adding the `assert!` macro as we’ve done here [2], we could change -`new` into `build` and return a `Result` like we did with `Config::build` in -the I/O project in Listing 12-9. But we’ve decided in this case that trying to -create a thread pool without any threads should be an unrecoverable error. If -you’re feeling ambitious, try to write a function named `build` with the -following signature to compare with the `new` function: +Let’s see what happens when we try to implement `OutlinePrint` on a type that +doesn’t implement `Display`, such as the `Point` struct: + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub fn build( - size: usize -) -> Result { -``` +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, +} -#### Creating Space to Store the Threads +impl OutlinePrint for Point {} +``` -Now that we have a way to know we have a valid number of threads to store in -the pool, we can create those threads and store them in the `ThreadPool` struct -before returning the struct. But how do we “store” a thread? Let’s take another -look at the `thread::spawn` signature: +We get an error saying that `Display` is required but not implemented: ``` -pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle - where - F: FnOnce() -> T, - F: Send + 'static, - T: Send + 'static, +error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` + --> src/main.rs:20:6 + | +20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {} + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter + | + = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point` + = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for +pretty-print) instead +note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint` + --> src/main.rs:3:21 + | +3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint` ``` -The `spawn` function returns a `JoinHandle`, where `T` is the type that the -closure returns. Let’s try using `JoinHandle` too and see what happens. In our -case, the closures we’re passing to the thread pool will handle the connection -and not return anything, so `T` will be the unit type `()`. - -The code in Listing 20-14 will compile but doesn’t create any threads yet. -We’ve changed the definition of `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of -`thread::JoinHandle<()>` instances, initialized the vector with a capacity of -`size`, set up a `for` loop that will run some code to create the threads, and -returned a `ThreadPool` instance containing them. +To fix this, we implement `Display` on `Point` and satisfy the constraint that +`OutlinePrint` requires, like so: -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -1 use std::thread; +use std::fmt; -pub struct ThreadPool { - 2 threads: Vec>, +impl fmt::Display for Point { + fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { + write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y) + } } +``` -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +Then, implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait on `Point` will compile +successfully, and we can call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance to display +it within an outline of asterisks. - 3 let mut threads = Vec::with_capacity(size); +### Using the Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits - for _ in 0..size { - // create some threads and store them in the vector - } +In “Implementing a Trait on a Type” on page XX, we mentioned the orphan rule +that states we’re only allowed to implement a trait on a type if either the +trait or the type, or both, are local to our crate. It’s possible to get around +this restriction using the *newtype pattern*, which involves creating a new +type in a tuple struct. (We covered tuple structs in “Using Tuple Structs +Without Named Fields to Create Different Types” on page XX.) The tuple struct +will have one field and be a thin wrapper around the type for which we want to +implement a trait. Then the wrapper type is local to our crate, and we can +implement the trait on the wrapper. *Newtype* is a term that originates from +the Haskell programming language. There is no runtime performance penalty for +using this pattern, and the wrapper type is elided at compile time. + +As an example, let’s say we want to implement `Display` on `Vec`, which the +orphan rule prevents us from doing directly because the `Display` trait and the +`Vec` type are defined outside our crate. We can make a `Wrapper` struct +that holds an instance of `Vec`; then we can implement `Display` on +`Wrapper` and use the `Vec` value, as shown in Listing 19-23. + +Filename: src/main.rs - ThreadPool { threads } +``` +use std::fmt; + +struct Wrapper(Vec); + +impl fmt::Display for Wrapper { + fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { + write!(f, "[{}]", self.0.join(", ")) } - --snip-- +} + +fn main() { + let w = Wrapper(vec![ + String::from("hello"), + String::from("world"), + ]); + println!("w = {w}"); } ``` -Listing 20-14: Creating a vector for `ThreadPool` to hold the threads +Listing 19-23: Creating a `Wrapper` type around `Vec` to implement +`Display` -We’ve brought `std::thread` into scope in the library crate [1] because we’re -using `thread::JoinHandle` as the type of the items in the vector in -`ThreadPool` [2]. +The implementation of `Display` uses `self.0` to access the inner `Vec` +because `Wrapper` is a tuple struct and `Vec` is the item at index 0 in the +tuple. Then we can use the functionality of the `Display` type on `Wrapper`. -Once a valid size is received, our `ThreadPool` creates a new vector that can -hold `size` items [3]. The `with_capacity` function performs the same task as -`Vec::new` but with an important difference: it pre-allocates space in the -vector. Because we know we need to store `size` elements in the vector, doing -this allocation up front is slightly more efficient than using `Vec::new`, -which resizes itself as elements are inserted. +The downside of using this technique is that `Wrapper` is a new type, so it +doesn’t have the methods of the value it’s holding. We would have to implement +all the methods of `Vec` directly on `Wrapper` such that the methods +delegate to `self.0`, which would allow us to treat `Wrapper` exactly like a +`Vec`. If we wanted the new type to have every method the inner type has, +implementing the `Deref` trait on the `Wrapper` to return the inner type would +be a solution (we discussed implementing the `Deref` trait in “Treating Smart +Pointers Like Regular References with Deref” on page XX). If we didn’t want the +`Wrapper` type to have all the methods of the inner type—for example, to +restrict the `Wrapper` type’s behavior—we would have to implement just the +methods we do want manually. -When you run `cargo check` again, it should succeed. +This newtype pattern is also useful even when traits are not involved. Let’s +switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type system. -#### Sending Code from the ThreadPool to a Thread +## Advanced Types -We left a comment in the `for` loop in Listing 20-14 regarding the creation of -threads. Here, we’ll look at how we actually create threads. The standard -library provides `thread::spawn` as a way to create threads, and -`thread::spawn` expects to get some code the thread should run as soon as the -thread is created. However, in our case, we want to create the threads and have -them *wait* for code that we’ll send later. The standard library’s -implementation of threads doesn’t include any way to do that; we have to -implement it manually. +The Rust type system has some features that we’ve so far mentioned but haven’t +yet discussed. We’ll start by discussing newtypes in general as we examine why +newtypes are useful as types. Then we’ll move on to type aliases, a feature +similar to newtypes but with slightly different semantics. We’ll also discuss +the `!` type and dynamically sized types. -We’ll implement this behavior by introducing a new data structure between the -`ThreadPool` and the threads that will manage this new behavior. We’ll call -this data structure *Worker*, which is a common term in pooling -implementations. The `Worker` picks up code that needs to be run and runs the -code in its thread. +### Using the Newtype Pattern for Type Safety and Abstraction -Think of people working in the kitchen at a restaurant: the workers wait until -orders come in from customers, and then they’re responsible for taking those -orders and filling them. +> Note: This section assumes you’ve read the earlier section “Using the Newtype +Pattern to Implement External Traits” on page XX. -Instead of storing a vector of `JoinHandle<()>` instances in the thread pool, -we’ll store instances of the `Worker` struct. Each `Worker` will store a single -`JoinHandle<()>` instance. Then we’ll implement a method on `Worker` that will -take a closure of code to run and send it to the already running thread for -execution. We’ll also give each `Worker` an `id` so we can distinguish between -the different instances of `Worker` in the pool when logging or debugging. +The newtype pattern is also useful for tasks beyond those we’ve discussed so +far, including statically enforcing that values are never confused and +indicating the units of a value. You saw an example of using newtypes to +indicate units in Listing 19-15: recall that the `Millimeters` and `Meters` +structs wrapped `u32` values in a newtype. If we wrote a function with a +parameter of type `Millimeters`, we wouldn’t be able to compile a program that +accidentally tried to call that function with a value of type `Meters` or a +plain `u32`. -Here is the new process that will happen when we create a `ThreadPool`. We’ll -implement the code that sends the closure to the thread after we have `Worker` -set up in this way: +We can also use the newtype pattern to abstract away some implementation +details of a type: the new type can expose a public API that is different from +the API of the private inner type. -1. Define a `Worker` struct that holds an `id` and a `JoinHandle<()>`. -1. Change `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of `Worker` instances. -1. Define a `Worker::new` function that takes an `id` number and returns a -`Worker` instance that holds the `id` and a thread spawned with an empty -closure. -1. In `ThreadPool::new`, use the `for` loop counter to generate an `id`, create -a new `Worker` with that `id`, and store the `Worker` in the vector. +Newtypes can also hide internal implementation. For example, we could provide a +`People` type to wrap a `HashMap` that stores a person’s ID +associated with their name. Code using `People` would only interact with the +public API we provide, such as a method to add a name string to the `People` +collection; that code wouldn’t need to know that we assign an `i32` ID to names +internally. The newtype pattern is a lightweight way to achieve encapsulation +to hide implementation details, which we discussed in “Encapsulation That Hides +Implementation Details” on page XX. -If you’re up for a challenge, try implementing these changes on your own before -looking at the code in Listing 20-15. +### Creating Type Synonyms with Type Aliases -Ready? Here is Listing 20-15 with one way to make the preceding modifications. +Rust provides the ability to declare a *type alias* to give an existing type +another name. For this we use the `type` keyword. For example, we can create +the alias `Kilometers` to `i32` like so: -Filename: src/lib.rs +``` +type Kilometers = i32; +``` + +Now the alias `Kilometers` is a *synonym* for `i32`; unlike the `Millimeters` +and `Meters` types we created in Listing 19-15, `Kilometers` is not a separate, +new type. Values that have the type `Kilometers` will be treated the same as +values of type `i32`: ``` -use std::thread; +type Kilometers = i32; -pub struct ThreadPool { - 1 workers: Vec, -} +let x: i32 = 5; +let y: Kilometers = 5; -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +println!("x + y = {}", x + y); +``` - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +Because `Kilometers` and `i32` are the same type, we can add values of both +types and we can pass `Kilometers` values to functions that take `i32` +parameters. However, using this method, we don’t get the type-checking benefits +that we get from the newtype pattern discussed earlier. In other words, if we +mix up `Kilometers` and `i32` values somewhere, the compiler will not give us +an error. - 2 for id in 0..size { - 3 workers.push(Worker::new(id)); - } +The main use case for type synonyms is to reduce repetition. For example, we +might have a lengthy type like this: - ThreadPool { workers } - } +``` +Box +``` + +Writing this lengthy type in function signatures and as type annotations all +over the code can be tiresome and error prone. Imagine having a project full of +code like that in Listing 19-24. + +``` +let f: Box = Box::new(|| { + println!("hi"); +}); + +fn takes_long_type(f: Box) { --snip-- } -4 struct Worker { - id: usize, - thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, +fn returns_long_type() -> Box { + --snip-- } +``` -impl Worker { - 5 fn new(id: usize) -> Worker { - 6 let thread = thread::spawn(|| {}); +Listing 19-24: Using a long type in many places + +A type alias makes this code more manageable by reducing the repetition. In +Listing 19-25, we’ve introduced an alias named `Thunk` for the verbose type and +can replace all uses of the type with the shorter alias `Thunk`. - Worker { 7 id, 8 thread } - } -} ``` +type Thunk = Box; -Listing 20-15: Modifying `ThreadPool` to hold `Worker` instances instead of -holding threads directly +let f: Thunk = Box::new(|| println!("hi")); -We’ve changed the name of the field on `ThreadPool` from `threads` to `workers` -because it’s now holding `Worker` instances instead of `JoinHandle<()>` -instances [1]. We use the counter in the `for` loop [2] as an argument to -`Worker::new`, and we store each new `Worker` in the vector named `workers` [3]. +fn takes_long_type(f: Thunk) { + --snip-- +} -External code (like our server in *src/main.rs*) doesn’t need to know the -implementation details regarding using a `Worker` struct within `ThreadPool`, -so we make the `Worker` struct [4] and its `new` function [5] private. The -`Worker::new` function uses the `id` we give it [7] and stores a -`JoinHandle<()>` instance [8] that is created by spawning a new thread using an -empty closure [6]. +fn returns_long_type() -> Thunk { + --snip-- +} +``` -> Note: If the operating system can’t create a thread because there aren’t -enough system resources, `thread::spawn` will panic. That will cause our whole -server to panic, even though the creation of some threads might succeed. For -simplicity’s sake, this behavior is fine, but in a production thread pool -implementation, you’d likely want to use `std::thread::Builder` and its `spawn` -method that returns `Result` instead. +Listing 19-25: Introducing a type alias `Thunk` to reduce repetition -This code will compile and will store the number of `Worker` instances we -specified as an argument to `ThreadPool::new`. But we’re *still* not processing -the closure that we get in `execute`. Let’s look at how to do that next. +This code is much easier to read and write! Choosing a meaningful name for a +type alias can help communicate your intent as well (*thunk* is a word for code +to be evaluated at a later time, so it’s an appropriate name for a closure that +gets stored). -#### Sending Requests to Threads via Channels +Type aliases are also commonly used with the `Result` type for reducing +repetition. Consider the `std::io` module in the standard library. I/O +operations often return a `Result` to handle situations when operations +fail to work. This library has a `std::io::Error` struct that represents all +possible I/O errors. Many of the functions in `std::io` will be returning +`Result` where the `E` is `std::io::Error`, such as these functions in +the `Write` trait: -The next problem we’ll tackle is that the closures given to `thread::spawn` do -absolutely nothing. Currently, we get the closure we want to execute in the -`execute` method. But we need to give `thread::spawn` a closure to run when we -create each `Worker` during the creation of the `ThreadPool`. +``` +use std::fmt; +use std::io::Error; -We want the `Worker` structs that we just created to fetch the code to run from -a queue held in the `ThreadPool` and send that code to its thread to run. +pub trait Write { + fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result; + fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<(), Error>; -The channels we learned about in Chapter 16—a simple way to communicate between -two threads—would be perfect for this use case. We’ll use a channel to function -as the queue of jobs, and `execute` will send a job from the `ThreadPool` to -the `Worker` instances, which will send the job to its thread. Here is the plan: + fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<(), Error>; + fn write_fmt( + &mut self, + fmt: fmt::Arguments, + ) -> Result<(), Error>; +} +``` -1. The `ThreadPool` will create a channel and hold on to the sender. -1. Each `Worker` will hold on to the receiver. -1. We’ll create a new `Job` struct that will hold the closures we want to send -down the channel. -1. The `execute` method will send the job it wants to execute through the -sender. -1. In its thread, the `Worker` will loop over its receiver and execute the -closures of any jobs it receives. +The `Result<..., Error>` is repeated a lot. As such, `std::io` has this type +alias declaration: -Let’s start by creating a channel in `ThreadPool::new` and holding the sender -in the `ThreadPool` instance, as shown in Listing 20-16. The `Job` struct -doesn’t hold anything for now but will be the type of item we’re sending down -the channel. +``` +type Result = std::result::Result; +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +Because this declaration is in the `std::io` module, we can use the fully +qualified alias `std::io::Result`; that is, a `Result` with the `E` +filled in as `std::io::Error`. The `Write` trait function signatures end up +looking like this: ``` -use std::{sync::mpsc, thread}; +pub trait Write { + fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result; + fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()>; -pub struct ThreadPool { - workers: Vec, - sender: mpsc::Sender, + fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<()>; + fn write_fmt(&mut self, fmt: fmt::Arguments) -> Result<()>; } +``` -struct Job; - -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); - - 1 let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); +The type alias helps in two ways: it makes code easier to write *and* it gives +us a consistent interface across all of `std::io`. Because it’s an alias, it’s +just another `Result`, which means we can use any methods that work on +`Result` with it, as well as special syntax like the `?` operator. - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +### The Never Type That Never Returns - for id in 0..size { - workers.push(Worker::new(id)); - } +Rust has a special type named `!` that’s known in type theory lingo as the +*empty type* because it has no values. We prefer to call it the *never type* +because it stands in the place of the return type when a function will never +return. Here is an example: - ThreadPool { workers, 2 sender } - } +``` +fn bar() -> ! { --snip-- } ``` -Listing 20-16: Modifying `ThreadPool` to store the sender of a channel that -transmits `Job` instances +This code is read as “the function `bar` returns never.” Functions that return +never are called *diverging functions*. We can’t create values of the type `!`, +so `bar` can never possibly return. + +But what use is a type you can never create values for? Recall the code from +Listing 2-5, part of the number-guessing game; we’ve reproduced a bit of it +here in Listing 19-26. -In `ThreadPool::new`, we create our new channel [1] and have the pool hold the -sender [2]. This will successfully compile. +``` +let guess: u32 = match guess.trim().parse() { + Ok(num) => num, + Err(_) => continue, +}; +``` -Let’s try passing a receiver of the channel into each `Worker` as the thread -pool creates the channel. We know we want to use the receiver in the thread -that the `Worker` instances spawn, so we’ll reference the `receiver` parameter -in the closure. The code in Listing 20-17 won’t quite compile yet. +Listing 19-26: A `match` with an arm that ends in `continue` -Filename: src/lib.rs +At the time, we skipped over some details in this code. In “The match Control +Flow Construct” on page XX, we discussed that `match` arms must all return the +same type. So, for example, the following code doesn’t work: ``` -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +let guess = match guess.trim().parse() { + Ok(_) => 5, + Err(_) => "hello", +}; +``` - let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); +The type of `guess` in this code would have to be an integer *and* a string, +and Rust requires that `guess` have only one type. So what does `continue` +return? How were we allowed to return a `u32` from one arm and have another arm +that ends with `continue` in Listing 19-26? - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +As you might have guessed, `continue` has a `!` value. That is, when Rust +computes the type of `guess`, it looks at both match arms, the former with a +value of `u32` and the latter with a `!` value. Because `!` can never have a +value, Rust decides that the type of `guess` is `u32`. - for id in 0..size { - 1 workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); - } +The formal way of describing this behavior is that expressions of type `!` can +be coerced into any other type. We’re allowed to end this `match` arm with +`continue` because `continue` doesn’t return a value; instead, it moves control +back to the top of the loop, so in the `Err` case, we never assign a value to +`guess`. + +The never type is useful with the `panic!` macro as well. Recall the `unwrap` +function that we call on `Option` values to produce a value or panic with +this definition: - ThreadPool { workers, sender } +``` +impl Option { + pub fn unwrap(self) -> T { + match self { + Some(val) => val, + None => panic!( + "called `Option::unwrap()` on a `None` value" + ), + } } - --snip-- } +``` ---snip-- +In this code, the same thing happens as in the `match` in Listing 19-26: Rust +sees that `val` has the type `T` and `panic!` has the type `!`, so the result +of the overall `match` expression is `T`. This code works because `panic!` +doesn’t produce a value; it ends the program. In the `None` case, we won’t be +returning a value from `unwrap`, so this code is valid. -impl Worker { - fn new(id: usize, receiver: mpsc::Receiver) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(|| { - 2 receiver; - }); +One final expression that has the type `!` is a `loop`: - Worker { id, thread } - } -} ``` +print!("forever "); -Listing 20-17: Passing the receiver to each `Worker` +loop { + print!("and ever "); +} +``` -We’ve made some small and straightforward changes: we pass the receiver into -`Worker::new` [1], and then we use it inside the closure [2]. +Here, the loop never ends, so `!` is the value of the expression. However, this +wouldn’t be true if we included a `break`, because the loop would terminate +when it got to the `break`. + +### Dynamically Sized Types and the Sized Trait + +Rust needs to know certain details about its types, such as how much space to +allocate for a value of a particular type. This leaves one corner of its type +system a little confusing at first: the concept of *dynamically sized types*. +Sometimes referred to as *DSTs* or *unsized types*, these types let us write +code using values whose size we can know only at runtime. + +Let’s dig into the details of a dynamically sized type called `str`, which +we’ve been using throughout the book. That’s right, not `&str`, but `str` on +its own, is a DST. We can’t know how long the string is until runtime, meaning +we can’t create a variable of type `str`, nor can we take an argument of type +`str`. Consider the following code, which does not work: + +``` +let s1: str = "Hello there!"; +let s2: str = "How's it going?"; +``` + +Rust needs to know how much memory to allocate for any value of a particular +type, and all values of a type must use the same amount of memory. If Rust +allowed us to write this code, these two `str` values would need to take up the +same amount of space. But they have different lengths: `s1` needs 12 bytes of +storage and `s2` needs 15. This is why it’s not possible to create a variable +holding a dynamically sized type. + +So what do we do? In this case, you already know the answer: we make the types +of `s1` and `s2` a `&str` rather than a `str`. Recall from “String Slices” on +page XX that the slice data structure just stores the starting position and the +length of the slice. So, although a `&T` is a single value that stores the +memory address of where the `T` is located, a `&str` is *two* values: the +address of the `str` and its length. As such, we can know the size of a `&str` +value at compile time: it’s twice the length of a `usize`. That is, we always +know the size of a `&str`, no matter how long the string it refers to is. In +general, this is the way in which dynamically sized types are used in Rust: +they have an extra bit of metadata that stores the size of the dynamic +information. The golden rule of dynamically sized types is that we must always +put values of dynamically sized types behind a pointer of some kind. + +We can combine `str` with all kinds of pointers: for example, `Box` or +`Rc`. In fact, you’ve seen this before but with a different dynamically +sized type: traits. Every trait is a dynamically sized type we can refer to by +using the name of the trait. In “Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of +Different Types” on page XX, we mentioned that to use traits as trait objects, +we must put them behind a pointer, such as `&dyn Trait` or `Box` +(`Rc` would work too). + +To work with DSTs, Rust provides the `Sized` trait to determine whether or not +a type’s size is known at compile time. This trait is automatically implemented +for everything whose size is known at compile time. In addition, Rust +implicitly adds a bound on `Sized` to every generic function. That is, a +generic function definition like this: + +``` +fn generic(t: T) { + --snip-- +} +``` -When we try to check this code, we get this error: +is actually treated as though we had written this: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0382]: use of moved value: `receiver` - --> src/lib.rs:26:42 - | -21 | let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); - | -------- move occurs because `receiver` has type -`std::sync::mpsc::Receiver`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait -... -26 | workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); - | ^^^^^^^^ value moved here, in -previous iteration of loop -``` - -The code is trying to pass `receiver` to multiple `Worker` instances. This -won’t work, as you’ll recall from Chapter 16: the channel implementation that -Rust provides is multiple *producer*, single *consumer*. This means we can’t -just clone the consuming end of the channel to fix this code. We also don’t -want to send a message multiple times to multiple consumers; we want one list -of messages with multiple `Worker` instances such that each message gets -processed once. - -Additionally, taking a job off the channel queue involves mutating the -`receiver`, so the threads need a safe way to share and modify `receiver`; -otherwise, we might get race conditions (as covered in Chapter 16). - -Recall the thread-safe smart pointers discussed in Chapter 16: to share -ownership across multiple threads and allow the threads to mutate the value, we -need to use `Arc>`. The `Arc` type will let multiple `Worker` -instances own the receiver, and `Mutex` will ensure that only one `Worker` gets -a job from the receiver at a time. Listing 20-18 shows the changes we need to -make. +fn generic(t: T) { + --snip-- +} +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +By default, generic functions will work only on types that have a known size at +compile time. However, you can use the following special syntax to relax this +restriction: ``` -use std::{ - sync::{mpsc, Arc, Mutex}, - thread, -}; ---snip-- - -impl ThreadPool { +fn generic(t: &T) { --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +} +``` - let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); +A trait bound on `?Sized` means “`T` may or may not be `Sized`” and this +notation overrides the default that generic types must have a known size at +compile time. The `?Trait` syntax with this meaning is only available for +`Sized`, not any other traits. - 1 let receiver = Arc::new(Mutex::new(receiver)); +Also note that we switched the type of the `t` parameter from `T` to `&T`. +Because the type might not be `Sized`, we need to use it behind some kind of +pointer. In this case, we’ve chosen a reference. - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +Next, we’ll talk about functions and closures! - for id in 0..size { - workers.push( - Worker::new(id, Arc::clone(& 2 receiver)) - ); - } +## Advanced Functions and Closures - ThreadPool { workers, sender } - } +This section explores some advanced features related to functions and closures, +including function pointers and returning closures. - --snip-- +### Function Pointers + +We’ve talked about how to pass closures to functions; you can also pass regular +functions to functions! This technique is useful when you want to pass a +function you’ve already defined rather than defining a new closure. Functions +coerce to the type `fn` (with a lowercase *f*), not to be confused with the +`Fn` closure trait. The `fn` type is called a *function pointer*. Passing +functions with function pointers will allow you to use functions as arguments +to other functions. + +The syntax for specifying that a parameter is a function pointer is similar to +that of closures, as shown in Listing 19-27, where we’ve defined a function +`add_one` that adds 1 to its parameter. The function `do_twice` takes two +parameters: a function pointer to any function that takes an `i32` parameter +and returns an `i32`, and one `i32 value`. The `do_twice` function calls the +function `f` twice, passing it the `arg` value, then adds the two function call +results together. The `main` function calls `do_twice` with the arguments +`add_one` and `5`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 { + x + 1 } ---snip-- +fn do_twice(f: fn(i32) -> i32, arg: i32) -> i32 { + f(arg) + f(arg) +} -impl Worker { - fn new( - id: usize, - receiver: Arc>>, - ) -> Worker { - --snip-- - } +fn main() { + let answer = do_twice(add_one, 5); + + println!("The answer is: {answer}"); } ``` -Listing 20-18: Sharing the receiver among the `Worker` instances using `Arc` -and `Mutex` +Listing 19-27: Using the `fn` type to accept a function pointer as an argument -In `ThreadPool::new`, we put the receiver in an `Arc` and a `Mutex` [1]. For -each new `Worker`, we clone the `Arc` to bump the reference count so the -`Worker` instances can share ownership of the receiver [2]. +This code prints `The answer is: 12`. We specify that the parameter `f` in +`do_twice` is an `fn` that takes one parameter of type `i32` and returns an +`i32`. We can then call `f` in the body of `do_twice`. In `main`, we can pass +the function name `add_one` as the first argument to `do_twice`. -With these changes, the code compiles! We’re getting there! +Unlike closures, `fn` is a type rather than a trait, so we specify `fn` as the +parameter type directly rather than declaring a generic type parameter with one +of the `Fn` traits as a trait bound. -#### Implementing the execute Method +Function pointers implement all three of the closure traits (`Fn`, `FnMut`, and +`FnOnce`), meaning you can always pass a function pointer as an argument for a +function that expects a closure. It’s best to write functions using a generic +type and one of the closure traits so your functions can accept either +functions or closures. -Let’s finally implement the `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. We’ll also change -`Job` from a struct to a type alias for a trait object that holds the type of -closure that `execute` receives. As discussed in “Creating Type Synonyms with -Type Aliases” on page XX, type aliases allow us to make long types shorter for -ease of use. Look at Listing 20-19. +That said, one example of where you would want to only accept `fn` and not +closures is when interfacing with external code that doesn’t have closures: C +functions can accept functions as arguments, but C doesn’t have closures. -Filename: src/lib.rs +As an example of where you could use either a closure defined inline or a named +function, let’s look at a use of the `map` method provided by the `Iterator` +trait in the standard library. To use the `map` function to turn a vector of +numbers into a vector of strings, we could use a closure, like this: ``` ---snip-- +let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; +let list_of_strings: Vec = list_of_numbers + .iter() + .map(|i| i.to_string()) + .collect(); +``` -type Job = Box; +Or we could name a function as the argument to `map` instead of the closure, +like this: -impl ThreadPool { - --snip-- +``` +let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; +let list_of_strings: Vec = list_of_numbers + .iter() + .map(ToString::to_string) + .collect(); +``` - pub fn execute(&self, f: F) - where - F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, - { - 1 let job = Box::new(f); +Note that we must use the fully qualified syntax that we talked about in +“Advanced Traits” on page XX because there are multiple functions available +named `to_string`. - 2 self.sender.send(job).unwrap(); - } +Here, we’re using the `to_string` function defined in the `ToString` trait, +which the standard library has implemented for any type that implements +`Display`. + +Recall from “Enum Values” on page XX that the name of each enum variant that we +define also becomes an initializer function. We can use these initializer +functions as function pointers that implement the closure traits, which means +we can specify the initializer functions as arguments for methods that take +closures, like so: + +``` +enum Status { + Value(u32), + Stop, } ---snip-- +let list_of_statuses: Vec = (0u32..20) + .map(Status::Value) + .collect(); ``` -Listing 20-19: Creating a `Job` type alias for a `Box` that holds each closure -and then sending the job down the channel +Here, we create `Status::Value` instances using each `u32` value in the range +that `map` is called on by using the initializer function of `Status::Value`. +Some people prefer this style and some people prefer to use closures. They +compile to the same code, so use whichever style is clearer to you. -After creating a new `Job` instance using the closure we get in `execute` [1], -we send that job down the sending end of the channel [2]. We’re calling -`unwrap` on `send` for the case that sending fails. This might happen if, for -example, we stop all our threads from executing, meaning the receiving end has -stopped receiving new messages. At the moment, we can’t stop our threads from -executing: our threads continue executing as long as the pool exists. The -reason we use `unwrap` is that we know the failure case won’t happen, but the -compiler doesn’t know that. +### Returning Closures -But we’re not quite done yet! In the `Worker`, our closure being passed to -`thread::spawn` still only *references* the receiving end of the channel. -Instead, we need the closure to loop forever, asking the receiving end of the -channel for a job and running the job when it gets one. Let’s make the change -shown in Listing 20-20 to `Worker::new`. +Closures are represented by traits, which means you can’t return closures +directly. In most cases where you might want to return a trait, you can instead +use the concrete type that implements the trait as the return value of the +function. However, you can’t do that with closures because they don’t have a +concrete type that is returnable; you’re not allowed to use the function +pointer `fn` as a return type, for example. -Filename: src/lib.rs +The following code tries to return a closure directly, but it won’t compile: ``` ---snip-- +fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { + |x| x + 1 +} +``` -impl Worker { - fn new( - id: usize, - receiver: Arc>>, - ) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { - let job = receiver - 1 .lock() - 2 .unwrap() - 3 .recv() - 4 .unwrap(); +The compiler error is as follows: - println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); +``` +error[E0746]: return type cannot have an unboxed trait object + --> src/lib.rs:1:25 + | +1 | fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ doesn't have a size known at +compile-time + | + = note: for information on `impl Trait`, see + +help: use `impl Fn(i32) -> i32` as the return type, as all return paths are of +type `[closure@src/lib.rs:2:5: 2:14]`, which implements `Fn(i32) -> i32` + | +1 | fn returns_closure() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 { + | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ +``` - job(); - }); +The error references the `Sized` trait again! Rust doesn’t know how much space +it will need to store the closure. We saw a solution to this problem earlier. +We can use a trait object: - Worker { id, thread } - } +``` +fn returns_closure() -> Box i32> { + Box::new(|x| x + 1) } ``` -Listing 20-20: Receiving and executing the jobs in the `Worker` instance’s -thread +This code will compile just fine. For more about trait objects, refer to “Using +Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types” on page XX. -Here, we first call `lock` on the `receiver` to acquire the mutex [1], and then -we call `unwrap` to panic on any errors [2]. Acquiring a lock might fail if the -mutex is in a *poisoned* state, which can happen if some other thread panicked -while holding the lock rather than releasing the lock. In this situation, -calling `unwrap` to have this thread panic is the correct action to take. Feel -free to change this `unwrap` to an `expect` with an error message that is -meaningful to you. +Next, let’s look at macros! -If we get the lock on the mutex, we call `recv` to receive a `Job` from the -channel [3]. A final `unwrap` moves past any errors here as well [4], which -might occur if the thread holding the sender has shut down, similar to how the -`send` method returns `Err` if the receiver shuts down. +## Macros -The call to `recv` blocks, so if there is no job yet, the current thread will -wait until a job becomes available. The `Mutex` ensures that only one -`Worker` thread at a time is trying to request a job. +We’ve used macros like `println!` throughout this book, but we haven’t fully +explored what a macro is and how it works. The term *macro* refers to a family +of features in Rust: *declarative* macros with `macro_rules!` and three kinds +of *procedural* macros: -Our thread pool is now in a working state! Give it a `cargo run` and make some -requests: +* Custom `#[derive]` macros that specify code added with the `derive` attribute +used on structs and enums +* Attribute-like macros that define custom attributes usable on any item +* Function-like macros that look like function calls but operate on the tokens +specified as their argument -``` -$ cargo run - Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -warning: field is never read: `workers` - --> src/lib.rs:7:5 - | -7 | workers: Vec, - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - | - = note: `#[warn(dead_code)]` on by default +We’ll talk about each of these in turn, but first, let’s look at why we even +need macros when we already have functions. -warning: field is never read: `id` - --> src/lib.rs:48:5 - | -48 | id: usize, - | ^^^^^^^^^ +### The Difference Between Macros and Functions -warning: field is never read: `thread` - --> src/lib.rs:49:5 - | -49 | thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -warning: `hello` (lib) generated 3 warnings - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.40s - Running `target/debug/hello` -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Worker 2 got a job; executing. -Worker 1 got a job; executing. -Worker 3 got a job; executing. -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Worker 2 got a job; executing. -Worker 1 got a job; executing. -Worker 3 got a job; executing. -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Worker 2 got a job; executing. -``` - -Success! We now have a thread pool that executes connections asynchronously. -There are never more than four threads created, so our system won’t get -overloaded if the server receives a lot of requests. If we make a request to -*/sleep*, the server will be able to serve other requests by having another -thread run them. - -> Note: If you open */sleep* in multiple browser windows simultaneously, they -might load one at a time in five-second intervals. Some web browsers execute -multiple instances of the same request sequentially for caching reasons. This -limitation is not caused by our web server. - -After learning about the `while let` loop in Chapter 18, you might be wondering -why we didn’t write the `Worker` thread code as shown in Listing 20-21. +Fundamentally, macros are a way of writing code that writes other code, which +is known as *metaprogramming*. In Appendix C, we discuss the `derive` +attribute, which generates an implementation of various traits for you. We’ve +also used the `println!` and `vec!` macros throughout the book. All of these +macros *expand* to produce more code than the code you’ve written manually. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Metaprogramming is useful for reducing the amount of code you have to write and +maintain, which is also one of the roles of functions. However, macros have +some additional powers that functions don’t have. -``` ---snip-- +A function signature must declare the number and type of parameters the +function has. Macros, on the other hand, can take a variable number of +parameters: we can call `println!("hello")` with one argument or +`println!("hello {}", name)` with two arguments. Also, macros are expanded +before the compiler interprets the meaning of the code, so a macro can, for +example, implement a trait on a given type. A function can’t, because it gets +called at runtime and a trait needs to be implemented at compile time. -impl Worker { - fn new( - id: usize, - receiver: Arc>>, - ) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(move || { - while let Ok(job) = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv() { - println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); +The downside to implementing a macro instead of a function is that macro +definitions are more complex than function definitions because you’re writing +Rust code that writes Rust code. Due to this indirection, macro definitions are +generally more difficult to read, understand, and maintain than function +definitions. - job(); - } - }); +Another important difference between macros and functions is that you must +define macros or bring them into scope *before* you call them in a file, as +opposed to functions you can define anywhere and call anywhere. - Worker { id, thread } - } -} +### Declarative Macros with macro_rules! for General Metaprogramming + +The most widely used form of macros in Rust is the *declarative macro*. These +are also sometimes referred to as “macros by example,” “`macro_rules!` macros,” +or just plain “macros.” At their core, declarative macros allow you to write +something similar to a Rust `match` expression. As discussed in Chapter 6, +`match` expressions are control structures that take an expression, compare the +resultant value of the expression to patterns, and then run the code associated +with the matching pattern. Macros also compare a value to patterns that are +associated with particular code: in this situation, the value is the literal +Rust source code passed to the macro; the patterns are compared with the +structure of that source code; and the code associated with each pattern, when +matched, replaces the code passed to the macro. This all happens during +compilation. + +To define a macro, you use the `macro_rules!` construct. Let’s explore how to +use `macro_rules!` by looking at how the `vec!` macro is defined. Chapter 8 +covered how we can use the `vec!` macro to create a new vector with particular +values. For example, the following macro creates a new vector containing three +integers: + +``` +let v: Vec = vec![1, 2, 3]; ``` -Listing 20-21: An alternative implementation of `Worker::new` using `while let` +We could also use the `vec!` macro to make a vector of two integers or a vector +of five string slices. We wouldn’t be able to use a function to do the same +because we wouldn’t know the number or type of values up front. -This code compiles and runs but doesn’t result in the desired threading -behavior: a slow request will still cause other requests to wait to be -processed. The reason is somewhat subtle: the `Mutex` struct has no public -`unlock` method because the ownership of the lock is based on the lifetime of -the `MutexGuard` within the `LockResult>` that the `lock` -method returns. At compile time, the borrow checker can then enforce the rule -that a resource guarded by a `Mutex` cannot be accessed unless we hold the -lock. However, this implementation can also result in the lock being held -longer than intended if we aren’t mindful of the lifetime of the -`MutexGuard`. +Listing 19-28 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro. -The code in Listing 20-20 that uses `let job = -receiver.lock().unwrap().recv().unwrap();` works because with `let`, any -temporary values used in the expression on the right-hand side of the equal -sign are immediately dropped when the `let` statement ends. However, `while -let` (and `if let` and `match`) does not drop temporary values until the end of -the associated block. In Listing 20-21, the lock remains held for the duration -of the call to `job()`, meaning other `Worker` instances cannot receive jobs. +Filename: src/lib.rs -## Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup +``` +1 #[macro_export] +2 macro_rules! vec { + 3 ( $( $x:expr ),* ) => { + { + let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); + 4 $( + 5 temp_vec.push(6 $x); + )* + 7 temp_vec + } + }; +} +``` + +Listing 19-28: A simplified version of the `vec!` macro definition + +> Note: The actual definition of the `vec!` macro in the standard library +includes code to pre-allocate the correct amount of memory up front. That code +is an optimization that we don’t include here, to make the example simpler. + +The `#[macro_export]` annotation [1] indicates that this macro should be made +available whenever the crate in which the macro is defined is brought into +scope. Without this annotation, the macro can’t be brought into scope. + +We then start the macro definition with `macro_rules!` and the name of the +macro we’re defining *without* the exclamation mark [2]. The name, in this case +`vec`, is followed by curly brackets denoting the body of the macro definition. + +The structure in the `vec!` body is similar to the structure of a `match` +expression. Here we have one arm with the pattern `( $( $x:expr ),* )`, +followed by `=>` and the block of code associated with this pattern [3]. If the +pattern matches, the associated block of code will be emitted. Given that this +is the only pattern in this macro, there is only one valid way to match; any +other pattern will result in an error. More complex macros will have more than +one arm. + +Valid pattern syntax in macro definitions is different from the pattern syntax +covered in Chapter 18 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code +structure rather than values. Let’s walk through what the pattern pieces in +Listing 19-28 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the Rust Reference +at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/macros-by-example.html*. + +First we use a set of parentheses to encompass the whole pattern. We use a +dollar sign (`$`) to declare a variable in the macro system that will contain +the Rust code matching the pattern. The dollar sign makes it clear this is a +macro variable as opposed to a regular Rust variable. Next comes a set of +parentheses that captures values that match the pattern within the parentheses +for use in the replacement code. Within `$()` is `$x:expr`, which matches any +Rust expression and gives the expression the name `$x`. + +The comma following `$()` indicates that a literal comma separator character +could optionally appear after the code that matches the code in `$()`. The `*` +specifies that the pattern matches zero or more of whatever precedes the `*`. + +When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the `$x` pattern matches three +times with the three expressions `1`, `2`, and `3`. + +Now let’s look at the pattern in the body of the code associated with this arm: +`temp_vec.push()` [5] within `$()* at [4] and [7] is generated for each part +that matches `$()` in the pattern zero or more times depending on how many +times the pattern matches. The `$x` [6] is replaced with each expression +matched. When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the code generated that +replaces this macro call will be the following: + +``` +{ + let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); + temp_vec.push(1); + temp_vec.push(2); + temp_vec.push(3); + temp_vec +} +``` + +We’ve defined a macro that can take any number of arguments of any type and can +generate code to create a vector containing the specified elements. -The code in Listing 20-20 is responding to requests asynchronously through the -use of a thread pool, as we intended. We get some warnings about the `workers`, -`id`, and `thread` fields that we’re not using in a direct way that reminds us -we’re not cleaning up anything. When we use the less elegant ctrl-C method to -halt the main thread, all other threads are stopped immediately as well, even -if they’re in the middle of serving a request. +To learn more about how to write macros, consult the online documentation or +other resources, such as “The Little Book of Rust Macros” at +*https://veykril.github.io/tlborm* started by Daniel Keep and continued by +Lukas Wirth. -Next, then, we’ll implement the `Drop` trait to call `join` on each of the -threads in the pool so they can finish the requests they’re working on before -closing. Then we’ll implement a way to tell the threads they should stop -accepting new requests and shut down. To see this code in action, we’ll modify -our server to accept only two requests before gracefully shutting down its -thread pool. +### Procedural Macros for Generating Code from Attributes -### Implementing the Drop Trait on ThreadPool +The second form of macros is the procedural macro, which acts more like a +function (and is a type of procedure). *Procedural macros* accept some code as +an input, operate on that code, and produce some code as an output rather than +matching against patterns and replacing the code with other code as declarative +macros do. The three kinds of procedural macros are custom `derive`, +attribute-like, and function-like, and all work in a similar fashion. -Let’s start with implementing `Drop` on our thread pool. When the pool is -dropped, our threads should all join to make sure they finish their work. -Listing 20-22 shows a first attempt at a `Drop` implementation; this code won’t -quite work yet. +When creating procedural macros, the definitions must reside in their own crate +with a special crate type. This is for complex technical reasons that we hope +to eliminate in the future. In Listing 19-29, we show how to define a +procedural macro, where `some_attribute` is a placeholder for using a specific +macro variety. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -impl Drop for ThreadPool { - fn drop(&mut self) { - 1 for worker in &mut self.workers { - 2 println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); +use proc_macro::TokenStream; - 3 worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - } - } +#[some_attribute] +pub fn some_name(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { } ``` -Listing 20-22: Joining each thread when the thread pool goes out of scope - -First we loop through each of the thread pool `workers` [1]. We use `&mut` for -this because `self` is a mutable reference, and we also need to be able to -mutate `worker`. For each `worker`, we print a message saying that this -particular `Worker` instance is shutting down [2], and then we call `join` on -that `Worker` instance’s thread [3]. If the call to `join` fails, we use -`unwrap` to make Rust panic and go into an ungraceful shutdown. +Listing 19-29: An example of defining a procedural macro -Here is the error we get when we compile this code: +The function that defines a procedural macro takes a `TokenStream` as an input +and produces a `TokenStream` as an output. The `TokenStream` type is defined by +the `proc_macro` crate that is included with Rust and represents a sequence of +tokens. This is the core of the macro: the source code that the macro is +operating on makes up the input `TokenStream`, and the code the macro produces +is the output `TokenStream`. The function also has an attribute attached to it +that specifies which kind of procedural macro we’re creating. We can have +multiple kinds of procedural macros in the same crate. -``` -error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable -reference - --> src/lib.rs:52:13 - | -52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ------ `worker.thread` moved due to this -method call - | | - | move occurs because `worker.thread` has type -`JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait - | -note: this function takes ownership of the receiver `self`, which moves -`worker.thread` -``` +Let’s look at the different kinds of procedural macros. We’ll start with a +custom `derive` macro and then explain the small dissimilarities that make the +other forms different. -The error tells us we can’t call `join` because we only have a mutable borrow -of each `worker` and `join` takes ownership of its argument. To solve this -issue, we need to move the thread out of the `Worker` instance that owns -`thread` so `join` can consume the thread. We did this in Listing 17-15: if -`Worker` holds an `Option>` instead, we can call the -`take` method on the `Option` to move the value out of the `Some` variant and -leave a `None` variant in its place. In other words, a `Worker` that is running -will have a `Some` variant in `thread`, and when we want to clean up a -`Worker`, we’ll replace `Some` with `None` so the `Worker` doesn’t have a -thread to run. +### How to Write a Custom derive Macro -So we know we want to update the definition of `Worker` like this: +Let’s create a crate named `hello_macro` that defines a trait named +`HelloMacro` with one associated function named `hello_macro`. Rather than +making our users implement the `HelloMacro` trait for each of their types, +we’ll provide a procedural macro so users can annotate their type with +`#[derive(HelloMacro)]` to get a default implementation of the `hello_macro` +function. The default implementation will print `Hello, Macro! My name is` +TypeName`!` where TypeName is the name of the type on which this trait has been +defined. In other words, we’ll write a crate that enables another programmer to +write code like Listing 19-30 using our crate. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -struct Worker { - id: usize, - thread: Option>, +use hello_macro::HelloMacro; +use hello_macro_derive::HelloMacro; + +#[derive(HelloMacro)] +struct Pancakes; + +fn main() { + Pancakes::hello_macro(); } ``` -Now let’s lean on the compiler to find the other places that need to change. -Checking this code, we get two errors: +Listing 19-30: The code a user of our crate will be able to write when using +our procedural macro -``` -error[E0599]: no method named `join` found for enum `Option` in the current -scope - --> src/lib.rs:52:27 - | -52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - | ^^^^ method not found in -`Option>` +This code will print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` when we’re done. The +first step is to make a new library crate, like this: -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/lib.rs:72:22 - | -72 | Worker { id, thread } - | ^^^^^^ expected enum `Option`, found struct -`JoinHandle` - | - = note: expected enum `Option>` - found struct `JoinHandle<_>` -help: try wrapping the expression in `Some` - | -72 | Worker { id, thread: Some(thread) } - | +++++++++++++ + +``` +$ cargo new hello_macro --lib ``` -Let’s address the second error, which points to the code at the end of -`Worker::new`; we need to wrap the `thread` value in `Some` when we create a -new `Worker`. Make the following changes to fix this error: +Next, we’ll define the `HelloMacro` trait and its associated function: Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -impl Worker { - fn new( - id: usize, - receiver: Arc>>, - ) -> Worker { - --snip-- - - Worker { - id, - thread: Some(thread), - } - } +pub trait HelloMacro { + fn hello_macro(); } ``` -The first error is in our `Drop` implementation. We mentioned earlier that we -intended to call `take` on the `Option` value to move `thread` out of `worker`. -The following changes will do so: - -Filename: src/lib.rs +We have a trait and its function. At this point, our crate user could implement +the trait to achieve the desired functionality, like so: ``` -impl Drop for ThreadPool { - fn drop(&mut self) { - for worker in &mut self.workers { - println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); +use hello_macro::HelloMacro; - 1 if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { - 2 thread.join().unwrap(); - } - } +struct Pancakes; + +impl HelloMacro for Pancakes { + fn hello_macro() { + println!("Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!"); } } + +fn main() { + Pancakes::hello_macro(); +} ``` -As discussed in Chapter 17, the `take` method on `Option` takes the `Some` -variant out and leaves `None` in its place. We’re using `if let` to destructure -the `Some` and get the thread [1]; then we call `join` on the thread [2]. If a -`Worker` instance’s thread is already `None`, we know that `Worker` has already -had its thread cleaned up, so nothing happens in that case. +However, they would need to write the implementation block for each type they +wanted to use with `hello_macro`; we want to spare them from having to do this +work. -### Signaling to the Threads to Stop Listening for Jobs +Additionally, we can’t yet provide the `hello_macro` function with default +implementation that will print the name of the type the trait is implemented +on: Rust doesn’t have reflection capabilities, so it can’t look up the type’s +name at runtime. We need a macro to generate code at compile time. -With all the changes we’ve made, our code compiles without any warnings. -However, the bad news is that this code doesn’t function the way we want it to -yet. The key is the logic in the closures run by the threads of the `Worker` -instances: at the moment, we call `join`, but that won’t shut down the threads, -because they `loop` forever looking for jobs. If we try to drop our -`ThreadPool` with our current implementation of `drop`, the main thread will -block forever, waiting for the first thread to finish. +The next step is to define the procedural macro. At the time of this writing, +procedural macros need to be in their own crate. Eventually, this restriction +might be lifted. The convention for structuring crates and macro crates is as +follows: for a crate named foo, a custom `derive` procedural macro crate is +called foo`_derive`. Let’s start a new crate called `hello_macro_derive` inside +our `hello_macro` project: -To fix this problem, we’ll need a change in the `ThreadPool` `drop` -implementation and then a change in the `Worker` loop. +``` +$ cargo new hello_macro_derive --lib +``` -First we’ll change the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation to explicitly drop -the `sender` before waiting for the threads to finish. Listing 20-23 shows the -changes to `ThreadPool` to explicitly drop `sender`. We use the same `Option` -and `take` technique as we did with the thread to be able to move `sender` out -of `ThreadPool`. +Our two crates are tightly related, so we create the procedural macro crate +within the directory of our `hello_macro` crate. If we change the trait +definition in `hello_macro`, we’ll have to change the implementation of the +procedural macro in `hello_macro_derive` as well. The two crates will need to +be published separately, and programmers using these crates will need to add +both as dependencies and bring them both into scope. We could instead have the +`hello_macro` crate use `hello_macro_derive` as a dependency and re-export the +procedural macro code. However, the way we’ve structured the project makes it +possible for programmers to use `hello_macro` even if they don’t want the +`derive` functionality. -Filename: src/lib.rs +We need to declare the `hello_macro_derive` crate as a procedural macro crate. +We’ll also need functionality from the `syn` and `quote` crates, as you’ll see +in a moment, so we need to add them as dependencies. Add the following to the +*Cargo.toml* file for `hello_macro_derive`: + +Filename: hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml ``` -pub struct ThreadPool { - workers: Vec, - sender: Option>, -} ---snip-- -impl ThreadPool { - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - --snip-- +[lib] +proc-macro = true - ThreadPool { - workers, - sender: Some(sender), - } - } +[dependencies] +syn = "1.0" +quote = "1.0" +``` - pub fn execute(&self, f: F) - where - F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, - { - let job = Box::new(f); - - self.sender - .as_ref() - .unwrap() - .send(job) - .unwrap(); - } +To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 19-31 into +your *src/lib.rs* file for the `hello_macro_derive` crate. Note that this code +won’t compile until we add a definition for the `impl_hello_macro` function. + +Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs + +``` +use proc_macro::TokenStream; +use quote::quote; +use syn; + +#[proc_macro_derive(HelloMacro)] +pub fn hello_macro_derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { + // Construct a representation of Rust code as a syntax tree + // that we can manipulate + let ast = syn::parse(input).unwrap(); + + // Build the trait implementation + impl_hello_macro(&ast) } +``` -impl Drop for ThreadPool { - fn drop(&mut self) { - 1 drop(self.sender.take()); +Listing 19-31: Code that most procedural macro crates will require in order to +process Rust code + +Notice that we’ve split the code into the `hello_macro_derive` function, which +is responsible for parsing the `TokenStream`, and the `impl_hello_macro` +function, which is responsible for transforming the syntax tree: this makes +writing a procedural macro more convenient. The code in the outer function +(`hello_macro_derive` in this case) will be the same for almost every +procedural macro crate you see or create. The code you specify in the body of +the inner function (`impl_hello_macro` in this case) will be different +depending on your procedural macro’s purpose. + +We’ve introduced three new crates: `proc_macro`, `syn` (available from +*https://crates.io/crates/syn*), and `quote` (available from +*https://crates.io/crates/quote*). The `proc_macro` crate comes with Rust, so +we didn’t need to add that to the dependencies in *Cargo.toml*. The +`proc_macro` crate is the compiler’s API that allows us to read and manipulate +Rust code from our code. + +The `syn` crate parses Rust code from a string into a data structure that we +can perform operations on. The `quote` crate turns `syn` data structures back +into Rust code. These crates make it much simpler to parse any sort of Rust +code we might want to handle: writing a full parser for Rust code is no simple +task. + +The `hello_macro_derive` function will be called when a user of our library +specifies `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` on a type. This is possible because we’ve +annotated the `hello_macro_derive` function here with `proc_macro_derive` and +specified the name `HelloMacro`, which matches our trait name; this is the +convention most procedural macros follow. + +The `hello_macro_derive` function first converts the `input` from a +`TokenStream` to a data structure that we can then interpret and perform +operations on. This is where `syn` comes into play. The `parse` function in +`syn` takes a `TokenStream` and returns a `DeriveInput` struct representing the +parsed Rust code. Listing 19-32 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput` +struct we get from parsing the `struct Pancakes;` string. + +``` +DeriveInput { + --snip-- - for worker in &mut self.workers { - println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + ident: Ident { + ident: "Pancakes", + span: #0 bytes(95..103) + }, + data: Struct( + DataStruct { + struct_token: Struct, + fields: Unit, + semi_token: Some( + Semi + ) + } + ) +} +``` - if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { - thread.join().unwrap(); +Listing 19-32: The `DeriveInput` instance we get when parsing the code that has +the macro’s attribute in Listing 19-30 + +The fields of this struct show that the Rust code we’ve parsed is a unit struct +with the `ident` (*identifier*, meaning the name) of `Pancakes`. There are more +fields on this struct for describing all sorts of Rust code; check the `syn` +documentation for `DeriveInput` at +*https://docs.rs/syn/1.0/syn/struct.DeriveInput.html* for more information. + +Soon we’ll define the `impl_hello_macro` function, which is where we’ll build +the new Rust code we want to include. But before we do, note that the output +for our `derive` macro is also a `TokenStream`. The returned `TokenStream` is +added to the code that our crate users write, so when they compile their crate, +they’ll get the extra functionality that we provide in the modified +`TokenStream`. + +You might have noticed that we’re calling `unwrap` to cause the +`hello_macro_derive` function to panic if the call to the `syn::parse` function +fails here. It’s necessary for our procedural macro to panic on errors because +`proc_macro_derive` functions must return `TokenStream` rather than `Result` to +conform to the procedural macro API. We’ve simplified this example by using +`unwrap`; in production code, you should provide more specific error messages +about what went wrong by using `panic!` or `expect`. + +Now that we have the code to turn the annotated Rust code from a `TokenStream` +into a `DeriveInput` instance, let’s generate the code that implements the +`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 19-33. + +Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs + +``` +fn impl_hello_macro(ast: &syn::DeriveInput) -> TokenStream { + let name = &ast.ident; + let gen = quote! { + impl HelloMacro for #name { + fn hello_macro() { + println!( + "Hello, Macro! My name is {}!", + stringify!(#name) + ); } } - } + }; + gen.into() } ``` -Listing 20-23: Explicitly dropping `sender` before joining the `Worker` threads +Listing 19-33: Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using the parsed Rust code -Dropping `sender` [1] closes the channel, which indicates no more messages will -be sent. When that happens, all the calls to `recv` that the `Worker` instances -do in the infinite loop will return an error. In Listing 20-24, we change the -`Worker` loop to gracefully exit the loop in that case, which means the threads -will finish when the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation calls `join` on them. +We get an `Ident` struct instance containing the name (identifier) of the +annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 19-32 shows that when +we run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 19-30, the +`ident` we get will have the `ident` field with a value of `"Pancakes"`. Thus +the `name` variable in Listing 19-33 will contain an `Ident` struct instance +that, when printed, will be the string `"Pancakes"`, the name of the struct in +Listing 19-30. -Filename: src/lib.rs +The `quote!` macro lets us define the Rust code that we want to return. The +compiler expects something different to the direct result of the `quote!` +macro’s execution, so we need to convert it to a `TokenStream`. We do this by +calling the `into` method, which consumes this intermediate representation and +returns a value of the required `TokenStream` type. + +The `quote!` macro also provides some very cool templating mechanics: we can +enter `#name`, and `quote!` will replace it with the value in the variable +`name`. You can even do some repetition similar to the way regular macros work. +Check out the `quote` crate’s docs at *https://docs.rs/quote* for a thorough +introduction. + +We want our procedural macro to generate an implementation of our `HelloMacro` +trait for the type the user annotated, which we can get by using `#name`. The +trait implementation has the one function `hello_macro`, whose body contains +the functionality we want to provide: printing `Hello, Macro! My name is` and +then the name of the annotated type. + +The `stringify!` macro used here is built into Rust. It takes a Rust +expression, such as `1 + 2`, and at compile time turns the expression into a +string literal, such as `"1 + 2"`. This is different from `format!` or +`println!`, macros which evaluate the expression and then turn the result into +a `String`. There is a possibility that the `#name` input might be an +expression to print literally, so we use `stringify!`. Using `stringify!` also +saves an allocation by converting `#name` to a string literal at compile time. + +At this point, `cargo build` should complete successfully in both `hello_macro` +and `hello_macro_derive`. Let’s hook up these crates to the code in Listing +19-30 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in +your *projects* directory using `cargo new pancakes`. We need to add +`hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive` as dependencies in the `pancakes` +crate’s *Cargo.toml*. If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` and +`hello_macro_derive` to *https://crates.io*, they would be regular +dependencies; if not, you can specify them as `path` dependencies as follows: ``` -impl Worker { - fn new( - id: usize, - receiver: Arc>>, - ) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { - let message = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv(); - - match message { - Ok(job) => { - println!( - "Worker {id} got a job; executing." - ); - - job(); - } - Err(_) => { - println!( - "Worker {id} shutting down." - ); - break; - } - } - }); +[dependencies] +hello_macro = { path = "../hello_macro" } +hello_macro_derive = { path = "../hello_macro/hello_macro_derive" } +``` - Worker { - id, - thread: Some(thread), - } - } -} +Put the code in Listing 19-30 into *src/main.rs*, and run `cargo run`: it +should print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` The implementation of the +`HelloMacro` trait from the procedural macro was included without the +`pancakes` crate needing to implement it; the `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` added the +trait implementation. + +Next, let’s explore how the other kinds of procedural macros differ from custom +`derive` macros. + +### Attribute-like Macros + +Attribute-like macros are similar to custom `derive` macros, but instead of +generating code for the `derive` attribute, they allow you to create new +attributes. They’re also more flexible: `derive` only works for structs and +enums; attributes can be applied to other items as well, such as functions. +Here’s an example of using an attribute-like macro. Say you have an attribute +named `route` that annotates functions when using a web application framework: + +``` +#[route(GET, "/")] +fn index() { ``` -Listing 20-24: Explicitly breaking out of the loop when `recv` returns an error +This `#[route]` attribute would be defined by the framework as a procedural +macro. The signature of the macro definition function would look like this: -To see this code in action, let’s modify `main` to accept only two requests -before gracefully shutting down the server, as shown in Listing 20-25. +``` +#[proc_macro_attribute] +pub fn route( + attr: TokenStream, + item: TokenStream +) -> TokenStream { +``` -Filename: src/main.rs +Here, we have two parameters of type `TokenStream`. The first is for the +contents of the attribute: the `GET, "/"` part. The second is the body of the +item the attribute is attached to: in this case, `fn index() {}` and the rest +of the function’s body. + +Other than that, attribute-like macros work the same way as custom `derive` +macros: you create a crate with the `proc-macro` crate type and implement a +function that generates the code you want! + +### Function-like Macros + +Function-like macros define macros that look like function calls. Similarly to +`macro_rules!` macros, they’re more flexible than functions; for example, they +can take an unknown number of arguments. However, `macro_rules!` macros can +only be defined using the match-like syntax we discussed in “Declarative Macros +with macro_rules! for General Metaprogramming” on page XX. Function-like macros +take a `TokenStream` parameter, and their definition manipulates that +`TokenStream` using Rust code as the other two types of procedural macros do. +An example of a function-like macro is an `sql!` macro that might be called +like so: ``` -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); +let sql = sql!(SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id=1); +``` - for stream in listener.incoming().take(2) { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); +This macro would parse the SQL statement inside it and check that it’s +syntactically correct, which is much more complex processing than a +`macro_rules!` macro can do. The `sql!` macro would be defined like this: - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } +``` +#[proc_macro] +pub fn sql(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { +``` - println!("Shutting down."); -} -``` - -Listing 20-25: Shutting down the server after serving two requests by exiting -the loop - -You wouldn’t want a real-world web server to shut down after serving only two -requests. This code just demonstrates that the graceful shutdown and cleanup is -in working order. - -The `take` method is defined in the `Iterator` trait and limits the iteration -to the first two items at most. The `ThreadPool` will go out of scope at the -end of `main`, and the `drop` implementation will run. - -Start the server with `cargo run`, and make three requests. The third request -should error, and in your terminal you should see output similar to this: - -``` -$ cargo run - Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.0s - Running `target/debug/hello` -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Shutting down. -Shutting down worker 0 -Worker 3 got a job; executing. -Worker 1 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 2 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 3 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 0 disconnected; shutting down. -Shutting down worker 1 -Shutting down worker 2 -Shutting down worker 3 -``` - -You might see a different ordering of `Worker` IDs and messages printed. We can -see how this code works from the messages: `Worker` instances 0 and 3 got the -first two requests. The server stopped accepting connections after the second -connection, and the `Drop` implementation on `ThreadPool` starts executing -before `Worker` 3 even starts its job. Dropping the `sender` disconnects all -the `Worker` instances and tells them to shut down. The `Worker` instances each -print a message when they disconnect, and then the thread pool calls `join` to -wait for each `Worker` thread to finish. - -Notice one interesting aspect of this particular execution: the `ThreadPool` -dropped the `sender`, and before any `Worker` received an error, we tried to -join `Worker` 0. `Worker` 0 had not yet gotten an error from `recv`, so the -main thread blocked, waiting for `Worker` 0 to finish. In the meantime, -`Worker` 3 received a job and then all threads received an error. When `Worker` -0 finished, the main thread waited for the rest of the `Worker` instances to -finish. At that point, they had all exited their loops and stopped. - -Congrats! We’ve now completed our project; we have a basic web server that uses -a thread pool to respond asynchronously. We’re able to perform a graceful -shutdown of the server, which cleans up all the threads in the pool. See -*https://www.nostarch.com/Rust2021* to download the full code for this chapter -for reference. - -We could do more here! If you want to continue enhancing this project, here are -some ideas: - -* Add more documentation to `ThreadPool` and its public methods. -* Add tests of the library’s functionality. -* Change calls to `unwrap` to more robust error handling. -* Use `ThreadPool` to perform some task other than serving web requests. -* Find a thread pool crate on *https://crates.io* and implement a similar web -server using the crate instead. Then compare its API and robustness to the -thread pool we implemented. +This definition is similar to the custom `derive` macro’s signature: we receive +the tokens that are inside the parentheses and return the code we wanted to +generate. ## Summary -Well done! You’ve made it to the end of the book! We want to thank you for -joining us on this tour of Rust. You’re now ready to implement your own Rust -projects and help with other people’s projects. Keep in mind that there is a -welcoming community of other Rustaceans who would love to help you with any -challenges you encounter on your Rust journey. +Whew! Now you have some Rust features in your toolbox that you likely won’t use +often, but you’ll know they’re available in very particular circumstances. +We’ve introduced several complex topics so that when you encounter them in +error message suggestions or in other people’s code, you’ll be able to +recognize these concepts and syntax. Use this chapter as a reference to guide +you to solutions. + +Next, we’ll put everything we’ve discussed throughout the book into practice +and do one more project! diff --git a/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter21.md b/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter21.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9d4e22cd7 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/nostarch/chapter21.md @@ -0,0 +1,1994 @@ + + +[TOC] + +# Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server + +It’s been a long journey, but we’ve reached the end of the book. In this +chapter, we’ll build one more project together to demonstrate some of the +concepts we covered in the final chapters, as well as recap some earlier +lessons. + +For our final project, we’ll make a web server that says “hello” and looks like +Figure 20-1 in a web browser. + +Figure 20-1: Our final shared project + +Here is our plan for building the web server: + +1. Learn a bit about TCP and HTTP. +1. Listen for TCP connections on a socket. +1. Parse a small number of HTTP requests. +1. Create a proper HTTP response. +1. Improve the throughput of our server with a thread pool. + +Before we get started, we should mention one detail: the method we’ll use won’t +be the best way to build a web server with Rust. Community members have +published a number of production-ready crates available at *https://crates.io* +that provide more complete web server and thread pool implementations than +we’ll build. However, our intention in this chapter is to help you learn, not +to take the easy route. Because Rust is a systems programming language, we can +choose the level of abstraction we want to work with and can go to a lower +level than is possible or practical in other languages. We’ll therefore write +the basic HTTP server and thread pool manually so you can learn the general +ideas and techniques behind the crates you might use in the future. + +## Building a Single-Threaded Web Server + +We’ll start by getting a single-threaded web server working. Before we begin, +let’s look at a quick overview of the protocols involved in building web +servers. The details of these protocols are beyond the scope of this book, but +a brief overview will give you the information you need. + +The two main protocols involved in web servers are *Hypertext Transfer +Protocol* *(HTTP)* and *Transmission Control Protocol* *(TCP)*. Both protocols +are *request-response* protocols, meaning a *client* initiates requests and a +*server* listens to the requests and provides a response to the client. The +contents of those requests and responses are defined by the protocols. + +TCP is the lower-level protocol that describes the details of how information +gets from one server to another but doesn’t specify what that information is. +HTTP builds on top of TCP by defining the contents of the requests and +responses. It’s technically possible to use HTTP with other protocols, but in +the vast majority of cases, HTTP sends its data over TCP. We’ll work with the +raw bytes of TCP and HTTP requests and responses. + +### Listening to the TCP Connection + +Our web server needs to listen to a TCP connection, so that’s the first part +we’ll work on. The standard library offers a `std::net` module that lets us do +this. Let’s make a new project in the usual fashion: + +``` +$ cargo new hello + Created binary (application) `hello` project +$ cd hello +``` + +Now enter the code in Listing 20-1 in *src/main.rs* to start. This code will +listen at the local address `127.0.0.1:7878` for incoming TCP streams. When it +gets an incoming stream, it will print `Connection established!`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::net::TcpListener; + +fn main() { + 1 let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + + 2 for stream in listener.incoming() { + 3 let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + 4 println!("Connection established!"); + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-1: Listening for incoming streams and printing a message when we +receive a stream + +Using `TcpListener`, we can listen for TCP connections at the address +`127.0.0.1:7878` [1]. In the address, the section before the colon is an IP +address representing your computer (this is the same on every computer and +doesn’t represent the authors’ computer specifically), and `7878` is the port. +We’ve chosen this port for two reasons: HTTP isn’t normally accepted on this +port, so our server is unlikely to conflict with any other web server you might +have running on your machine, and 7878 is *rust* typed on a telephone. + +The `bind` function in this scenario works like the `new` function in that it +will return a new `TcpListener` instance. The function is called `bind` +because, in networking, connecting to a port to listen to is known as “binding +to a port.” + +The `bind` function returns a `Result`, which indicates that it’s +possible for binding to fail. For example, connecting to port 80 requires +administrator privileges (non-administrators can listen only on ports higher +than 1023), so if we tried to connect to port 80 without being an +administrator, binding wouldn’t work. Binding also wouldn’t work, for example, +if we ran two instances of our program and so had two programs listening to the +same port. Because we’re writing a basic server just for learning purposes, we +won’t worry about handling these kinds of errors; instead, we use `unwrap` to +stop the program if errors happen. + +The `incoming` method on `TcpListener` returns an iterator that gives us a +sequence of streams [2] (more specifically, streams of type `TcpStream`). A +single *stream* represents an open connection between the client and the +server. A *connection* is the name for the full request and response process in +which a client connects to the server, the server generates a response, and the +server closes the connection. As such, we will read from the `TcpStream` to see +what the client sent and then write our response to the stream to send data +back to the client. Overall, this `for` loop will process each connection in +turn and produce a series of streams for us to handle. + +For now, our handling of the stream consists of calling `unwrap` to terminate +our program if the stream has any errors [3]; if there aren’t any errors, the +program prints a message [4]. We’ll add more functionality for the success case +in the next listing. The reason we might receive errors from the `incoming` +method when a client connects to the server is that we’re not actually +iterating over connections. Instead, we’re iterating over *connection +attempts*. The connection might not be successful for a number of reasons, many +of them operating system specific. For example, many operating systems have a +limit to the number of simultaneous open connections they can support; new +connection attempts beyond that number will produce an error until some of the +open connections are closed. + +Let’s try running this code! Invoke `cargo run` in the terminal and then load +*127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser. The browser should show an error message +like “Connection reset” because the server isn’t currently sending back any +data. But when you look at your terminal, you should see several messages that +were printed when the browser connected to the server! + +``` + Running `target/debug/hello` +Connection established! +Connection established! +Connection established! +``` + +Sometimes you’ll see multiple messages printed for one browser request; the +reason might be that the browser is making a request for the page as well as a +request for other resources, like the *favicon.ico* icon that appears in the +browser tab. + +It could also be that the browser is trying to connect to the server multiple +times because the server isn’t responding with any data. When `stream` goes out +of scope and is dropped at the end of the loop, the connection is closed as +part of the `drop` implementation. Browsers sometimes deal with closed +connections by retrying, because the problem might be temporary. The important +factor is that we’ve successfully gotten a handle to a TCP connection! + +Remember to stop the program by pressing ctrl-C when you’re done running a +particular version of the code. Then restart the program by invoking the `cargo +run` command after you’ve made each set of code changes to make sure you’re +running the newest code. + +### Reading the Request + +Let’s implement the functionality to read the request from the browser! To +separate the concerns of first getting a connection and then taking some action +with the connection, we’ll start a new function for processing connections. In +this new `handle_connection` function, we’ll read data from the TCP stream and +print it so we can see the data being sent from the browser. Change the code to +look like Listing 20-2. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +1 use std::{ + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + 2 handle_connection(stream); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + 3 let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + 4 let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader + 5 .lines() + 6 .map(|result| result.unwrap()) + 7 .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) + .collect(); + + 8 println!("Request: {:#?}", http_request); +} +``` + +Listing 20-2: Reading from the `TcpStream` and printing the data + +We bring `std::io::prelude` and `std::io::BufReader` into scope to get access +to traits and types that let us read from and write to the stream [1]. In the +`for` loop in the `main` function, instead of printing a message that says we +made a connection, we now call the new `handle_connection` function and pass +the `stream` to it [2]. + +In the `handle_connection` function, we create a new `BufReader` instance that +wraps a mutable reference to the `stream` [3]. `BufReader` adds buffering by +managing calls to the `std::io::Read` trait methods for us. + +We create a variable named `http_request` to collect the lines of the request +the browser sends to our server. We indicate that we want to collect these +lines in a vector by adding the `Vec<_>` type annotation [4]. + +`BufReader` implements the `std::io::BufRead` trait, which provides the `lines` +method [5]. The `lines` method returns an iterator of `Result` by splitting the stream of data whenever it sees a newline +byte. To get each `String`, we map and `unwrap` each `Result` [6]. The `Result` +might be an error if the data isn’t valid UTF-8 or if there was a problem +reading from the stream. Again, a production program should handle these errors +more gracefully, but we’re choosing to stop the program in the error case for +simplicity. + +The browser signals the end of an HTTP request by sending two newline +characters in a row, so to get one request from the stream, we take lines until +we get a line that is the empty string [7]. Once we’ve collected the lines into +the vector, we’re printing them out using pretty debug formatting [8] so we can +take a look at the instructions the web browser is sending to our server. + +Let’s try this code! Start the program and make a request in a web browser +again. Note that we’ll still get an error page in the browser, but our +program’s output in the terminal will now look similar to this: + +``` +$ cargo run + Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.42s + Running `target/debug/hello` +Request: [ + "GET / HTTP/1.1", + "Host: 127.0.0.1:7878", + "User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10.15; rv:99.0) +Gecko/20100101 Firefox/99.0", + "Accept: +text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,*/* +;q=0.8", + "Accept-Language: en-US,en;q=0.5", + "Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate, br", + "DNT: 1", + "Connection: keep-alive", + "Upgrade-Insecure-Requests: 1", + "Sec-Fetch-Dest: document", + "Sec-Fetch-Mode: navigate", + "Sec-Fetch-Site: none", + "Sec-Fetch-User: ?1", + "Cache-Control: max-age=0", +] +``` + +Depending on your browser, you might get slightly different output. Now that +we’re printing the request data, we can see why we get multiple connections +from one browser request by looking at the path after `GET` in the first line +of the request. If the repeated connections are all requesting */*, we know the +browser is trying to fetch */* repeatedly because it’s not getting a response +from our program. + +Let’s break down this request data to understand what the browser is asking of +our program. + +### A Closer Look at an HTTP Request + +HTTP is a text-based protocol, and a request takes this format: + +``` +Method Request-URI HTTP-Version CRLF +headers CRLF +message-body +``` + +The first line is the *request line* that holds information about what the +client is requesting. The first part of the request line indicates the *method* +being used, such as `GET` or `POST`, which describes how the client is making +this request. Our client used a `GET` request, which means it is asking for +information. + +The next part of the request line is */*, which indicates the *uniform resource +identifier* *(URI)* the client is requesting: a URI is almost, but not quite, +the same as a *uniform resource locator* *(URL)*. The difference between URIs +and URLs isn’t important for our purposes in this chapter, but the HTTP spec +uses the term *URI*, so we can just mentally substitute *URL* for *URI* here. + +The last part is the HTTP version the client uses, and then the request line +ends in a CRLF sequence. (CRLF stands for *carriage return* and *line feed*, +which are terms from the typewriter days!) The CRLF sequence can also be +written as `\r\n`, where `\r` is a carriage return and `\n` is a line feed. The +*CRLF sequence* separates the request line from the rest of the request data. +Note that when the CRLF is printed, we see a new line start rather than `\r\n`. + +Looking at the request line data we received from running our program so far, +we see that `GET` is the method, */* is the request URI, and `HTTP/1.1` is the +version. + +After the request line, the remaining lines starting from `Host:` onward are +headers. `GET` requests have no body. + +Try making a request from a different browser or asking for a different +address, such as *127.0.0.1:7878/test*, to see how the request data changes. + +Now that we know what the browser is asking for, let’s send back some data! + +### Writing a Response + +We’re going to implement sending data in response to a client request. +Responses have the following format: + +``` +HTTP-Version Status-Code Reason-Phrase CRLF +headers CRLF +message-body +``` + +The first line is a *status line* that contains the HTTP version used in the +response, a numeric status code that summarizes the result of the request, and +a reason phrase that provides a text description of the status code. After the +CRLF sequence are any headers, another CRLF sequence, and the body of the +response. + +Here is an example response that uses HTTP version 1.1, and has a status code +of 200, an OK reason phrase, no headers, and no body: + +``` +HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n +``` + +The status code 200 is the standard success response. The text is a tiny +successful HTTP response. Let’s write this to the stream as our response to a +successful request! From the `handle_connection` function, remove the +`println!` that was printing the request data and replace it with the code in +Listing 20-3. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader + .lines() + .map(|result| result.unwrap()) + .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) + .collect(); + + 1 let response = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n"; + + 2 stream.write_all(response.3 as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-3: Writing a tiny successful HTTP response to the stream + +The first new line defines the `response` variable that holds the success +message’s data [1]. Then we call `as_bytes` on our `response` to convert the +string data to bytes [3]. The `write_all` method on `stream` takes a `&[u8]` +and sends those bytes directly down the connection [2]. Because the `write_all` +operation could fail, we use `unwrap` on any error result as before. Again, in +a real application you would add error handling here. + +With these changes, let’s run our code and make a request. We’re no longer +printing any data to the terminal, so we won’t see any output other than the +output from Cargo. When you load *127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser, you should +get a blank page instead of an error. You’ve just handcoded receiving an HTTP +request and sending a response! + +### Returning Real HTML + +Let’s implement the functionality for returning more than a blank page. Create +the new file *hello.html* in the root of your project directory, not in the +*src* directory. You can input any HTML you want; Listing 20-4 shows one +possibility. + +Filename: hello.html + +``` + + + + + Hello! + + +

Hello!

+

Hi from Rust

+ + +``` + +Listing 20-4: A sample HTML file to return in a response + +This is a minimal HTML5 document with a heading and some text. To return this +from the server when a request is received, we’ll modify `handle_connection` as +shown in Listing 20-5 to read the HTML file, add it to the response as a body, +and send it. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::{ + 1 fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, +}; +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader + .lines() + .map(|result| result.unwrap()) + .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) + .collect(); + + let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; + let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + 2 let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-5: Sending the contents of *hello.html* as the body of the response + +We’ve added `fs` to the `use` statement to bring the standard library’s +filesystem module into scope [1]. The code for reading the contents of a file +to a string should look familiar; we used it when we read the contents of a +file for our I/O project in Listing 12-4. + +Next, we use `format!` to add the file’s contents as the body of the success +response [2]. To ensure a valid HTTP response, we add the `Content-Length` +header which is set to the size of our response body, in this case the size of +`hello.html`. + +Run this code with `cargo run` and load *127.0.0.1:7878* in your browser; you +should see your HTML rendered! + +Currently, we’re ignoring the request data in `http_request` and just sending +back the contents of the HTML file unconditionally. That means if you try +requesting *127.0.0.1:7878/something-else* in your browser, you’ll still get +back this same HTML response. At the moment, our server is very limited and +does not do what most web servers do. We want to customize our responses +depending on the request and only send back the HTML file for a well-formed +request to */*. + +### Validating the Request and Selectively Responding + +Right now, our web server will return the HTML in the file no matter what the +client requested. Let’s add functionality to check that the browser is +requesting */* before returning the HTML file, and return an error if the +browser requests anything else. For this we need to modify `handle_connection`, +as shown in Listing 20-6. This new code checks the content of the request +received against what we know a request for */* looks like and adds `if` and +`else` blocks to treat requests differently. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + 1 let request_line = buf_reader + .lines() + .next() + .unwrap() + .unwrap(); + + 2 if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { + let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; + let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); + 3 } else { + // some other request + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-6: Handling requests to */* differently from other requests + +We’re only going to be looking at the first line of the HTTP request, so rather +than reading the entire request into a vector, we’re calling `next` to get the +first item from the iterator [1]. The first `unwrap` takes care of the `Option` +and stops the program if the iterator has no items. The second `unwrap` handles +the `Result` and has the same effect as the `unwrap` that was in the `map` +added in Listing 20-2. + +Next, we check the `request_line` to see if it equals the request line of a GET +request to the */* path [2]. If it does, the `if` block returns the contents of +our HTML file. + +If the `request_line` does *not* equal the GET request to the */* path, it +means we’ve received some other request. We’ll add code to the `else` block [3] +in a moment to respond to all other requests. + +Run this code now and request *127.0.0.1:7878*; you should get the HTML in +*hello.html*. If you make any other request, such as +*127.0.0.1:7878/something-else*, you’ll get a connection error like those you +saw when running the code in Listing 20-1 and Listing 20-2. + +Now let’s add the code in Listing 20-7 to the `else` block to return a response +with the status code 404, which signals that the content for the request was +not found. We’ll also return some HTML for a page to render in the browser +indicating the response to the end user. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +--snip-- +} else { + 1 let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND"; + 2 let contents = fs::read_to_string("404.html").unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-7: Responding with status code 404 and an error page if anything +other than */* was requested + +Here, our response has a status line with status code 404 and the reason phrase +`NOT FOUND` [1]. The body of the response will be the HTML in the file +*404.html* [1]. You’ll need to create a *404.html* file next to *hello.html* +for the error page; again feel free to use any HTML you want, or use the +example HTML in Listing 20-8. + +Filename: 404.html + +``` + + + + + Hello! + + +

Oops!

+

Sorry, I don't know what you're asking for.

+ + +``` + +Listing 20-8: Sample content for the page to send back with any 404 response + +With these changes, run your server again. Requesting *127.0.0.1:7878* should +return the contents of *hello.html*, and any other request, like +*127.0.0.1:7878/foo*, should return the error HTML from *404.html*. + +### A Touch of Refactoring + +At the moment, the `if` and `else` blocks have a lot of repetition: they’re +both reading files and writing the contents of the files to the stream. The +only differences are the status line and the filename. Let’s make the code more +concise by pulling out those differences into separate `if` and `else` lines +that will assign the values of the status line and the filename to variables; +we can then use those variables unconditionally in the code to read the file +and write the response. Listing 20-9 shows the resultant code after replacing +the large `if` and `else` blocks. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + --snip-- + + let (status_line, filename) = + if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } else { + ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html") + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-9: Refactoring the `if` and `else` blocks to contain only the code +that differs between the two cases + +Now the `if` and `else` blocks only return the appropriate values for the +status line and filename in a tuple; we then use destructuring to assign these +two values to `status_line` and `filename` using a pattern in the `let` +statement, as discussed in Chapter 18. + +The previously duplicated code is now outside the `if` and `else` blocks and +uses the `status_line` and `filename` variables. This makes it easier to see +the difference between the two cases, and it means we have only one place to +update the code if we want to change how the file reading and response writing +work. The behavior of the code in Listing 20-9 will be the same as that in +Listing 20-8. + +Awesome! We now have a simple web server in approximately 40 lines of Rust code +that responds to one request with a page of content and responds to all other +requests with a 404 response. + +Currently, our server runs in a single thread, meaning it can only serve one +request at a time. Let’s examine how that can be a problem by simulating some +slow requests. Then we’ll fix it so our server can handle multiple requests at +once. + +## Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server + +Right now, the server will process each request in turn, meaning it won’t +process a second connection until the first is finished processing. If the +server received more and more requests, this serial execution would be less and +less optimal. If the server receives a request that takes a long time to +process, subsequent requests will have to wait until the long request is +finished, even if the new requests can be processed quickly. We’ll need to fix +this, but first we’ll look at the problem in action. + +### Simulating a Slow Request + +We’ll look at how a slow-processing request can affect other requests made to +our current server implementation. Listing 20-10 implements handling a request +to */sleep* with a simulated slow response that will cause the server to sleep +for five seconds before responding. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + --snip-- + + let (status_line, filename) = 1 match &request_line[..] { + 2 "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + 3 "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + 4 _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-10: Simulating a slow request by sleeping for five seconds + +We switched from `if` to `match` now that we have three cases [1]. We need to +explicitly match on a slice of `request_line` to pattern-match against the +string literal values; `match` doesn’t do automatic referencing and +dereferencing, like the equality method does. + +The first arm [2] is the same as the `if` block from Listing 20-9. The second +arm [3] matches a request to */sleep*. When that request is received, the +server will sleep for five seconds before rendering the successful HTML page. +The third arm [4] is the same as the `else` block from Listing 20-9. + +You can see how primitive our server is: real libraries would handle the +recognition of multiple requests in a much less verbose way! + +Start the server using `cargo run`. Then open two browser windows: one for +*http://127.0.0.1:7878* and the other for *http://127.0.0.1:7878/sleep*. If you +enter the */* URI a few times, as before, you’ll see it respond quickly. But if +you enter */sleep* and then load */*, you’ll see that */* waits until `sleep` +has slept for its full five seconds before loading. + +There are multiple techniques we could use to avoid requests backing up behind +a slow request; the one we’ll implement is a thread pool. + +### Improving Throughput with a Thread Pool + +A *thread pool* is a group of spawned threads that are waiting and ready to +handle a task. When the program receives a new task, it assigns one of the +threads in the pool to the task, and that thread will process the task. The +remaining threads in the pool are available to handle any other tasks that come +in while the first thread is processing. When the first thread is done +processing its task, it’s returned to the pool of idle threads, ready to handle +a new task. A thread pool allows you to process connections concurrently, +increasing the throughput of your server. + +We’ll limit the number of threads in the pool to a small number to protect us +from DoS attacks; if we had our program create a new thread for each request as +it came in, someone making 10 million requests to our server could create havoc +by using up all our server’s resources and grinding the processing of requests +to a halt. + +Rather than spawning unlimited threads, then, we’ll have a fixed number of +threads waiting in the pool. Requests that come in are sent to the pool for +processing. The pool will maintain a queue of incoming requests. Each of the +threads in the pool will pop off a request from this queue, handle the request, +and then ask the queue for another request. With this design, we can process up +to N requests concurrently, where N is the number of threads. If each thread is +responding to a long-running request, subsequent requests can still back up in +the queue, but we’ve increased the number of long-running requests we can +handle before reaching that point. + +This technique is just one of many ways to improve the throughput of a web +server. Other options you might explore are the fork/join model, the +single-threaded async I/O model, and the multithreaded async I/O model. If +you’re interested in this topic, you can read more about other solutions and +try to implement them; with a low-level language like Rust, all of these +options are possible. + +Before we begin implementing a thread pool, let’s talk about what using the +pool should look like. When you’re trying to design code, writing the client +interface first can help guide your design. Write the API of the code so it’s +structured in the way you want to call it; then implement the functionality +within that structure rather than implementing the functionality and then +designing the public API. + +Similar to how we used test-driven development in the project in Chapter 12, +we’ll use compiler-driven development here. We’ll write the code that calls the +functions we want, and then we’ll look at errors from the compiler to determine +what we should change next to get the code to work. Before we do that, however, +we’ll explore the technique we’re not going to use as a starting point. + +#### Spawning a Thread for Each Request + +First, let’s explore how our code might look if it did create a new thread for +every connection. As mentioned earlier, this isn’t our final plan due to the +problems with potentially spawning an unlimited number of threads, but it is a +starting point to get a working multithreaded server first. Then we’ll add the +thread pool as an improvement, and contrasting the two solutions will be easier. + +Listing 20-11 shows the changes to make to `main` to spawn a new thread to +handle each stream within the `for` loop. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + thread::spawn(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-11: Spawning a new thread for each stream + +As you learned in Chapter 16, `thread::spawn` will create a new thread and then +run the code in the closure in the new thread. If you run this code and load +*/sleep* in your browser, then */* in two more browser tabs, you’ll indeed see +that the requests to */* don’t have to wait for */sleep* to finish. However, as +we mentioned, this will eventually overwhelm the system because you’d be making +new threads without any limit. + +#### Creating a Finite Number of Threads + +We want our thread pool to work in a similar, familiar way so that switching +from threads to a thread pool doesn’t require large changes to the code that +uses our API. Listing 20-12 shows the hypothetical interface for a `ThreadPool` +struct we want to use instead of `thread::spawn`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + 1 let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + 2 pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-12: Our ideal `ThreadPool` interface + +We use `ThreadPool::new` to create a new thread pool with a configurable number +of threads, in this case four [1]. Then, in the `for` loop, `pool.execute` has +a similar interface as `thread::spawn` in that it takes a closure the pool +should run for each stream [2]. We need to implement `pool.execute` so it takes +the closure and gives it to a thread in the pool to run. This code won’t yet +compile, but we’ll try so that the compiler can guide us in how to fix it. + +#### Building ThreadPool Using Compiler-Driven Development + +Make the changes in Listing 20-12 to *src/main.rs*, and then let’s use the +compiler errors from `cargo check` to drive our development. Here is the first +error we get: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0433]: failed to resolve: use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` + --> src/main.rs:11:16 + | +11 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + | ^^^^^^^^^^ use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` +``` + +Great! This error tells us we need a `ThreadPool` type or module, so we’ll +build one now. Our `ThreadPool` implementation will be independent of the kind +of work our web server is doing. So let’s switch the `hello` crate from a +binary crate to a library crate to hold our `ThreadPool` implementation. After +we change to a library crate, we could also use the separate thread pool +library for any work we want to do using a thread pool, not just for serving +web requests. + +Create a *src/lib.rs* file that contains the following, which is the simplest +definition of a `ThreadPool` struct that we can have for now: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct ThreadPool; +``` + +Then edit the *main.rs* file to bring `ThreadPool` into scope from the library +crate by adding the following code to the top of *src/main.rs*: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use hello::ThreadPool; +``` + +This code still won’t work, but let’s check it again to get the next error that +we need to address: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0599]: no function or associated item named `new` found for struct +`ThreadPool` in the current scope + --> src/main.rs:12:28 + | +12 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + | ^^^ function or associated item not found in +`ThreadPool` +``` + +This error indicates that next we need to create an associated function named +`new` for `ThreadPool`. We also know that `new` needs to have one parameter +that can accept `4` as an argument and should return a `ThreadPool` instance. +Let’s implement the simplest `new` function that will have those +characteristics: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct ThreadPool; + +impl ThreadPool { + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + ThreadPool + } +} +``` + +We chose `usize` as the type of the `size` parameter because we know that a +negative number of threads doesn’t make any sense. We also know we’ll use this +`4` as the number of elements in a collection of threads, which is what the +`usize` type is for, as discussed in “Integer Types” on page XX. + +Let’s check the code again: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0599]: no method named `execute` found for struct `ThreadPool` in the +current scope + --> src/main.rs:17:14 + | +17 | pool.execute(|| { + | ^^^^^^^ method not found in `ThreadPool` +``` + +Now the error occurs because we don’t have an `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. +Recall from “Creating a Finite Number of Threads” on page XX that we decided +our thread pool should have an interface similar to `thread::spawn`. In +addition, we’ll implement the `execute` function so it takes the closure it’s +given and gives it to an idle thread in the pool to run. + +We’ll define the `execute` method on `ThreadPool` to take a closure as a +parameter. Recall from “Moving Captured Values Out of Closures and the Fn +Traits” on page XX that we can take closures as parameters with three different +traits: `Fn`, `FnMut`, and `FnOnce`. We need to decide which kind of closure to +use here. We know we’ll end up doing something similar to the standard library +`thread::spawn` implementation, so we can look at what bounds the signature of +`thread::spawn` has on its parameter. The documentation shows us the following: + +``` +pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle + where + F: FnOnce() -> T, + F: Send + 'static, + T: Send + 'static, +``` + +The `F` type parameter is the one we’re concerned with here; the `T` type +parameter is related to the return value, and we’re not concerned with that. We +can see that `spawn` uses `FnOnce` as the trait bound on `F`. This is probably +what we want as well, because we’ll eventually pass the argument we get in +`execute` to `spawn`. We can be further confident that `FnOnce` is the trait we +want to use because the thread for running a request will only execute that +request’s closure one time, which matches the `Once` in `FnOnce`. + +The `F` type parameter also has the trait bound `Send` and the lifetime bound +`'static`, which are useful in our situation: we need `Send` to transfer the +closure from one thread to another and `'static` because we don’t know how long +the thread will take to execute. Let’s create an `execute` method on +`ThreadPool` that will take a generic parameter of type `F` with these bounds: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn execute(&self, f: F) + where + F: FnOnce() 1 + Send + 'static, + { + } +} +``` + +We still use the `()` after `FnOnce` [1] because this `FnOnce` represents a +closure that takes no parameters and returns the unit type `()`. Just like +function definitions, the return type can be omitted from the signature, but +even if we have no parameters, we still need the parentheses. + +Again, this is the simplest implementation of the `execute` method: it does +nothing, but we’re only trying to make our code compile. Let’s check it again: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.24s +``` + +It compiles! But note that if you try `cargo run` and make a request in the +browser, you’ll see the errors in the browser that we saw at the beginning of +the chapter. Our library isn’t actually calling the closure passed to `execute` +yet! + +> Note: A saying you might hear about languages with strict compilers, such as +Haskell and Rust, is “if the code compiles, it works.” But this saying is not +universally true. Our project compiles, but it does absolutely nothing! If we +were building a real, complete project, this would be a good time to start +writing unit tests to check that the code compiles *and* has the behavior we +want. + +#### Validating the Number of Threads in new + +We aren’t doing anything with the parameters to `new` and `execute`. Let’s +implement the bodies of these functions with the behavior we want. To start, +let’s think about `new`. Earlier we chose an unsigned type for the `size` +parameter because a pool with a negative number of threads makes no sense. +However, a pool with zero threads also makes no sense, yet zero is a perfectly +valid `usize`. We’ll add code to check that `size` is greater than zero before +we return a `ThreadPool` instance and have the program panic if it receives a +zero by using the `assert!` macro, as shown in Listing 20-13. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl ThreadPool { + /// Create a new ThreadPool. + /// + /// The size is the number of threads in the pool. + /// + 1 /// # Panics + /// + /// The `new` function will panic if the size is zero. + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + 2 assert!(size > 0); + + ThreadPool + } + + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-13: Implementing `ThreadPool::new` to panic if `size` is zero + +We’ve also added some documentation for our `ThreadPool` with doc comments. +Note that we followed good documentation practices by adding a section that +calls out the situations in which our function can panic [1], as discussed in +Chapter 14. Try running `cargo doc --open` and clicking the `ThreadPool` struct +to see what the generated docs for `new` look like! + +Instead of adding the `assert!` macro as we’ve done here [2], we could change +`new` into `build` and return a `Result` like we did with `Config::build` in +the I/O project in Listing 12-9. But we’ve decided in this case that trying to +create a thread pool without any threads should be an unrecoverable error. If +you’re feeling ambitious, try to write a function named `build` with the +following signature to compare with the `new` function: + +``` +pub fn build( + size: usize +) -> Result { +``` + +#### Creating Space to Store the Threads + +Now that we have a way to know we have a valid number of threads to store in +the pool, we can create those threads and store them in the `ThreadPool` struct +before returning the struct. But how do we “store” a thread? Let’s take another +look at the `thread::spawn` signature: + +``` +pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle + where + F: FnOnce() -> T, + F: Send + 'static, + T: Send + 'static, +``` + +The `spawn` function returns a `JoinHandle`, where `T` is the type that the +closure returns. Let’s try using `JoinHandle` too and see what happens. In our +case, the closures we’re passing to the thread pool will handle the connection +and not return anything, so `T` will be the unit type `()`. + +The code in Listing 20-14 will compile but doesn’t create any threads yet. +We’ve changed the definition of `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of +`thread::JoinHandle<()>` instances, initialized the vector with a capacity of +`size`, set up a `for` loop that will run some code to create the threads, and +returned a `ThreadPool` instance containing them. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +1 use std::thread; + +pub struct ThreadPool { + 2 threads: Vec>, +} + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + 3 let mut threads = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for _ in 0..size { + // create some threads and store them in the vector + } + + ThreadPool { threads } + } + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-14: Creating a vector for `ThreadPool` to hold the threads + +We’ve brought `std::thread` into scope in the library crate [1] because we’re +using `thread::JoinHandle` as the type of the items in the vector in +`ThreadPool` [2]. + +Once a valid size is received, our `ThreadPool` creates a new vector that can +hold `size` items [3]. The `with_capacity` function performs the same task as +`Vec::new` but with an important difference: it pre-allocates space in the +vector. Because we know we need to store `size` elements in the vector, doing +this allocation up front is slightly more efficient than using `Vec::new`, +which resizes itself as elements are inserted. + +When you run `cargo check` again, it should succeed. + +#### Sending Code from the ThreadPool to a Thread + +We left a comment in the `for` loop in Listing 20-14 regarding the creation of +threads. Here, we’ll look at how we actually create threads. The standard +library provides `thread::spawn` as a way to create threads, and +`thread::spawn` expects to get some code the thread should run as soon as the +thread is created. However, in our case, we want to create the threads and have +them *wait* for code that we’ll send later. The standard library’s +implementation of threads doesn’t include any way to do that; we have to +implement it manually. + +We’ll implement this behavior by introducing a new data structure between the +`ThreadPool` and the threads that will manage this new behavior. We’ll call +this data structure *Worker*, which is a common term in pooling +implementations. The `Worker` picks up code that needs to be run and runs the +code in its thread. + +Think of people working in the kitchen at a restaurant: the workers wait until +orders come in from customers, and then they’re responsible for taking those +orders and filling them. + +Instead of storing a vector of `JoinHandle<()>` instances in the thread pool, +we’ll store instances of the `Worker` struct. Each `Worker` will store a single +`JoinHandle<()>` instance. Then we’ll implement a method on `Worker` that will +take a closure of code to run and send it to the already running thread for +execution. We’ll also give each `Worker` an `id` so we can distinguish between +the different instances of `Worker` in the pool when logging or debugging. + +Here is the new process that will happen when we create a `ThreadPool`. We’ll +implement the code that sends the closure to the thread after we have `Worker` +set up in this way: + +1. Define a `Worker` struct that holds an `id` and a `JoinHandle<()>`. +1. Change `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of `Worker` instances. +1. Define a `Worker::new` function that takes an `id` number and returns a +`Worker` instance that holds the `id` and a thread spawned with an empty +closure. +1. In `ThreadPool::new`, use the `for` loop counter to generate an `id`, create +a new `Worker` with that `id`, and store the `Worker` in the vector. + +If you’re up for a challenge, try implementing these changes on your own before +looking at the code in Listing 20-15. + +Ready? Here is Listing 20-15 with one way to make the preceding modifications. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +use std::thread; + +pub struct ThreadPool { + 1 workers: Vec, +} + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + 2 for id in 0..size { + 3 workers.push(Worker::new(id)); + } + + ThreadPool { workers } + } + --snip-- +} + +4 struct Worker { + id: usize, + thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, +} + +impl Worker { + 5 fn new(id: usize) -> Worker { + 6 let thread = thread::spawn(|| {}); + + Worker { 7 id, 8 thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-15: Modifying `ThreadPool` to hold `Worker` instances instead of +holding threads directly + +We’ve changed the name of the field on `ThreadPool` from `threads` to `workers` +because it’s now holding `Worker` instances instead of `JoinHandle<()>` +instances [1]. We use the counter in the `for` loop [2] as an argument to +`Worker::new`, and we store each new `Worker` in the vector named `workers` [3]. + +External code (like our server in *src/main.rs*) doesn’t need to know the +implementation details regarding using a `Worker` struct within `ThreadPool`, +so we make the `Worker` struct [4] and its `new` function [5] private. The +`Worker::new` function uses the `id` we give it [7] and stores a +`JoinHandle<()>` instance [8] that is created by spawning a new thread using an +empty closure [6]. + +> Note: If the operating system can’t create a thread because there aren’t +enough system resources, `thread::spawn` will panic. That will cause our whole +server to panic, even though the creation of some threads might succeed. For +simplicity’s sake, this behavior is fine, but in a production thread pool +implementation, you’d likely want to use `std::thread::Builder` and its `spawn` +method that returns `Result` instead. + +This code will compile and will store the number of `Worker` instances we +specified as an argument to `ThreadPool::new`. But we’re *still* not processing +the closure that we get in `execute`. Let’s look at how to do that next. + +#### Sending Requests to Threads via Channels + +The next problem we’ll tackle is that the closures given to `thread::spawn` do +absolutely nothing. Currently, we get the closure we want to execute in the +`execute` method. But we need to give `thread::spawn` a closure to run when we +create each `Worker` during the creation of the `ThreadPool`. + +We want the `Worker` structs that we just created to fetch the code to run from +a queue held in the `ThreadPool` and send that code to its thread to run. + +The channels we learned about in Chapter 16—a simple way to communicate between +two threads—would be perfect for this use case. We’ll use a channel to function +as the queue of jobs, and `execute` will send a job from the `ThreadPool` to +the `Worker` instances, which will send the job to its thread. Here is the plan: + +1. The `ThreadPool` will create a channel and hold on to the sender. +1. Each `Worker` will hold on to the receiver. +1. We’ll create a new `Job` struct that will hold the closures we want to send +down the channel. +1. The `execute` method will send the job it wants to execute through the +sender. +1. In its thread, the `Worker` will loop over its receiver and execute the +closures of any jobs it receives. + +Let’s start by creating a channel in `ThreadPool::new` and holding the sender +in the `ThreadPool` instance, as shown in Listing 20-16. The `Job` struct +doesn’t hold anything for now but will be the type of item we’re sending down +the channel. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +use std::{sync::mpsc, thread}; + +pub struct ThreadPool { + workers: Vec, + sender: mpsc::Sender, +} + +struct Job; + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + 1 let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for id in 0..size { + workers.push(Worker::new(id)); + } + + ThreadPool { workers, 2 sender } + } + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-16: Modifying `ThreadPool` to store the sender of a channel that +transmits `Job` instances + +In `ThreadPool::new`, we create our new channel [1] and have the pool hold the +sender [2]. This will successfully compile. + +Let’s try passing a receiver of the channel into each `Worker` as the thread +pool creates the channel. We know we want to use the receiver in the thread +that the `Worker` instances spawn, so we’ll reference the `receiver` parameter +in the closure. The code in Listing 20-17 won’t quite compile yet. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for id in 0..size { + 1 workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); + } + + ThreadPool { workers, sender } + } + --snip-- +} + +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new(id: usize, receiver: mpsc::Receiver) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(|| { + 2 receiver; + }); + + Worker { id, thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-17: Passing the receiver to each `Worker` + +We’ve made some small and straightforward changes: we pass the receiver into +`Worker::new` [1], and then we use it inside the closure [2]. + +When we try to check this code, we get this error: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0382]: use of moved value: `receiver` + --> src/lib.rs:26:42 + | +21 | let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + | -------- move occurs because `receiver` has type +`std::sync::mpsc::Receiver`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait +... +26 | workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); + | ^^^^^^^^ value moved here, in +previous iteration of loop +``` + +The code is trying to pass `receiver` to multiple `Worker` instances. This +won’t work, as you’ll recall from Chapter 16: the channel implementation that +Rust provides is multiple *producer*, single *consumer*. This means we can’t +just clone the consuming end of the channel to fix this code. We also don’t +want to send a message multiple times to multiple consumers; we want one list +of messages with multiple `Worker` instances such that each message gets +processed once. + +Additionally, taking a job off the channel queue involves mutating the +`receiver`, so the threads need a safe way to share and modify `receiver`; +otherwise, we might get race conditions (as covered in Chapter 16). + +Recall the thread-safe smart pointers discussed in Chapter 16: to share +ownership across multiple threads and allow the threads to mutate the value, we +need to use `Arc>`. The `Arc` type will let multiple `Worker` +instances own the receiver, and `Mutex` will ensure that only one `Worker` gets +a job from the receiver at a time. Listing 20-18 shows the changes we need to +make. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +use std::{ + sync::{mpsc, Arc, Mutex}, + thread, +}; +--snip-- + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + + 1 let receiver = Arc::new(Mutex::new(receiver)); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for id in 0..size { + workers.push( + Worker::new(id, Arc::clone(& 2 receiver)) + ); + } + + ThreadPool { workers, sender } + } + + --snip-- +} + +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + --snip-- + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-18: Sharing the receiver among the `Worker` instances using `Arc` +and `Mutex` + +In `ThreadPool::new`, we put the receiver in an `Arc` and a `Mutex` [1]. For +each new `Worker`, we clone the `Arc` to bump the reference count so the +`Worker` instances can share ownership of the receiver [2]. + +With these changes, the code compiles! We’re getting there! + +#### Implementing the execute Method + +Let’s finally implement the `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. We’ll also change +`Job` from a struct to a type alias for a trait object that holds the type of +closure that `execute` receives. As discussed in “Creating Type Synonyms with +Type Aliases” on page XX, type aliases allow us to make long types shorter for +ease of use. Look at Listing 20-19. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +type Job = Box; + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + + pub fn execute(&self, f: F) + where + F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, + { + 1 let job = Box::new(f); + + 2 self.sender.send(job).unwrap(); + } +} + +--snip-- +``` + +Listing 20-19: Creating a `Job` type alias for a `Box` that holds each closure +and then sending the job down the channel + +After creating a new `Job` instance using the closure we get in `execute` [1], +we send that job down the sending end of the channel [2]. We’re calling +`unwrap` on `send` for the case that sending fails. This might happen if, for +example, we stop all our threads from executing, meaning the receiving end has +stopped receiving new messages. At the moment, we can’t stop our threads from +executing: our threads continue executing as long as the pool exists. The +reason we use `unwrap` is that we know the failure case won’t happen, but the +compiler doesn’t know that. + +But we’re not quite done yet! In the `Worker`, our closure being passed to +`thread::spawn` still only *references* the receiving end of the channel. +Instead, we need the closure to loop forever, asking the receiving end of the +channel for a job and running the job when it gets one. Let’s make the change +shown in Listing 20-20 to `Worker::new`. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { + let job = receiver + 1 .lock() + 2 .unwrap() + 3 .recv() + 4 .unwrap(); + + println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); + + job(); + }); + + Worker { id, thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-20: Receiving and executing the jobs in the `Worker` instance’s +thread + +Here, we first call `lock` on the `receiver` to acquire the mutex [1], and then +we call `unwrap` to panic on any errors [2]. Acquiring a lock might fail if the +mutex is in a *poisoned* state, which can happen if some other thread panicked +while holding the lock rather than releasing the lock. In this situation, +calling `unwrap` to have this thread panic is the correct action to take. Feel +free to change this `unwrap` to an `expect` with an error message that is +meaningful to you. + +If we get the lock on the mutex, we call `recv` to receive a `Job` from the +channel [3]. A final `unwrap` moves past any errors here as well [4], which +might occur if the thread holding the sender has shut down, similar to how the +`send` method returns `Err` if the receiver shuts down. + +The call to `recv` blocks, so if there is no job yet, the current thread will +wait until a job becomes available. The `Mutex` ensures that only one +`Worker` thread at a time is trying to request a job. + +Our thread pool is now in a working state! Give it a `cargo run` and make some +requests: + +``` +$ cargo run + Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +warning: field is never read: `workers` + --> src/lib.rs:7:5 + | +7 | workers: Vec, + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | + = note: `#[warn(dead_code)]` on by default + +warning: field is never read: `id` + --> src/lib.rs:48:5 + | +48 | id: usize, + | ^^^^^^^^^ + +warning: field is never read: `thread` + --> src/lib.rs:49:5 + | +49 | thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +warning: `hello` (lib) generated 3 warnings + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.40s + Running `target/debug/hello` +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Worker 2 got a job; executing. +Worker 1 got a job; executing. +Worker 3 got a job; executing. +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Worker 2 got a job; executing. +Worker 1 got a job; executing. +Worker 3 got a job; executing. +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Worker 2 got a job; executing. +``` + +Success! We now have a thread pool that executes connections asynchronously. +There are never more than four threads created, so our system won’t get +overloaded if the server receives a lot of requests. If we make a request to +*/sleep*, the server will be able to serve other requests by having another +thread run them. + +> Note: If you open */sleep* in multiple browser windows simultaneously, they +might load one at a time in five-second intervals. Some web browsers execute +multiple instances of the same request sequentially for caching reasons. This +limitation is not caused by our web server. + +After learning about the `while let` loop in Chapter 18, you might be wondering +why we didn’t write the `Worker` thread code as shown in Listing 20-21. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(move || { + while let Ok(job) = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv() { + println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); + + job(); + } + }); + + Worker { id, thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-21: An alternative implementation of `Worker::new` using `while let` + +This code compiles and runs but doesn’t result in the desired threading +behavior: a slow request will still cause other requests to wait to be +processed. The reason is somewhat subtle: the `Mutex` struct has no public +`unlock` method because the ownership of the lock is based on the lifetime of +the `MutexGuard` within the `LockResult>` that the `lock` +method returns. At compile time, the borrow checker can then enforce the rule +that a resource guarded by a `Mutex` cannot be accessed unless we hold the +lock. However, this implementation can also result in the lock being held +longer than intended if we aren’t mindful of the lifetime of the +`MutexGuard`. + +The code in Listing 20-20 that uses `let job = +receiver.lock().unwrap().recv().unwrap();` works because with `let`, any +temporary values used in the expression on the right-hand side of the equal +sign are immediately dropped when the `let` statement ends. However, `while +let` (and `if let` and `match`) does not drop temporary values until the end of +the associated block. In Listing 20-21, the lock remains held for the duration +of the call to `job()`, meaning other `Worker` instances cannot receive jobs. + +## Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup + +The code in Listing 20-20 is responding to requests asynchronously through the +use of a thread pool, as we intended. We get some warnings about the `workers`, +`id`, and `thread` fields that we’re not using in a direct way that reminds us +we’re not cleaning up anything. When we use the less elegant ctrl-C method to +halt the main thread, all other threads are stopped immediately as well, even +if they’re in the middle of serving a request. + +Next, then, we’ll implement the `Drop` trait to call `join` on each of the +threads in the pool so they can finish the requests they’re working on before +closing. Then we’ll implement a way to tell the threads they should stop +accepting new requests and shut down. To see this code in action, we’ll modify +our server to accept only two requests before gracefully shutting down its +thread pool. + +### Implementing the Drop Trait on ThreadPool + +Let’s start with implementing `Drop` on our thread pool. When the pool is +dropped, our threads should all join to make sure they finish their work. +Listing 20-22 shows a first attempt at a `Drop` implementation; this code won’t +quite work yet. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Drop for ThreadPool { + fn drop(&mut self) { + 1 for worker in &mut self.workers { + 2 println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + + 3 worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-22: Joining each thread when the thread pool goes out of scope + +First we loop through each of the thread pool `workers` [1]. We use `&mut` for +this because `self` is a mutable reference, and we also need to be able to +mutate `worker`. For each `worker`, we print a message saying that this +particular `Worker` instance is shutting down [2], and then we call `join` on +that `Worker` instance’s thread [3]. If the call to `join` fails, we use +`unwrap` to make Rust panic and go into an ungraceful shutdown. + +Here is the error we get when we compile this code: + +``` +error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable +reference + --> src/lib.rs:52:13 + | +52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ------ `worker.thread` moved due to this +method call + | | + | move occurs because `worker.thread` has type +`JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | +note: this function takes ownership of the receiver `self`, which moves +`worker.thread` +``` + +The error tells us we can’t call `join` because we only have a mutable borrow +of each `worker` and `join` takes ownership of its argument. To solve this +issue, we need to move the thread out of the `Worker` instance that owns +`thread` so `join` can consume the thread. We did this in Listing 17-15: if +`Worker` holds an `Option>` instead, we can call the +`take` method on the `Option` to move the value out of the `Some` variant and +leave a `None` variant in its place. In other words, a `Worker` that is running +will have a `Some` variant in `thread`, and when we want to clean up a +`Worker`, we’ll replace `Some` with `None` so the `Worker` doesn’t have a +thread to run. + +So we know we want to update the definition of `Worker` like this: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +struct Worker { + id: usize, + thread: Option>, +} +``` + +Now let’s lean on the compiler to find the other places that need to change. +Checking this code, we get two errors: + +``` +error[E0599]: no method named `join` found for enum `Option` in the current +scope + --> src/lib.rs:52:27 + | +52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + | ^^^^ method not found in +`Option>` + +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/lib.rs:72:22 + | +72 | Worker { id, thread } + | ^^^^^^ expected enum `Option`, found struct +`JoinHandle` + | + = note: expected enum `Option>` + found struct `JoinHandle<_>` +help: try wrapping the expression in `Some` + | +72 | Worker { id, thread: Some(thread) } + | +++++++++++++ + +``` + +Let’s address the second error, which points to the code at the end of +`Worker::new`; we need to wrap the `thread` value in `Some` when we create a +new `Worker`. Make the following changes to fix this error: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + --snip-- + + Worker { + id, + thread: Some(thread), + } + } +} +``` + +The first error is in our `Drop` implementation. We mentioned earlier that we +intended to call `take` on the `Option` value to move `thread` out of `worker`. +The following changes will do so: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Drop for ThreadPool { + fn drop(&mut self) { + for worker in &mut self.workers { + println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + + 1 if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { + 2 thread.join().unwrap(); + } + } + } +} +``` + +As discussed in Chapter 17, the `take` method on `Option` takes the `Some` +variant out and leaves `None` in its place. We’re using `if let` to destructure +the `Some` and get the thread [1]; then we call `join` on the thread [2]. If a +`Worker` instance’s thread is already `None`, we know that `Worker` has already +had its thread cleaned up, so nothing happens in that case. + +### Signaling to the Threads to Stop Listening for Jobs + +With all the changes we’ve made, our code compiles without any warnings. +However, the bad news is that this code doesn’t function the way we want it to +yet. The key is the logic in the closures run by the threads of the `Worker` +instances: at the moment, we call `join`, but that won’t shut down the threads, +because they `loop` forever looking for jobs. If we try to drop our +`ThreadPool` with our current implementation of `drop`, the main thread will +block forever, waiting for the first thread to finish. + +To fix this problem, we’ll need a change in the `ThreadPool` `drop` +implementation and then a change in the `Worker` loop. + +First we’ll change the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation to explicitly drop +the `sender` before waiting for the threads to finish. Listing 20-23 shows the +changes to `ThreadPool` to explicitly drop `sender`. We use the same `Option` +and `take` technique as we did with the thread to be able to move `sender` out +of `ThreadPool`. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct ThreadPool { + workers: Vec, + sender: Option>, +} +--snip-- +impl ThreadPool { + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + --snip-- + + ThreadPool { + workers, + sender: Some(sender), + } + } + + pub fn execute(&self, f: F) + where + F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, + { + let job = Box::new(f); + + self.sender + .as_ref() + .unwrap() + .send(job) + .unwrap(); + } +} + +impl Drop for ThreadPool { + fn drop(&mut self) { + 1 drop(self.sender.take()); + + for worker in &mut self.workers { + println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + + if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { + thread.join().unwrap(); + } + } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-23: Explicitly dropping `sender` before joining the `Worker` threads + +Dropping `sender` [1] closes the channel, which indicates no more messages will +be sent. When that happens, all the calls to `recv` that the `Worker` instances +do in the infinite loop will return an error. In Listing 20-24, we change the +`Worker` loop to gracefully exit the loop in that case, which means the threads +will finish when the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation calls `join` on them. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { + let message = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv(); + + match message { + Ok(job) => { + println!( + "Worker {id} got a job; executing." + ); + + job(); + } + Err(_) => { + println!( + "Worker {id} shutting down." + ); + break; + } + } + }); + + Worker { + id, + thread: Some(thread), + } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-24: Explicitly breaking out of the loop when `recv` returns an error + +To see this code in action, let’s modify `main` to accept only two requests +before gracefully shutting down the server, as shown in Listing 20-25. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming().take(2) { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } + + println!("Shutting down."); +} +``` + +Listing 20-25: Shutting down the server after serving two requests by exiting +the loop + +You wouldn’t want a real-world web server to shut down after serving only two +requests. This code just demonstrates that the graceful shutdown and cleanup is +in working order. + +The `take` method is defined in the `Iterator` trait and limits the iteration +to the first two items at most. The `ThreadPool` will go out of scope at the +end of `main`, and the `drop` implementation will run. + +Start the server with `cargo run`, and make three requests. The third request +should error, and in your terminal you should see output similar to this: + +``` +$ cargo run + Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.0s + Running `target/debug/hello` +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Shutting down. +Shutting down worker 0 +Worker 3 got a job; executing. +Worker 1 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 2 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 3 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 0 disconnected; shutting down. +Shutting down worker 1 +Shutting down worker 2 +Shutting down worker 3 +``` + +You might see a different ordering of `Worker` IDs and messages printed. We can +see how this code works from the messages: `Worker` instances 0 and 3 got the +first two requests. The server stopped accepting connections after the second +connection, and the `Drop` implementation on `ThreadPool` starts executing +before `Worker` 3 even starts its job. Dropping the `sender` disconnects all +the `Worker` instances and tells them to shut down. The `Worker` instances each +print a message when they disconnect, and then the thread pool calls `join` to +wait for each `Worker` thread to finish. + +Notice one interesting aspect of this particular execution: the `ThreadPool` +dropped the `sender`, and before any `Worker` received an error, we tried to +join `Worker` 0. `Worker` 0 had not yet gotten an error from `recv`, so the +main thread blocked, waiting for `Worker` 0 to finish. In the meantime, +`Worker` 3 received a job and then all threads received an error. When `Worker` +0 finished, the main thread waited for the rest of the `Worker` instances to +finish. At that point, they had all exited their loops and stopped. + +Congrats! We’ve now completed our project; we have a basic web server that uses +a thread pool to respond asynchronously. We’re able to perform a graceful +shutdown of the server, which cleans up all the threads in the pool. See +*https://www.nostarch.com/Rust2021* to download the full code for this chapter +for reference. + +We could do more here! If you want to continue enhancing this project, here are +some ideas: + +* Add more documentation to `ThreadPool` and its public methods. +* Add tests of the library’s functionality. +* Change calls to `unwrap` to more robust error handling. +* Use `ThreadPool` to perform some task other than serving web requests. +* Find a thread pool crate on *https://crates.io* and implement a similar web +server using the crate instead. Then compare its API and robustness to the +thread pool we implemented. + +## Summary + +Well done! You’ve made it to the end of the book! We want to thank you for +joining us on this tour of Rust. You’re now ready to implement your own Rust +projects and help with other people’s projects. Keep in mind that there is a +welcoming community of other Rustaceans who would love to help you with any +challenges you encounter on your Rust journey. + diff --git a/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e579745ea --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +# CHANGELOG + +## 0.1.0 + +Initial release! Adds support code for the first draft of the new async chapter of the book. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bd14bf21d --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +# Contributing + +## 🚧 Under construction! 🚧 + +Thanks for your interesting in helping us with this! At the moment, we are not +ready for contributions, though. + +Once we stabilize the contents of the book, including the APIs we are +re-exporting here and the little bits of functionality implemented in that +crate, we will gladly take all the help we can get for maintaining this. 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version = "1", default-features = false, features = [ + "fs", + "rt-multi-thread", + "sync", + "time", +] } +tokio-stream = "0.1" diff --git a/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE new file mode 100644 index 000000000..38634daab --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE @@ -0,0 +1,201 @@ + Apache License + Version 2.0, January 2004 + http://www.apache.org/licenses/ + +TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION + +1. Definitions. + + "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction, + and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document. + + "Licensor" shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by + the copyright owner that is granting the License. + + "Legal Entity" shall mean the union of the acting entity and all + other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common + control with that entity. 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We also recommend that a + file or class name and description of purpose be included on the + same "printed page" as the copyright notice for easier + identification within third-party archives. + +Copyright 2010 The Rust Project Developers + +Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); +you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. +You may obtain a copy of the License at + + http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 + +Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software +distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, +WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. +See the License for the specific language governing permissions and +limitations under the License. diff --git a/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT new file mode 100644 index 000000000..25597d583 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +Copyright (c) 2010 The Rust Project Developers + +Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any +person obtaining a copy of this software and associated +documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the +Software without restriction, including without +limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, +publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of +the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software +is furnished to do so, subject to the following +conditions: + +The above copyright notice and this permission notice +shall be included in all copies or substantial portions +of the Software. + +THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF +ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED +TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT +SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY +CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION +OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR +IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER +DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. diff --git a/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/README.md b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/README.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d2250488 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +# The Rust Programming Language Book Crate + +![Build Status](https://github.com/chriskrycho/trpl-crate/workflows/CI/badge.svg) + +This repository is the home of the `trpl` crate used in _The Rust Programming +Language_ book materials. + +This crate mostly just re-exports items from *other* crates. It exists for two +main reasons: + +1. So that as you read along in _The Rust Programming Language_, you can add + just one dependency, rather than however many we end up with, and likewise + use only one set of imports. + +2. So that we can more easily guarantee it keeps building and working. Since we + control the contents of this crate and when it changes, readers will never be + broken by upstream changes, e.g. if Tokio does a breaking 2.0 release at some + point. + +## Requirements + +This crate currently requires at least Rust 1.79. diff --git a/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..999cb6e27 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,150 @@ +//! A support crate for [_The Rust Programming Language_][trpl]. +//! +//! [trpl]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book +//! +//! This crate mostly just re-exports items from *other* crates. It exists for +//! two main reasons: +//! +//! 1. So that as you read along in _The Rust Programming Language_, you can +//! add just one dependency, rather than however many we end up with, and +//! likewise use only one set of imports. +//! +//! 2. So that we can more easily guarantee it keeps building and working. Since +//! we control the contents of this crate and when it changes, readers will +//! never be broken by upstream changes, e.g. if Tokio does a breaking 2.0 +//! release at some point. + +// For direct use within the `trpl` crate, *not* re-exported. +use std::{future::Future, pin::pin}; + +use futures::future; + +// Re-exports, to be used like `trpl::join`. +pub use futures::{ + future::{join, join3, join_all, Either}, + join, +}; +pub use tokio::{ + fs::read_to_string, + runtime::Runtime, + // We use the `unbounded` variants because they most closely match the APIs + // from `std::sync::mpsc::channel`. Tokio's API choices are interesting: + // + // | `tokio::sync::mpsc` | `std::sync::mpsc` | + // | ------------------- | ----------------- | + // | `channel` | `sync_channel` | + // | `unbounded_channel` | `channel` | + // + // The book collapses these differences for pedagogical simplicity, so that + // readers are not asking why `unbounded` is now important and can focus on + // the more important differences between sync and async APIs. + sync::mpsc::{ + unbounded_channel as channel, UnboundedReceiver as Receiver, + UnboundedSender as Sender, + }, + task::{spawn as spawn_task, yield_now, JoinHandle}, + time::{interval, sleep}, +}; + +pub use tokio_stream::{ + iter as stream_from_iter, + wrappers::{IntervalStream, UnboundedReceiverStream as ReceiverStream}, + Stream, StreamExt, +}; + +/// Run a single future to completion on a bespoke Tokio `Runtime`. +/// +/// Every time you call this, a new instance of `tokio::runtime::Runtime` will +/// be created (see the implementation for details: it is trivial). This is: +/// +/// - Reasonable for teaching purposes, in that you do not generally need to set +/// up more than one runtime anyway, and especially do not in basic code like +/// we are showing! +/// +/// - Not *that* far off from what Tokio itself does under the hood in its own +/// `tokio::main` macro for supporting `async fn main`. +pub fn run(future: F) -> F::Output { + let rt = Runtime::new().unwrap(); + rt.block_on(future) +} + +/// Run two futures, taking whichever finishes first and canceling the other. +/// +/// Notice that this is built on [`futures::future::select`], which has the +/// same overall semantics but does *not* drop the slower future. The idea there +/// is that you can work with the first result and then later *also* continue +/// waiting for the second future. +/// +/// We use the `race` semantics, where the slower future is simply dropped, for +/// the sake of simplicity in the examples: no need to deal with the tuple and +/// intentionally ignore the second future this way! +/// +/// Note that this only works as “simply” as it does because: +/// +/// - It takes ownership of the futures. +/// - It internally *pins* the futures. +/// - It throws away (rather than returning) the unused future (which is why it +/// can get away with pinning them). +pub async fn race(f1: F1, f2: F2) -> Either +where + F1: Future, + F2: Future, +{ + let f1 = pin!(f1); + let f2 = pin!(f2); + match future::select(f1, f2).await { + Either::Left((a, _f2)) => Either::Left(a), + Either::Right((b, _f1)) => Either::Right(b), + } +} + +/// Fetch data from a URL. For more convenient use in _The Rust Programming +/// Language_, panics instead of returning a [`Result`] if the request fails. +pub async fn get(url: &str) -> Response { + Response(reqwest::get(url).await.unwrap()) +} + +/// A thin wrapper around [`reqwest::Response`] to make the demos in _The Rust +/// Programming Language_ substantially nicer to use. +pub struct Response(reqwest::Response); + +impl Response { + /// Get the full response text. + /// + /// If the response cannot be deserialized, this panics instead of returning + /// a [`Result`] (for convenience in the demo). + pub async fn text(self) -> String { + self.0.text().await.unwrap() + } +} + +/// A thin wrapper around [`scraper::Html`] to make the demos in _The Rust +/// Programming Language_ substantially nicer to use. +pub struct Html { + inner: scraper::Html, +} + +impl Html { + /// Parse an HTML document from a string. + /// + /// This is just a thin wrapper around `scraper::Html::parse_document` to + /// keep the exported API surface simpler. + pub fn parse(source: &str) -> Html { + Html { + inner: scraper::Html::parse_document(source), + } + } + + /// Get the first item in the document matching a string selector. Returns + /// Some() + /// + /// If the selector is not a valid CSS selector, panics rather than + /// returning a [`Result`] for convenience. + pub fn select_first<'a>( + &'a self, + selector: &'a str, + ) -> Option> { + let selector = scraper::Selector::parse(selector).unwrap(); + self.inner.select(&selector).nth(0) + } +} diff --git a/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 000000000..afc5f8186 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,242 @@ +//! Integration tests for the crate. +//! +//! These all live in a *single* integration test crate, `tests/integration`, +//! because each integration test is a dedicated binary crate which has to be +//! compiled separately. While that is not really a problem for a crate this +//! small, we have chosen to follow this “best practice” here as a good example. +//! +//! For more details on why you might prefer this pattern see [this post][post]. +//! +//! [post]: https://matklad.github.io/2021/02/27/delete-cargo-integration-tests.html + +use std::{pin::Pin, time::Duration}; + +use futures::Future; +use trpl::{Either, Receiver, Sender}; + +/// This test is foundational for all the others, as they depend on `run`. +/// +/// If we mess this up, *all* the tests below will fail -- so by the same token, +/// if all the tests below are failing, this one probably is too; fix it and the +/// others will likely start working again. +#[test] +fn re_exported_run_works() { + let val = trpl::run(async { "Hello" }); + assert_eq!(val, "Hello"); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_spawn_works() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let handle_a = trpl::spawn_task(async { "Hello" }); + let handle_b = trpl::spawn_task(async { "Goodbye" }); + vec![handle_a.await.unwrap(), handle_b.await.unwrap()] + }); + + assert_eq!(result, vec!["Hello", "Goodbye"]); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_sleep_works() { + let val = trpl::run(async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_micros(1)).await; + "Done!" + }); + assert_eq!(val, "Done!"); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_channel_apis_work() { + trpl::run(async { + // Explicitly naming the type to confirm the re-exports are aligned. + let (tx, mut rx): (Sender<&str>, Receiver<&str>) = trpl::channel(); + + tx.send("Hello").unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + tx.send("Goodbye").unwrap(); + drop(tx); + + assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, Some("Hello")); + assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, Some("Goodbye")); + assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, None); + }); +} + +mod re_exported_join_apis_work { + use super::*; + + #[test] + fn join_fn() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { 1 }; + let b = async { 2 }; + trpl::join(a, b).await + }); + + assert_eq!(result, (1, 2)); + } + + #[test] + fn join3_fn() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { 1 }; + let b = async { 2 }; + let c = async { 3 }; + + trpl::join3(a, b, c).await + }); + + assert_eq!(result, (1, 2, 3)); + } + + #[test] + fn join_all_fn() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { format!("{}", 1) }; + + let b = async { "Hello".to_string() }; + + let outer = String::from("World"); + let c = async move { outer.to_string() }; + + let futures: Vec>>> = + vec![Box::pin(a), Box::pin(b), Box::pin(c)]; + + trpl::join_all(futures).await + }); + + assert_eq!( + result, + vec![ + String::from("1"), + String::from("Hello"), + String::from("World") + ] + ); + } + + #[test] + fn join_macro() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { 1 }; + let b = async { "Hello" }; + + let outer = vec![String::from("World")]; + let c = async move { outer }; + + trpl::join!(a, b, c) + }); + + assert_eq!(result, (1, "Hello", vec![String::from("World")])); + } +} + +#[test] +fn race() { + #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)] + struct Slow; + + #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)] + struct Fast; + + let val = trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1_000)).await; + Slow + }; + + let fast = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + Fast + }; + + trpl::race(slow, fast).await + }); + + assert!(matches!(val, Either::Right(Fast))); +} + +#[test] +fn yield_now() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + trpl::yield_now().await; + "done" + }); + + assert_eq!(result, "done"); +} + +#[test] +fn read_to_string() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + trpl::read_to_string("tests/integration/to-read.txt") + .await + .unwrap() + }); + + assert_eq!(result, String::from("This is some text!\n")); +} + +#[test] +fn stream_iter() { + use trpl::StreamExt; + + let result = trpl::run(async { + let ns = vec![1, 2, 3]; + let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(ns); + let mut result = vec![]; + while let Some(n) = stream.next().await { + result.push(format!("{n}")); + } + result + }); + + assert_eq!( + result, + vec![String::from("1"), String::from("2"), String::from("3")] + ) +} + +#[test] +fn receiver_stream() { + use trpl::ReceiverStream; + use trpl::StreamExt; + + let result: Vec = trpl::run(async { + println!("startup"); + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + let rx_stream = ReceiverStream::new(rx); + println!("sending 123"); + tx.send(123).unwrap(); + drop(tx); // So the receiver channel closes! + + rx_stream.collect().await + }); + + assert_eq!(result, vec![123]); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_interval_stream_works() { + use trpl::{IntervalStream, StreamExt}; + + trpl::run(async { + let mut interval_stream = + IntervalStream::new(trpl::interval(Duration::from_millis(1))) + .take(1); + + assert!(interval_stream.next().await.is_some()); + assert!(interval_stream.next().await.is_none()); + }); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_html() { + use trpl::Html; + + let doc = Html::parse( + "

Hello!

", + ); + let p = doc.select_first("p").map(|el| el.inner_html()); + assert_eq!(p, Some(String::from("Hello!"))); +} diff --git a/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2af04f5bd --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +This is some text! diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/associated-types.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/associated-types.md index b222f3298..af052c160 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/associated-types.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/associated-types.md @@ -14,4 +14,4 @@ pub trait Iterator { --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types). \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types). diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/const-and-static.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/const-and-static.md index b87bdd383..60b13f62a 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/const-and-static.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/const-and-static.md @@ -16,6 +16,6 @@ static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!"; You can find the latest version about constants [here](ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#constants), and about statics -[here](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable). +[here](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable). diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/ffi.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/ffi.md index 20ed3963e..63308ab1d 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/ffi.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/ffi.md @@ -20,4 +20,4 @@ fn main() { --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#using-extern-functions-to-call-external-code) \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#using-extern-functions-to-call-external-code) diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/macros.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/macros.md index 08217d115..828d484dd 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/macros.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/macros.md @@ -25,6 +25,6 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books: [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/macros.html -[2]: ch19-06-macros.html +[2]: ch20-06-macros.html [3]: https://rustbyexample.com/macros.html [4]: ../reference/macros-by-example.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/match.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/match.md index fd28ba8de..5bcbc8949 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/match.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/match.md @@ -34,5 +34,5 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books: [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/match.html [2]: ch06-02-match.html -[3]: ch18-00-patterns.html +[3]: ch19-00-patterns.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md index ff9a33048..3a61fbabc 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md @@ -33,4 +33,4 @@ fn main() { --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). +[here](ch20-03-advanced-traits.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/procedural-macros.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/procedural-macros.md index bf6665f1a..07657f6c8 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/procedural-macros.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/procedural-macros.md @@ -16,6 +16,6 @@ You can check out other resources that describe macros. [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/procedural-macros.html -[2]: ch19-06-macros.html +[2]: ch20-06-macros.html [3]: ../proc_macro/index.html [4]: ../reference/procedural-macros.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/raw-pointers.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/raw-pointers.md index 773f3abc4..4076907b5 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/raw-pointers.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/raw-pointers.md @@ -14,4 +14,4 @@ let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer) \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer) diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/trait-objects.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/trait-objects.md index 3200e26a1..44ca32823 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/trait-objects.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/trait-objects.md @@ -65,4 +65,4 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books: [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/trait-objects.html -[2]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html +[2]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/traits.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/traits.md index dcb577e97..b36ede664 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/traits.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/traits.md @@ -21,4 +21,4 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books: [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/traits.html [2]: ch10-02-traits.html -[3]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html +[3]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/type-aliases.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/type-aliases.md index 85cd4c9ec..84f94e41e 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/type-aliases.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/type-aliases.md @@ -11,4 +11,4 @@ type Kilometers = i32; --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases). \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases). diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/ufcs.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/ufcs.md index 2959c06bd..684c02ec7 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/ufcs.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/ufcs.md @@ -45,4 +45,4 @@ fn main() { --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#fully-qualified-syntax-for-disambiguation-calling-methods-with-the-same-name). \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#fully-qualified-syntax-for-disambiguation-calling-methods-with-the-same-name). diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/unsafe.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/unsafe.md index 8628c7aa9..94ee8ad77 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/unsafe.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/unsafe.md @@ -14,5 +14,5 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books: [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/unsafe.html -[2]: ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html +[2]: ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html [3]: ../nomicon/index.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/redirects/unsized-types.md b/rustbook-en/redirects/unsized-types.md index bd9582cba..6e8d19da4 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/redirects/unsized-types.md +++ b/rustbook-en/redirects/unsized-types.md @@ -15,4 +15,4 @@ fn generic(t: &T) { --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait). \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md index 2798b5d50..dfcdcec07 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/appendix-04-macros.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/appendix-04-macros.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md index 752130915..e3633405f 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-00-oop.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-00-oop.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-00-oop.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-00-oop.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md index 82c1ed8f9..a705d1941 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-01-what-is-oo.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-01-what-is-oo.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md index 35f0c1883..16dad6368 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-02-trait-objects.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-02-trait-objects.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 46bec2692..b29dc2393 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md index 6bd221fa3..e315b3527 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-00-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-00-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md index 0374a9a88..4a76aded0 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md index 2ef5206af..768df16b2 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-02-refutability.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-02-refutability.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md index 31c5f7920..08676091e 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md index f6df05f0a..3633c0548 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-00-advanced-features.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-00-advanced-features.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md index 8a9a29c09..0e740ce03 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md index cc8433fb3..56b9c7e66 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md index 508145729..c217a12b5 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md index 18d369c60..6c296b9ef 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md index 059d6824c..0c99ac623 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md index 5ff97a2ee..a06b0cbc1 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-01-single-threaded.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-01-single-threaded.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md index 0695d2451..8826bd9f1 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-02-multithreaded.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-02-multithreaded.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md index eb7ed5987..457b294f9 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md +++ b/rustbook-en/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html). diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/SUMMARY.md b/rustbook-en/src/SUMMARY.md index b4b58afde..40f5c2242 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/SUMMARY.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/SUMMARY.md @@ -101,29 +101,37 @@ - [Shared-State Concurrency](ch16-03-shared-state.md) - [Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits](ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md) -- [Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust](ch17-00-oop.md) - - [Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages](ch17-01-what-is-oo.md) - - [Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types](ch17-02-trait-objects.md) - - [Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern](ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md) +- [Async and Await](ch17-00-async-await.md) + - [Futures and the Async Syntax](ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md) + - [Concurrency With Async](ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md) + - [Working With Any Number of Futures](ch17-03-more-futures.md) + - [Streams](ch17-04-streams.md) + - [Digging Into the Traits for Async](ch17-05-traits-for-async.md) + - [Futures, Tasks, and Threads](ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md) + +- [Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust](ch18-00-oop.md) + - [Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages](ch18-01-what-is-oo.md) + - [Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types](ch18-02-trait-objects.md) + - [Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern](ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md) ## Advanced Topics -- [Patterns and Matching](ch18-00-patterns.md) - - [All the Places Patterns Can Be Used](ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md) - - [Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match](ch18-02-refutability.md) - - [Pattern Syntax](ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md) - -- [Advanced Features](ch19-00-advanced-features.md) - - [Unsafe Rust](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md) - - [Advanced Traits](ch19-03-advanced-traits.md) - - [Advanced Types](ch19-04-advanced-types.md) - - [Advanced Functions and Closures](ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md) - - [Macros](ch19-06-macros.md) - -- [Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server](ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md) - - [Building a Single-Threaded Web Server](ch20-01-single-threaded.md) - - [Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server](ch20-02-multithreaded.md) - - [Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup](ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md) +- [Patterns and Matching](ch19-00-patterns.md) + - [All the Places Patterns Can Be Used](ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md) + - [Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match](ch19-02-refutability.md) + - [Pattern Syntax](ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md) + +- [Advanced Features](ch20-00-advanced-features.md) + - [Unsafe Rust](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md) + - [Advanced Traits](ch20-03-advanced-traits.md) + - [Advanced Types](ch20-04-advanced-types.md) + - [Advanced Functions and Closures](ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md) + - [Macros](ch20-06-macros.md) + +- [Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server](ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md) + - [Building a Single-Threaded Web Server](ch21-01-single-threaded.md) + - [Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server](ch21-02-multithreaded.md) + - [Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup](ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md) - [Appendix](appendix-00.md) - [A - Keywords](appendix-01-keywords.md) diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md b/rustbook-en/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md index 8b9b3d358..4214f091b 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md @@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ The list of derivable traits provided in this appendix is not comprehensive: libraries can implement `derive` for their own traits, making the list of traits you can use `derive` with truly open-ended. Implementing `derive` involves using a procedural macro, which is covered in the -[“Macros”][macros] section of Chapter 19. +[“Macros”][macros] section of Chapter 20. ### `Debug` for Programmer Output @@ -184,4 +184,4 @@ ch05-01-defining-structs.html#creating-instances-from-other-instances-with-struc ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#stack-only-data-copy [ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone -[macros]: ch19-06-macros.html#macros +[macros]: ch20-06-macros.html#macros diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch00-00-introduction.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch00-00-introduction.md index 12632aa0b..050a62781 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch00-00-introduction.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch00-00-introduction.md @@ -141,17 +141,20 @@ depth and talk about best practices for sharing your libraries with others. Chapter 15 discusses smart pointers that the standard library provides and the traits that enable their functionality. -In Chapter 16, we’ll walk through different models of concurrent programming -and talk about how Rust helps you to program in multiple threads fearlessly. -Chapter 17 looks at how Rust idioms compare to object-oriented programming +In Chapter 16, we’ll walk through different models of concurrent programming and +talk about how Rust helps you to program in multiple threads fearlessly. In +Chapter 17, we will build on that by exploring Rust’s async and await syntax and +the lightweight concurrency model they support. + +Chapter 18 looks at how Rust idioms compare to object-oriented programming principles you might be familiar with. -Chapter 18 is a reference on patterns and pattern matching, which are powerful -ways of expressing ideas throughout Rust programs. Chapter 19 contains a +Chapter 19 is a reference on patterns and pattern matching, which are powerful +ways of expressing ideas throughout Rust programs. Chapter 20 contains a smorgasbord of advanced topics of interest, including unsafe Rust, macros, and more about lifetimes, traits, types, functions, and closures. -In Chapter 20, we’ll complete a project in which we’ll implement a low-level +In Chapter 21, we’ll complete a project in which we’ll implement a low-level multithreaded web server! Finally, some appendices contain useful information about the language in a diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md index f0b97e494..7efd5726e 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md @@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ First, Rust style is to indent with four spaces, not a tab. Second, `println!` calls a Rust macro. If it had called a function instead, it would be entered as `println` (without the `!`). We’ll discuss Rust macros in -more detail in Chapter 19. For now, you just need to know that using a `!` +more detail in Chapter 20. For now, you just need to know that using a `!` means that you’re calling a macro instead of a normal function and that macros don’t always follow the same rules as functions. diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md index 9c9601bf6..d0d27f2b1 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md @@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ allow the player to input a guess. Enter the code in Listing 2-1 into {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs:all}} ``` - + This code contains a lot of information, so let’s go over it line by line. To obtain user input and then print the result as output, we need to bring the @@ -612,7 +612,7 @@ fits that arm’s pattern. Rust takes the value given to `match` and looks through each arm’s pattern in turn. Patterns and the `match` construct are powerful Rust features: they let you express a variety of situations your code might encounter and they make sure you handle them all. These features will be -covered in detail in Chapter 6 and Chapter 18, respectively. +covered in detail in Chapter 6 and Chapter 19, respectively. Let’s walk through an example with the `match` expression we use here. Say that the user has guessed 50 and the randomly generated secret number this time is diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md index 91887210d..1ea896b38 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md @@ -250,6 +250,6 @@ But structs aren’t the only way you can create custom types: let’s turn to Rust’s enum feature to add another tool to your toolbox. [enums]: ch06-00-enums.html -[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.md +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.md [public]: ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html#exposing-paths-with-the-pub-keyword [modules]: ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch06-02-match.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch06-02-match.md index 6a510df40..eec1ac4a8 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch06-02-match.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch06-02-match.md @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ Rust has an extremely powerful control flow construct called `match` that allows you to compare a value against a series of patterns and then execute code based on which pattern matches. Patterns can be made up of literal values, variable names, wildcards, and many other things; [Chapter -18][ch18-00-patterns] covers all the different kinds of patterns +18][ch19-00-patterns] covers all the different kinds of patterns and what they do. The power of `match` comes from the expressiveness of the patterns and the fact that the compiler confirms that all possible cases are handled. @@ -246,9 +246,10 @@ that doesn’t match a pattern in an earlier arm, and we don’t want to run any code in this case. There’s more about patterns and matching that we’ll cover in [Chapter -18][ch18-00-patterns]. For now, we’re going to move on to the +19][ch19-00-patterns]. For now, we’re going to move on to the `if let` syntax, which can be useful in situations where the `match` expression is a bit wordy. [tuples]: ch03-02-data-types.html#the-tuple-type -[ch18-00-patterns]: ch18-00-patterns.html + +[ch19-00-patterns]: ch19-00-patterns.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch08-01-vectors.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch08-01-vectors.md index ece5d59dc..7138b35fd 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch08-01-vectors.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch08-01-vectors.md @@ -219,7 +219,7 @@ at compile time that every possible case is handled, as discussed in Chapter 6. If you don’t know the exhaustive set of types a program will get at runtime to store in a vector, the enum technique won’t work. Instead, you can use a trait -object, which we’ll cover in Chapter 17. +object, which we’ll cover in Chapter 18. Now that we’ve discussed some of the most common ways to use vectors, be sure to review [the API documentation][vec-api] for all of the many diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md index 35bcd1147..41031c127 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md @@ -507,7 +507,7 @@ allows the use of the `?` operator on `Result` values. The `Box` type is a *trait object*, which we’ll talk about in the [“Using Trait Objects that Allow for Values of Different -Types”][trait-objects] section in Chapter 17. For now, you can +Types”][trait-objects] section in Chapter 18. For now, you can read `Box` to mean “any kind of error.” Using `?` on a `Result` value in a `main` function with the error type `Box` is allowed because it allows any `Err` value to be returned early. Even though the body of @@ -533,5 +533,5 @@ let’s return to the topic of how to decide which is appropriate to use in whic cases. [handle_failure]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#handling-potential-failure-with-result -[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types [termination]: ../std/process/trait.Termination.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md index 40f93d67c..88e30fd5e 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md @@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ more of the following: rather than checking for the problem at every step. * There’s not a good way to encode this information in the types you use. We’ll work through an example of what we mean in the [“Encoding States and Behavior - as Types”][encoding] section of Chapter 17. + as Types”][encoding] section of Chapter 18. If someone calls your code and passes in values that don’t make sense, it’s best to return an error if you can so the user of the library can decide what @@ -219,4 +219,4 @@ Now that you’ve seen useful ways that the standard library uses generics with the `Option` and `Result` enums, we’ll talk about how generics work and how you can use them in your code. -[encoding]: ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html#encoding-states-and-behavior-as-types +[encoding]: ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html#encoding-states-and-behavior-as-types diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch10-02-traits.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch10-02-traits.md index 53e9b8115..25eaaa3cc 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch10-02-traits.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch10-02-traits.md @@ -325,7 +325,7 @@ around how the `impl Trait` syntax is implemented in the compiler. We’ll cover how to write a function with this behavior in the [“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types”][using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types] section of Chapter 17. +ignore --> section of Chapter 18. ### Using Trait Bounds to Conditionally Implement Methods @@ -385,5 +385,5 @@ that checks for behavior at runtime because we’ve already checked at compile time. Doing so improves performance without having to give up the flexibility of generics. -[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types [methods]: ch05-03-method-syntax.html#defining-methods diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md index d327e512b..c87f38c4c 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md @@ -608,7 +608,7 @@ that this flexible code won’t have any dangling references. And all of this analysis happens at compile time, which doesn’t affect runtime performance! Believe it or not, there is much more to learn on the topics we discussed in -this chapter: Chapter 17 discusses trait objects, which are another way to use +this chapter: Chapter 18 discusses trait objects, which are another way to use traits. There are also more complex scenarios involving lifetime annotations that you will only need in very advanced scenarios; for those, you should read the [Rust Reference][reference]. But next, you’ll learn how to write tests in diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md index 79e84c943..e179e1180 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md @@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ Our `grep` project will combine a number of concepts you’ve learned so far: * Writing tests ([Chapter 11][ch11]) We’ll also briefly introduce closures, iterators, and trait objects, which -[Chapter 13][ch13] and [Chapter 17][ch17] will +[Chapter 13][ch13] and [Chapter 18][ch18] will cover in detail. [ch7]: ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.html @@ -45,4 +45,4 @@ cover in detail. [ch10]: ch10-00-generics.html [ch11]: ch11-00-testing.html [ch13]: ch13-00-functional-features.html -[ch17]: ch17-00-oop.html +[ch18]: ch18-00-oop.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md index 8c6d2c736..bf2b7c35b 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md @@ -381,7 +381,7 @@ returned the unit type, `()`, and we keep that as the value returned in the For the error type, we used the *trait object* `Box` (and we’ve brought `std::error::Error` into scope with a `use` statement at the top). -We’ll cover trait objects in [Chapter 17][ch17]. For now, just +We’ll cover trait objects in [Chapter 18][ch18]. For now, just know that `Box` means the function will return a type that implements the `Error` trait, but we don’t have to specify what particular type the return value will be. This gives us flexibility to return error values that @@ -490,5 +490,5 @@ write some tests! [ch9-custom-types]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#creating-custom-types-for-validation [ch9-error-guidelines]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#guidelines-for-error-handling [ch9-result]: ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html -[ch17]: ch17-00-oop.html +[ch18]: ch18-00-oop.html [ch9-question-mark]: ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html#a-shortcut-for-propagating-errors-the--operator diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch13-02-iterators.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch13-02-iterators.md index 4ce9170de..5942a62c5 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch13-02-iterators.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch13-02-iterators.md @@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ pub trait Iterator { Notice this definition uses some new syntax: `type Item` and `Self::Item`, which are defining an *associated type* with this trait. We’ll talk about -associated types in depth in Chapter 19. For now, all you need to know is that +associated types in depth in Chapter 20. For now, all you need to know is that this code says implementing the `Iterator` trait requires that you also define an `Item` type, and this `Item` type is used in the return type of the `next` method. In other words, the `Item` type will be the type returned from the diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.md index b4cfb22d6..87887a32a 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.md @@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ authors commonly use in their documentation: returned can be helpful to callers so they can write code to handle the different kinds of errors in different ways. * **Safety**: If the function is `unsafe` to call (we discuss unsafety in - Chapter 19), there should be a section explaining why the function is unsafe + Chapter 20), there should be a section explaining why the function is unsafe and covering the invariants that the function expects callers to uphold. Most documentation comments don’t need all of these sections, but this is a diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch15-01-box.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch15-01-box.md index 53e829a4c..bc16c2504 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch15-01-box.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch15-01-box.md @@ -23,10 +23,10 @@ time because the data is copied around on the stack. To improve performance in this situation, we can store the large amount of data on the heap in a box. Then, only the small amount of pointer data is copied around on the stack, while the data it references stays in one place on the heap. The third case is -known as a *trait object*, and Chapter 17 devotes an entire section, [“Using +known as a *trait object*, and Chapter 18 devotes an entire section, [“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types,”][trait-objects] just to that topic. So what you learn here you’ll apply again in -Chapter 17! +Chapter 18! ### Using a `Box` to Store Data on the Heap @@ -242,7 +242,7 @@ other special capabilities, like those we’ll see with the other smart pointer types. They also don’t have the performance overhead that these special capabilities incur, so they can be useful in cases like the cons list where the indirection is the only feature we need. We’ll look at more use cases for boxes -in Chapter 17, too. +in Chapter 18, too. The `Box` type is a smart pointer because it implements the `Deref` trait, which allows `Box` values to be treated like references. When a `Box` @@ -252,4 +252,4 @@ even more important to the functionality provided by the other smart pointer types we’ll discuss in the rest of this chapter. Let’s explore these two traits in more detail. -[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch15-02-deref.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch15-02-deref.md index 56db7c0a0..5017fca43 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch15-02-deref.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch15-02-deref.md @@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ contains an implementation of `Deref` to add to the definition of `MyBox`: The `type Target = T;` syntax defines an associated type for the `Deref` trait to use. Associated types are a slightly different way of declaring a generic parameter, but you don’t need to worry about them for now; we’ll cover -them in more detail in Chapter 19. +them in more detail in Chapter 20. We fill in the body of the `deref` method with `&self.0` so `deref` returns a reference to the value we want to access with the `*` operator; recall from the diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md index 7b5e825d7..4c7d3c4f6 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ action is disallowed by the borrowing rules. To mutate data, the pattern uses `unsafe` code inside a data structure to bend Rust’s usual rules that govern mutation and borrowing. Unsafe code indicates to the compiler that we’re checking the rules manually instead of relying on the compiler to check them -for us; we will discuss unsafe code more in Chapter 19. +for us; we will discuss unsafe code more in Chapter 20. We can use types that use the interior mutability pattern only when we can ensure that the borrowing rules will be followed at runtime, even though the diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch16-01-threads.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch16-01-threads.md index cfdd0c706..f3cdbff90 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch16-01-threads.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch16-01-threads.md @@ -26,11 +26,12 @@ a code structure that is different from that in programs running in a single thread. Programming languages implement threads in a few different ways, and many -operating systems provide an API the language can call for creating new -threads. The Rust standard library uses a *1:1* model of thread implementation, -whereby a program uses one operating system thread per one language thread. -There are crates that implement other models of threading that make different -tradeoffs to the 1:1 model. +operating systems provide an API the language can call for creating new threads. +The Rust standard library uses a *1:1* model of thread implementation, whereby a +program uses one operating system thread per one language thread. There are +crates that implement other models of threading that make different tradeoffs to +the 1:1 model. (Rust’s async system, which we will see in the next chapter, +provides another approach to concurrency as well.) ### Creating a New Thread with `spawn` diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md index c468b94c3..3782fa5de 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md @@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ receiver. The abbreviations `tx` and `rx` are traditionally used in many fields for *transmitter* and *receiver* respectively, so we name our variables as such to indicate each end. We’re using a `let` statement with a pattern that destructures the tuples; we’ll discuss the use of patterns in `let` statements -and destructuring in Chapter 18. For now, know that using a `let` statement +and destructuring in Chapter 19. For now, know that using a `let` statement this way is a convenient approach to extract the pieces of the tuple returned by `mpsc::channel`. diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md index 4586b8d2c..148b68ab3 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md @@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ compiled. Any type composed entirely of `Send` types is automatically marked as `Send` as well. Almost all primitive types are `Send`, aside from raw pointers, which -we’ll discuss in Chapter 19. +we’ll discuss in Chapter 20. ### Allowing Access from Multiple Threads with `Sync` @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ marker traits, they don’t even have any methods to implement. They’re just useful for enforcing invariants related to concurrency. Manually implementing these traits involves implementing unsafe Rust code. -We’ll talk about using unsafe Rust code in Chapter 19; for now, the important +We’ll talk about using unsafe Rust code in Chapter 20; for now, the important information is that building new concurrent types not made up of `Send` and `Sync` parts requires careful thought to uphold the safety guarantees. [“The Rustonomicon”][nomicon] has more information about these guarantees and how to @@ -62,9 +62,10 @@ uphold them. ## Summary -This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the project in -Chapter 20 will use the concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation -than the smaller examples discussed here. +This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the whole next +chapter focuses on async programming, and the project in Chapter 21 will use the +concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation than the smaller examples +discussed here. As mentioned earlier, because very little of how Rust handles concurrency is part of the language, many concurrency solutions are implemented as crates. @@ -81,10 +82,6 @@ run on multiple threads without the kinds of hard-to-track-down bugs common in other languages. Concurrent programming is no longer a concept to be afraid of: go forth and make your programs concurrent, fearlessly! -Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions -as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms -relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. - [sharing-a-mutext-between-multiple-threads]: ch16-03-shared-state.html#sharing-a-mutext-between-multiple-threads [nomicon]: ../nomicon/index.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-00-async-await.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-00-async-await.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5fe702022 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-00-async-await.md @@ -0,0 +1,153 @@ +## Async and Await + +Many operations we ask the computer to do can take a while to finish. For +example, if you used a video editor to create a video of a family celebration, +exporting it could take anywhere from minutes to hours. Similarly, downloading a +video shared by someone in your family might take a long time. It would be nice +if we could do something else while we are waiting for those long-running +processes to complete. + +The video export will use as much CPU and GPU power as it can. If you only had +one CPU core, and your operating system never paused that export until it +completed, you couldn’t do anything else on your computer while it was running. +That would be a pretty frustrating experience, though. Instead, your computer’s +operating system can—and does!—invisibly interrupt the export often enough to +let you get other work done along the way. + +The file download is different. It does not take up very much CPU time. Instead, +the CPU needs to wait on data to arrive from the network. While you can start +reading the data once some of it is present, it might take a while for the rest +to show up. Even once the data is all present, a video can be quite large, so it +might take some time to load it all. Maybe it only takes a second or two—but +that’s a very long time for a modern processor, which can do billions of +operations every second. It would be nice to be able to put the CPU to use for +other work while waiting for the network call to finish—so, again, your +operating system will invisibly interrupt your program so other things can +happen while the network operation is still ongoing. + +> Note: The video export is the kind of operation which is often described as +> “CPU-bound” or “compute-bound”. It’s limited by the speed of the computer’s +> ability to process data within the *CPU* or *GPU*, and how much of that speed +> it can use. The video download is the kind of operation which is often +> described as “IO-bound,” because it’s limited by the speed of the computer’s +> *input and output*. It can only go as fast as the data can be sent across the +> network. + +In both of these examples, the operating system’s invisible interrupts provide a +form of concurrency. That concurrency only happens at the level of a whole +program, though: the operating system interrupts one program to let other +programs get work done. In many cases, because we understand our programs at a +much more granular level than the operating system does, we can spot lots of +opportunities for concurrency that the operating system cannot see. + +For example, if we’re building a tool to manage file downloads, we should be +able to write our program in such a way that starting one download does not lock +up the UI, and users should be able to start multiple downloads at the same +time. Many operating system APIs for interacting with the network are +*blocking*, though. That is, these APIs block the program’s progress until the +data that they are processing is completely ready. + +> Note: This is how *most* function calls work, if you think about it! However, +> we normally reserve the term “blocking” for function calls which interact with +> files, the network, or other resources on the computer, because those are the +> places where an individual program would benefit from the operation being +> *non*-blocking. + +We could avoid blocking our main thread by spawning a dedicated thread to +download each file. However, we would eventually find that the overhead of those +threads was a problem. It would also be nicer if the call were not blocking in +the first place. Last but not least, it would be better if we could write in the +same direct style we use in blocking code. Something similar to this: + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +let data = fetch_data_from(url).await; +println!("{data}"); +``` + +That is exactly what Rust’s async abstraction gives us. Before we see how this +works in practice, though, we need to take a short detour into the differences +between parallelism and concurrency. + +### Parallelism and Concurrency + +In the previous chapter, we treated parallelism and concurrency as mostly +interchangeable. Now we need to distinguish between them more precisely, because +the differences will show up as we start working. + +Consider the different ways a team could split up work on a software project. We +could assign a single individual multiple tasks, or we could assign one task per +team member, or we could do a mix of both approaches. + +When an individual works on several different tasks before any of them is +complete, this is *concurrency*. Maybe you have two different projects checked +out on your computer, and when you get bored or stuck on one project, you switch +to the other. You’re just one person, so you can’t make progress on both tasks +at the exact same time—but you can multi-task, making progress on multiple +tasks by switching between them. + +
+ +Concurrent work flow + +
Figure 17-1: A concurrent workflow, switching between Task A and Task B.
+ +
+ +When you agree to split up a group of tasks between the people on the team, with +each person taking one task and working on it alone, this is *parallelism*. Each +person on the team can make progress at the exact same time. + +
+ +Concurrent work flow + +
Figure 17-2: A parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently.
+ +
+ +With both of these situations, you might have to coordinate between different +tasks. Maybe you *thought* the task that one person was working on was totally +independent from everyone else’s work, but it actually needs something finished +by another person on the team. Some of the work could be done in parallel, but +some of it was actually *serial*: it could only happen in a series, one thing +after the other, as in Figure 17-3. + +
+ +Concurrent work flow + +
Figure 17-3: A partially parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently until task A3 is blocked on the results of task B3.
+ +
+ +Likewise, you might realize that one of your own tasks depends on another of +your tasks. Now your concurrent work has also become serial. + +Parallelism and concurrency can intersect with each other, too. If you learn +that a colleague is stuck until you finish one of your tasks, you’ll probably +focus all your efforts on that task to “unblock” your colleague. You and your +coworker are no longer able to work in parallel, and you’re also no longer able +to work concurrently on your own tasks. + +The same basic dynamics come into play with software and hardware. On a machine +with a single CPU core, the CPU can only do one operation at a time, but it can +still work concurrently. Using tools such as threads, processes, and async, the +computer can pause one activity and switch to others before eventually cycling +back to that first activity again. On a machine with multiple CPU cores, it can +also do work in parallel. One core can be doing one thing while another core +does something completely unrelated, and those actually happen at the same +time. + +When working with async in Rust, we’re always dealing with concurrency. +Depending on the hardware, the operating system, and the async runtime we are +using—more on async runtimes shortly!—that concurrency may also use parallelism +under the hood. + +Now, let’s dive into how async programming in Rust actually works! In the rest +of this chapter, we will: + +* see how to use Rust’s `async` and `await` syntax +* explore how to use the async model to solve some of the same challenges we + looked at in Chapter 16 +* look at how multithreading and async provide complementary solutions, which + you can even use together in many cases diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a82366f7f --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md @@ -0,0 +1,379 @@ +## Futures and the Async Syntax + +The key elements of asynchronous programming in Rust are *futures* and Rust’s +`async` and `await` keywords. + +A *future* is a value which may not be ready now, but will become ready at some +point in the future. (This same concept shows up in many languages, sometimes +under other names such as “task” or “promise”.) Rust provides a `Future` trait +as a building block so different async operations can be implemented with +different data structures, but with a common interface. In Rust, we say that +types which implement the `Future` trait are futures. Each type which +implements `Future` holds its own information about the progress that has been +made and what "ready" means. + +The `async` keyword can be applied to blocks and functions to specify that they +can be interrupted and resumed. Within an async block or async function, you can +use the `await` keyword to wait for a future to become ready, called *awaiting a +future*. Each place you await a future within an async block or function is a +place that async block or function may get paused and resumed. The process of +checking with a future to see if its value is available yet is called *polling*. + +Some other languages also use `async` and `await` keywords for async +programming. If you’re familiar with those languages, you may notice some +significant differences in how Rust does things, including how it handles the +syntax. That’s for good reason, as we’ll see! + +Most of the time when writing async Rust, we use the `async` and `await` +keywords. Rust compiles them into equivalent code using the `Future` trait, much +as it compiles `for` loops into equivalent code using the `Iterator` trait. +Because Rust provides the `Future` trait, though, you can also implement it for +your own data types when you need to. Many of the functions we’ll see +throughout this chapter return types with their own implementations of `Future`. +We’ll return to the definition of the trait at the end of the chapter and dig +into more of how it works, but this is enough detail to keep us moving forward. + +That may all feel a bit abstract. Let’s write our first async program: a little +web scraper. We’ll pass in two URLs from the command line, fetch both of them +concurrently, and return the result of whichever one finishes first. This +example will have a fair bit of new syntax, but don’t worry. We’ll explain +everything you need to know as we go. + +### Our First Async Program + +To keep this chapter focused on learning async, rather than juggling parts of +the ecosystem, we have created the `trpl` crate (`trpl` is short for “The Rust +Programming Language”). It re-exports all the types, traits, and functions +you’ll need, primarily from the [`futures`][futures-crate] and [`tokio`][tokio] +crates. + +- The `futures` crate is an official home for Rust experimentation for async + code, and is actually where the `Future` type was originally designed. + +- Tokio is the most widely used async runtime in Rust today, especially (but + not only!) for web applications. There are other great runtimes out there, + and they may be more suitable for your purposes. We use Tokio under the hood + for `trpl` because it’s well-tested and widely used. + +In some cases, `trpl` also renames or wraps the original APIs to let us stay +focused on the details relevant to this chapter. If you want to understand what +the crate does, we encourage you to check out [its source code][crate-source]. +You’ll be able to see what crate each re-export comes from, and we’ve left +extensive comments explaining what the crate does. + +Create a new binary project named `hello-async` and add the `trpl` crate as a +dependency: + +```console +$ cargo new hello-async +$ cd hello-async +$ cargo add trpl +``` + +Now we can use the various pieces provided by `trpl` to write our first async +program. We’ll build a little command line tool which fetches two web pages, +pulls the `` element from each, and prints out the title of whichever +finishes that whole process first. + +Let’s start by writing a function that takes one page URL as a parameter, makes +a request to it, and returns the text of the title element: + +<Listing number="17-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Defining an async function to get the title element from an HTML page"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-01/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-1, we define a function named `page_title`, and we mark it with +the `async` keyword. Then we use the `trpl::get` function to fetch whatever URL +is passed in, and, and we await the response by using the `await` keyword. Then +we get the text of the response by calling its `text` method and once again +awaiting it with the `await` keyword. Both of these steps are asynchronous. For +`get`, we need to wait for the server to send back the first part of its +response, which will include HTTP headers, cookies, and so on. That part of the +response can be delivered separately from the body of the request. Especially if +the body is very large, it can take some time for it all to arrive. Thus, we +have to wait for the *entirety* of the response to arrive, so the `text` method +is also async. + +We have to explicitly await both of these futures, because futures in Rust are +*lazy*: they don’t do anything until you ask them to with `await`. (In fact, +Rust will show a compiler warning if you don’t use a future.) This should +remind you of our discussion of iterators [back in Chapter 13][iterators-lazy]. +Iterators do nothing unless you call their `next` method—whether directly, or +using `for` loops or methods such as `map` which use `next` under the hood. With +futures, the same basic idea applies: they do nothing unless you explicitly ask +them to. This laziness allows Rust to avoid running async code until it’s +actually needed. + +> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw when using `thread::spawn` in +> the previous chapter, where the closure we passed to another thread started +> running immediately. It’s also different from how many other languages +> approach async! But it’s important for Rust. We’ll see why that is later. + +Once we have `response_text`, we can then parse it into an instance of the +`Html` type using `Html::parse`. Instead of a raw string, we now have a data +type we can use to work with the HTML as a richer data structure. In particular, +we can use the `select_first` method to find the first instance of a given CSS +selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `<title>` +element in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching +element, `select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the +`Option::map` method, which lets us work with the item in the `Option` if it’s +present, and do nothing if it isn’t. (We could also use a `match` expression +here, but `map` is more idiomatic.) In the body of the function we supply to +`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title_element` to get its content, which is +a `String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. + +Notice that Rust’s `await` keyword goes after the expression you’re awaiting, +not before it. That is, it’s a *postfix keyword*. This may be different from +what you might be used to if you have used async in other languages. Rust chose +this because it makes chains of methods much nicer to work with. As a result, we +can change the body of `page_url_for` to chain the `trpl::get` and `text` +function calls together with `await` between them, as shown in Listing 17-2: + +<Listing number="17-2" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Chaining with the `await` keyword"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-02/src/main.rs:chaining}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With that, we have successfully written our first async function! Before we add +some code in `main` to call it, let’s talk a little more about what we’ve +written and what it means. + +When Rust sees a block marked with the `async` keyword, it compiles it into a +unique, anonymous data type which implements the `Future` trait. When Rust sees +a function marked with `async`, it compiles it into a non-async function whose +body is an async block. An async function’s return type is the type of the +anonymous data type the compiler creates for that async block. + +Thus, writing `async fn` is equivalent to writing a function which returns a +*future* of the return type. When the compiler sees a function definition such +as the `async fn page_title` in Listing 17-1, it’s equivalent to a non-async +function defined like this: + +```rust +# extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test +use std::future::Future; +use trpl::Html; + +fn page_title(url: &str) -> impl Future<Output = Option<String>> + '_ { + async move { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()) + } +} +``` + +Let’s walk through each part of the transformed version: + +* It uses the `impl Trait` syntax we discussed back in the [“Traits as + Parameters”][impl-trait] section in Chapter 10. +* The returned trait is a `Future`, with an associated type of `Output`. Notice + that the `Output` type is `Option<String>`, which is the same as the the + original return type from the `async fn` version of `page_title`. +* All of the code called in the body of the original function is wrapped in an + `async move` block. Remember that blocks are expressions. This whole block is + the expression returned from the function. +* This async block produces a value with the type `Option<String>`, as described + above. That value matches the `Output` type in the return type. This is just + like other blocks you have seen. +* The new function body is an `async move` block because of how it uses the + `url` parameter. (We’ll talk about `async` vs. `async move` much more later + in the chapter.) +* The new version of the function has a kind of lifetime we haven’t seen before + in the output type: `'_`. Because the function returns a `Future` which refers + to a reference—in this case, the reference from the `url` parameter—we need to + tell Rust that we mean for that reference to be included. We don’t have to + name the lifetime here, because Rust is smart enough to know there is only one + reference which could be involved, but we *do* have to be explicit that the + resulting `Future` is bound by that lifetime. + +Now we can call `page_title` in `main`. To start, we’ll just get the title +for a single page. In Listing 17-3, we follow the same pattern we used for +getting command line arguments back in Chapter 12. Then we pass the first URL +`page_title`, and await the result. Because the value produced by the future is +an `Option<String>`, we use a `match` expression to print different messages to +account for whether the page had a `<title>`. + +<Listing number="17-3" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Calling the `page_title` function from `main` with a user-supplied argument"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-03/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. The only place we can use the `await` +keyword is in async functions or blocks, and Rust won’t let us mark the +special `main` function as `async`. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-03 +cargo build +copy just the compiler error +--> + +```text +error[E0752]: `main` function is not allowed to be `async` + --> src/main.rs:6:1 + | +6 | async fn main() { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `main` function is not allowed to be `async` +``` + +The reason `main` can’t be marked `async` is that async code needs a *runtime*: +a Rust crate which manages the details of executing asynchronous code. A +program’s `main` function can *initialize* a runtime, but it’s not a runtime +*itself*. (We’ll see more about why this is a bit later.) Every Rust program +that executes async code has at least one place where it sets up a runtime and +executes the futures. + +Most languages which support async bundle a runtime with the language. Rust does +not. Instead, there are many different async runtimes available, each of which +makes different tradeoffs suitable to the use case they target. For example, a +high-throughput web server with many CPU cores and a large amount of RAM has +very different different needs than a microcontroller with a single core, a +small amount of RAM, and no ability to do heap allocations. The crates which +provide those runtimes also often supply async versions of common functionality +such as file or network I/O. + +Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we’ll use the `run` function +from the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and runs it to +completion. Behind the scenes, calling `run` sets up a runtime to use to run the +future passed in. Once the future completes, `run` returns whatever value the +future produced. + +We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `run`. Once it +completed, we would be able to match on the resulting `Option<String>`, the way +we tried to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter +(and most async code in the real world!), we’ll be doing more than just one +async function call, so instead we’ll pass an `async` block and explicitly +await the result of calling `page_title`, as in Listing 17-4. + +<Listing number="17-4" caption="Awaiting an async block with `trpl::run`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +<!-- should_panic,noplayground because mdbook does not pass args --> + +```rust,should_panic,noplayground +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs:run}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this, we get the behavior we might have expected initially: + +```console +{{#include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/output.txt}} +``` + +Phew: we finally have some working async code! This now compiles, and we can run +it. Before we add code to race two sites against each other, let’s briefly turn +our attention back to how futures work. + +Each *await point*—that is, every place where the code uses the `await` +keyword—represents a place where control gets handed back to the runtime. To +make that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async +block, so that the runtime can kick off some other work and then come back when +it’s ready to try advancing this one again. This is an invisible state machine, +as if you wrote an enum in this way to save the current state at each `await` +point: + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs:enum}} +``` + +Writing the code to transition between each state by hand would be tedious and +error-prone, especially when adding more functionality and more states to the +code later. Instead, the Rust compiler creates and manages the state machine +data structures for async code automatically. If you’re wondering: yep, the +normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all apply. Happily, +the compiler also handles checking those for us, and has good error messages. +We’ll work through a few of those later in the chapter! + +Ultimately, something has to execute that state machine. That something is a +runtime. (This is why you may sometimes come across references to *executors* +when looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for +executing the async code.) + +Now we can understand why the compiler stopped us from making `main` itself an +async function back in Listing 17-3. If `main` were an async function, something +else would need to manage the state machine for whatever future `main` returned, +but `main` is the starting point for the program! Instead, we call the +`trpl::run` function in `main`, which sets up a runtime and runs the future +returned by the `async` block until it returns `Ready`. + +> Note: some runtimes provide macros to make it so you *can* write an async main +> function. Those macros rewrite `async fn main() { ... }` to be a normal `fn +> main` which does the same thing we did by hand in Listing 17-5: call a +> function which runs a future to completion the way `trpl::run` does. + +Let’s put these pieces together and see how we can write concurrent code, by +calling `page_title` with two different URLs passed in from the command line +and racing them. + +<Listing number="17-5" caption="" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +<!-- should_panic,noplayground because mdbook does not pass args --> + +```rust,should_panic,noplayground +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-05/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-5, we begin by calling `page_title` for each of the user-supplied +URLs. We save the futures produced by calling `page_title` as `title_fut_1` and +`title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t do anything yet, because futures are lazy, +and we haven’t yet awaited them. Then we pass the futures to `trpl::race`, +which returns a value to indicate which of the futures passed to it finishes +first. + +> Note: Under the hood, `race` is built on a more general function, `select`, +> which you will encounter more often in real-world Rust code. A `select` +> function can do a lot of things that `trpl::race` function can’t, but it also +> has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. + +Either future can legitimately “win,” so it doesn’t make sense to return a +`Result`. Instead, `race` returns a type we haven’t seen before, +`trpl::Either`. The `Either` type is somewhat similar to a `Result`, in that it +has two cases. Unlike `Result`, though, there is no notion of success or +failure baked into `Either`. Instead, it uses `Left` and `Right` to indicate +“one or the other”. + +```rust +enum Either<A, B> { + Left(A), + Right(B), +} +``` + +The `race` function returns `Left` if the first argument finishes first, with +that future’s output, and `Right` with the second future argument’s output if +*that* one finishes first. This matches the order the arguments appear when +calling the function: the first argument is to the left of the second argument. + +We also update `page_title` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if +the page which returns first does not have a `<title>` we can resolve, we can +still print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by +updating our `println!` output to indicate both which URL finished first and +what the `<title>` was for the web page at that URL, if any. + +You have built a small working web scraper now! Pick a couple URLs and run the +command line tool. You may discover that some sites are reliably faster than +others, while in other cases which site “wins” varies from run to run. More +importantly, you’ve learned the basics of working with futures, so we can now +dig into even more of the things we can do with async. + +[impl-trait]: ch10-02-traits.html#traits-as-parameters +[iterators-lazy]: ch13-02-iterators.html +<!-- TODO: map source link version to version of Rust? --> +[crate-source]: https://github.com/rust-lang/book/tree/main/packages/trpl +[futures-crate]: https://crates.io/crates/futures +[tokio]: https://tokio.rs diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7683bf5bf --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md @@ -0,0 +1,386 @@ +## Concurrency With Async + +In this section, we’ll apply async to some of the same concurrency challenges +we tackled with threads in chapter 16. Because we already talked about a lot of +the key ideas there, in this section we’ll focus on what’s different between +threads and futures. + +In many cases, the APIs for working with concurrency using async are very +similar to those for using threads. In other cases, they end up being shaped +quite differently. Even when the APIs *look* similar between threads and async, +they often have different behavior—and they nearly always have different +performance characteristics. + +### Counting + +The first task we tackled in Chapter 16 was counting up on two separate threads. +Let’s do the same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies a `spawn_task` function +which looks very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and a `sleep` function +which is an async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can use these together +to implement the same counting example as with threads, in Listing 17-6. + +<Listing number="17-6" caption="Using `spawn_task` to count with two" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::run`, so +that our top-level function can be async. + +> Note: From this point forward in the chapter, every example will include this +> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::run` in `main`, so we’ll often skip it +> just as we do with `main`. Don’t forget to include it in your code! + +Then we write two loops within that block, each with a `trpl::sleep` call in it, +which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next +message. We put one loop in the body of a `trpl::spawn_task` and the other in a +top-level `for` loop. We also add an `await` after the `sleep` calls. + +This does something similar to the thread-based implementation—including the +fact that you may see the messages appear in a different order in your own +terminal when you run it. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +``` + +This version stops as soon as the for loop in the body of the main async block +finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the main +function ends. If you want to run all the way to the completion of the task, you +will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to complete. With +threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread was done running. +In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, because the task +handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so we also unwrap it +after awaiting it. + +<Listing number="17-7" caption="Using `await` with a join handle to run a task to completion" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/src/main.rs:handle}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This updated version runs till *both* loops finish. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +So far, it looks like async and threads give us the same basic outcomes, just +with different syntax: using `await` instead of calling `join` on the join +handle, and awaiting the `sleep` calls. + +The bigger difference is that we didn’t need to spawn another operating system +thread to do this. In fact, we don’t even need to spawn a task here. Because +async blocks compile to anonymous futures, we can put each loop in an async +block and have the runtime run them both to completion using the `trpl::join` +function. + +In Chapter 16, we showed how to use the `join` method on the `JoinHandle` type +returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The `trpl::join` function is +similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, it produces a single new +future whose output is a tuple with the output of each of the futures you passed +in once *both* complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we use `trpl::join` to wait for +both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do *not* await `fut1` and `fut2`, but +instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We ignore the output, because +it’s just a tuple with two unit values in it. + +<Listing number="17-8" caption="Using `trpl::join` to await two anonymous futures" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-08/src/main.rs:join}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this, we see both futures run to completion: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +Here, you’ll see the exact same order every time, which is very different from +what we saw with threads. That is because the `trpl::join` function is *fair*, +meaning it checks each future equally often, alternating between them, and never +lets one race ahead if the other is ready. With threads, the operating system +decides which thread to check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the +runtime decides which task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated +because an async runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as +part of how it manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work +for a runtime—but it’s still possible!) Runtimes don’t have to guarantee +fairness for any given operation, and runtimes often offer different APIs to let +you choose whether you want fairness or not. + +Try some of these different variations on awaiting the futures and see what they +do: + +* Remove the async block from around either or both of the loops. +* Await each async block immediately after defining it. +* Wrap only the first loop in an async block, and await the resulting future + after the body of second loop. + +For an extra challenge, see if you can figure out what the output will be in +each case *before* running the code! + +### Message Passing + +Sharing data between futures will also be familiar: we’ll use message passing +again, but this with async versions of the types and functions. We’ll take a +slightly different path than we did in Chapter 16, to illustrate some of the key +differences between thread-based and futures-based concurrency. In Listing 17-9, +we’ll begin with just a single async block—*not* spawning a separate task as +we spawned a separate thread. + +<Listing number="17-9" caption="Creating an async channel and assigning the two halves to `tx` and `rx`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-09/src/main.rs:channel}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Here, we use `trpl::channel`, an async version of the multiple-producer, +single-consumer channel API we used with threads back in Chapter 16. The async +version of the API is only a little different from the thread-based version: it +uses a mutable rather than an immutable receiver `rx`, and its `recv` method +produces a future we need to await rather than producing the value directly. Now +we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. Notice that we don’t have +to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely need to await the `rx.recv` +call. + +The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until +it receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it +is async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either +a message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we +don’t await the `send` call, because it doesn’t block. It doesn’t need to, +because the channel we’re sending it into is unbounded. + +> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a `trpl::run` +> call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the code *outside* it +> will block on the `run` function returning. That is the whole point of the +> `trpl::run` function: it lets you *choose* where to block on some set of async +> code, and thus where to transition between sync and async code. In most async +> runtimes, `run` is actually named `block_on` for exactly this reason. + +Notice two things about this example: First, the message will arrive right away! +Second, although we use a future here, there’s no concurrency yet. Everything +in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were no futures +involved. + +Let’s address the first part by sending a series of messages, and sleep in +between them, as shown in Listing 17-10: + +<!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! --> + +<Listing number="17-10" caption="Sending and receiving multiple messages over the async channel and sleeping with an `await` between each message" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-10/src/main.rs:many-messages}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In addition to sending the messages, we need to receive them. In this case, we +could do that manually, by just doing `rx.recv().await` four times, because we +know how many messages are coming in. In the real world, though, we’ll +generally be waiting on some *unknown* number of messages. In that case, we need +to keep waiting until we determine that there are no more messages. + +In Listing 16-10, we used a `for` loop to process all the items received from a +synchronous channel. However, Rust doesn’t yet have a way to write a `for` loop +over an *asynchronous* series of items. Instead, we need to use a new kind of +loop we haven’t seen before, the `while let` conditional loop. A `while let` +loop is the loop version of the `if let` construct we saw back in Chapter 6. The +loop will continue executing as long as the pattern it specifies continues to +match the value. + +<!-- TODO: update text in ch. 19 to account for our having introduced this. --> + +The `rx.recv` call produces a `Future`, which we await. The runtime will pause +the `Future` until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve +to `Some(message)`, as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, +regardless of whether *any* messages have arrived, the future will instead +resolve to `None` to indicate that there are no more values, and we should stop +polling—that is, stop awaiting. + +The `while let` loop pulls all of this together. If the result of calling +`rx.recv().await` is `Some(message)`, we get access to the message and we can +use it in the loop body, just as we could with `if let`. If the result is +`None`, the loop ends. Every time the loop completes, it hits the await point +again, so the runtime pauses it again until another message arrives. + +The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. Unfortunately, +there are still a couple problems. For one thing, the messages do not arrive at +half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, two seconds (2,000 milliseconds) +after we start the program. For another, this program also never exits! Instead, +it waits forever for new messages. You will need to shut it down using <span +class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. + +Let’s start by understanding why the messages all come in at once after the full +delay, rather than coming in with delays in between each one. Within a given +async block, the order that `await` keywords appear in the code is also the +order they happen when running the program. + +There’s only one async block in Listing 17-10, so everything in it runs +linearly. There’s still no concurrency. All the `tx.send` calls happen, +interspersed with all of the `trpl::sleep` calls and their associated await +points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the `await` +points on the `recv` calls. + +To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between receiving +each message, we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async +blocks. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately using `trpl::join`, +just as in the counting example. Once again, we await the result of calling +`trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the individual futures +in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential flow—exactly what we’re +trying *not* to do. + +<!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! --> + +<Listing number="17-11" caption="Separating `send` and `recv` into their own `async` blocks and awaiting the futures for those blocks" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:futures}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With the updated code in Listing 17-11, the messages get printed at +500-millisecond intervals, rather than all in a rush after two seconds. + +The program still never exits, though, because of the way `while let` loop +interacts with `trpl::join`: + +* The future returned from `trpl::join` only completes once *both* futures + passed to it have completed. +* The `tx` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last + message in `vals`. +* The `rx` future won’t complete until the `while let` loop ends. +* The `while let` loop won’t end until awaiting `rx.recv` produces `None`. +* Awaiting `rx.recv` will only return `None` once the other end of the channel + is closed. +* The channel will only close if we call `rx.close` or when the sender side, + `tx`, is dropped. +* We don’t call `rx.close` anywhere, and `tx` won’t be dropped until the + outermost async block passed to `trpl::run` ends. +* The block can’t end because it is blocked on `trpl::join` completing, which + takes us back to the top of this list! + +We could manually close `rx` by calling `rx.close` somewhere, but that doesn’t +make much sense. Stopping after handling some arbitrary number of messages would +make the program shut down, but we could miss messages. We need some other way +to make sure that `tx` gets dropped *before* the end of the function. + +Right now, the async block where we send the messages only borrows `tx` because +sending a message doesn’t require ownership, but if we could move `tx` into +that async block, it would be dropped once that block ends. In Chapter 13, we +learned how to use the `move` keyword with closures, and in Chapter 16, we saw +that we often need to move data into closures when working with threads. The +same basic dynamics apply to async blocks, so the `move` keyword works with +async blocks just as it does with closures. + +In Listing 17-12, we change the async block for sending messages from a plain +`async` block to an `async move` block. When we run *this* version of the code, +it shuts down gracefully after the last message is sent and received. + +<Listing number="17-12" caption="A working example of sending and receiving messages between futures which correctly shuts down when complete" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs:with-move}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This async channel is also a multiple-producer channel, so we can call `clone` +on `tx` if we want to send messages from multiple futures. In Listing 17-13, we +clone `tx`, creating `tx1` outside the first async block. We move `tx1` into +that block just as we did before with `tx`. Then, later, we move the original +`tx` into a *new* async block, where we send more messages on a slightly slower +delay. We happen to put this new async block after the async block for receiving +messages, but it could go before it just as well. The key is the order of the +futures are awaited in, not the order they are created in. + +Both of the async blocks for sending messages need to be `async move` blocks, so +that both `tx` and `tx1` get dropped when those blocks finish. Otherwise we’ll +end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. Finally, we switch from +`trpl::join` to `trpl::join3` to handle the additional future. + +<Listing number="17-13" caption="Using multiple producers with async blocks" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Now we see all the messages from both sending futures. Because the sending +futures use slightly different delays after sending, the messages are also +received at those different intervals. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'the' +received 'messages' +received 'future' +received 'for' +received 'you' +``` + +This is a good start, but it limits us to just a handful of futures: two with +`join`, or three with `join3`. Let’s see how we might work with more futures. + +[streams]: ch17-05-streams.html diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fecb73d03 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md @@ -0,0 +1,595 @@ +## Working With Any Number of Futures + +When we switched from using two futures to three in the previous section, we +also had to switch from using `join` to using `join3`. It would be annoying to +have to call a different function every time we changed the number of futures we +wanted to join. Happily, we have a macro form of `join` to which we can pass an +arbitrary number of arguments. It also handles awaiting the futures itself. +Thus, we could rewrite the code from Listing 17-13 to use `join!` instead of +`join3`, as in Listing 17-14: + +<Listing number="17-14" caption="Using `join!` to wait for multiple futures" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This is definitely a nice improvement over needing to swap between `join` and +`join3` and `join4` and so on! However, even this macro form only works when we +know the number of futures ahead of time. In real-world Rust, though, pushing +futures into a collection and then waiting on some or all the futures in that +collection to complete is a common pattern. + +To check all the futures in some collection, we’ll need to iterate over and +join on *all* of them. The `trpl::join_all` function accepts any type which +implements the `Iterator` trait, which we learned about back in Chapter 13, so +it seems like just the ticket. Let’s try putting our futures in a vector, and +replace `join!` with `join_all`. + +<Listing number="17-15" caption="Storing anonymous futures in a vector and calling `join_all`"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. Instead, we get this error: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/ +cargo build +copy just the compiler error +--> + + +```text +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:43:37 + | +8 | let tx1_fut = async move { + | _______________________- +9 | | let vals = vec![ +10 | | String::from("hi"), +11 | | String::from("from"), +... | +19 | | } +20 | | }; + | |_________- the expected `async` block +21 | +22 | let rx_fut = async { + | ______________________- +23 | | while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { +24 | | println!("received '{value}'"); +25 | | } +26 | | }; + | |_________- the found `async` block +... +43 | let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + | ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block + | + = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` + found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:22:22: 26:10}` + = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type + = help: consider pinning your async block and and casting it to a trait object +``` + +This might be surprising. After all, none of them return anything, so each +block produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. However, `Future` is a trait, not a +concrete type. The concrete types are the individual data structures generated +by the compiler for async blocks. You can’t put two different hand-written +structs in a `Vec`, and the same thing applies to the different structs +generated by the compiler. + +To make this work, we need to use *trait objects*, just as we did in [“Returning +Errors from the run function”][dyn] in Chapter 12. (We’ll cover trait objects +in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets us treat each of the +anonymous futures produced by these types as the same type, because all of them +implement the `Future` trait. + +> Note: In Chapter 8, we discussed another way to include multiple types in a +> `Vec`: using an enum to represent each of the different types which can +> appear in the vector. We can’t do that here, though. For one thing, we have +> no way to name the different types, because they are anonymous. For another, +> the reason we reached for a vector and `join_all` in the first place was to be +> able to work with a dynamic collection of futures where we don’t know what +> they will all be until runtime. + +We start by wrapping each of the futures in the `vec!` in a `Box::new`, as shown +in Listing 17-16. + +<Listing number="17-16" caption="Trying to use `Box::new` to align the types of the futures in a `Vec`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this still doesn’t compile. In fact, we have the same basic +error we did before, but we get one for both the second and third `Box::new` +calls, and we also get new errors referring to the `Unpin` trait. We will come +back to the `Unpin` errors in a moment. First, let’s fix the type errors on the +`Box::new` calls, by explicitly annotating the type of the `futures` variable: + +<Listing number="17-17" caption="Fixing the rest of the type mismatch errors by using an explicit type declaration" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +The type we had to write here is a little involved, so let’s walk through it: + +* The innermost type is the future itself. We note explicitly that the output of + the future is the unit type `()` by writing `Future<Output = ()>`. +* Then we annotate the trait with `dyn` to mark it as dynamic. +* The entire trait reference is wrapped in a `Box`. +* Finally, we state explicitly that `futures` is a `Vec` containing these items. + +That already made a big difference. Now when we run the compiler, we only have +the errors mentioning `Unpin`. Although there are three of them, notice that +each is very similar in its contents. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17 +cargo build +copy *only* the errors +--> + +```text +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:24 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | -------------- ^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | | + | required by a bound introduced by this call + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `join_all` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:105:14 + | +102 | pub fn join_all<I>(iter: I) -> JoinAll<I::Item> + | -------- required by a bound in this function +... +105 | I::Item: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `join_all` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:9 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` + +That is a *lot* to digest, so let’s pull it apart. The first part of the message +tell us that the first async block (`src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10`) does not +implement the `Unpin` trait, and suggests using `pin!` or `Box::pin` to resolve +it. Later in the chapter, we’ll dig into a few more details about `Pin` and +`Unpin`. For the moment, though, we can just follow the compiler’s advice to get +unstuck! In Listing 17-18, we start by updating the type annotation for +`futures`, with a `Pin` wrapping each `Box`. Second, we use `Box::pin` to pin +the futures themselves. + +<Listing number="17-18" caption="Using `Pin` and `Box::pin` to make the `Vec` type check" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If we compile and run this, we finally get the output we hoped for: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'messages' +received 'the' +received 'for' +received 'future' +received 'you' +``` + +Phew! + +There’s a bit more we can explore here. For one thing, using `Pin<Box<T>>` +comes with a small amount of extra overhead from putting these futures on the +heap with `Box`—and we’re only doing that to get the types to line up. We don’t +actually *need* the heap allocation, after all: these futures are local to this +particular function. As noted above, `Pin` is itself a wrapper type, so we can +get the benefit of having a single type in the `Vec`—the original reason we +reached for `Box`—without doing a heap allocation. We can use `Pin` directly +with each future, using the `std::pin::pin` macro. + +However, we must still be explicit about the type of the pinned reference; +otherwise Rust will still not know to interpret these as dynamic trait objects, +which is what we need them to be in the `Vec`. We therefore `pin!` each future +when we define it, and define `futures` as a `Vec` containing pinned mutable +references to the dynamic `Future` type, as in Listing 17-19. + +<Listing number="17-19" caption="Using `Pin` directly with the `pin!` macro to avoid unnecessary heap allocations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We got this far by ignoring the fact that we might have different `Output` +types. For example, in Listing 17-20, the anonymous future for `a` implements +`Future<Output = u32>`, the anonymous future for `b` implements `Future<Output = +&str>`, and the anonymous future for `c` implements `Future<Output = bool>`. + +<Listing number="17-20" caption="Three futures with distinct types" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We can use `trpl::join!` to await them, because it allows you to pass in +multiple future types and produces a tuple of those types. We *cannot* use +`trpl::join_all`, because it requires the futures passed in all to have the same +type. Remember, that error is what got us started on this adventure with `Pin`! + +This is a fundamental tradeoff: we can either deal with a dynamic number of +futures with `join_all`, as long as they all have the same type, or we can deal +with a set number of futures with the `join` functions or the `join!` macro, +even if they have different types. This is the same as working with any other +types in Rust, though. Futures are not special, even though we have some nice +syntax for working with them, and that is a good thing. + +### Racing futures + +When we “join” futures with the `join` family of functions and macros, we +require *all* of them to finish before we move on. Sometimes, though, we only +need *some* future from a set to finish before we move on—kind of similar to +racing one future against another. + +In Listing 17-21, we once again use `trpl::race` to run two futures, `slow` and +`fast`, against each other. Each one prints a message when it starts running, +pauses for some amount of time by calling and awaiting `sleep`, and then prints +another message when it finishes. Then we pass both to `trpl::race` and wait for +one of them to finish. (The outcome here won’t be too surprising: `fast` wins!) +Unlike when we used `race` back in [Our First Async Program][async-program], we +just ignore the `Either` instance it returns here, because all of the +interesting behavior happens in the body of the async blocks. + +<Listing number="17-21" caption="Using `race` to get the result of whichever future finishes first" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Notice that if you flip the order of the arguments to `race`, the order of the +“started” messages changes, even though the `fast` future always completes +first. That’s because the implementation of this particular `race` function is +not fair. It always runs the futures passed as arguments in the order they’re +passed. Other implementations *are* fair, and will randomly choose which future +to poll first. Regardless of whether the implementation of race we’re using is +fair, though, *one* of the futures will run up to the first `await` in its body +before another task can start. + +Recall from [Our First Async Program][async-program] that at each await point, +Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the task and switch to another one if the +future being awaited isn’t ready. The inverse is also true: Rust *only* pauses +async blocks and hands control back to a runtime at an await point. Everything +between await points is synchronous. + +That means if you do a bunch of work in an async block without an await point, +that future will block any other futures from making progress. You may sometimes +hear this referred to as one future *starving* other futures. In some cases, +that may not be a big deal. However, if you are doing some kind of expensive +setup or long-running work, or if you have a future which will keep doing some +particular task indefinitely, you’ll need to think about when and where to +hand control back to the runtime. + +By the same token, if you have long-running blocking operations, async can be a +useful tool for providing ways for different parts of the program to relate to +each other. + +But *how* would you hand control back to the runtime in those cases? + +### Yielding + +Let’s simulate a long-running operation. Listing 17-22 introduces a `slow` +function. It uses `std::thread::sleep` instead of `trpl::sleep` so that calling +`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can use +`slow` to stand in for real-world operations which are both long-running and +blocking. + +<Listing number="17-22" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs:slow}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-23, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in +a pair of futures. To begin, each future only hands control back to the runtime +*after* carrying out a bunch of slow operations. + +<Listing number="17-23" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs:slow-futures}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If you run this, you will see this output: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/ +cargo run +copy just the output +--> + +```text +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'b' ran for 350ms +'a' finished. +``` + +As with our earlier example, `race` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. +There’s no interleaving between the two futures, though. The `a` future does all +of its work until the `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, then the `b` future does +all of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and then the `a` +future completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow +tasks, we need await points so we can hand control back to the runtime. That +means we need something we can await! + +We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-23: if we +removed the `trpl::sleep` at the end of the `a` future, it would complete +without the `b` future running *at all*. Maybe we could use the `sleep` function +as a starting point? + +<Listing number="17-24" caption="Using `sleep` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-24, we add `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call +to `slow`. Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24 +cargo run +copy just the output +--> + +```text +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'a' finished. +``` + +The `a` future still runs for a bit before handing off control to `b`, because +it calls `slow` before ever calling `trpl::sleep`, but after that the futures +swap back and forth each time one of them hits an await point. In this case, we +have done that after every call to `slow`, but we could break up the work +however makes the most sense to us. + +We don’t really want to *sleep* here, though: we want to make progress as fast +as we can. We just need to hand back control to the runtime. We can do that +directly, using the `yield_now` function. In Listing 17-25, we replace all those +`sleep` calls with `yield_now`. + +<Listing number="17-25" caption="Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs:yields}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This is both clearer about the actual intent and can be significantly faster +than using `sleep`, because timers such as the one used by `sleep` often have +limits to how granular they can be. The version of `sleep` we are using, for +example, will always sleep for at least a millisecond, even if we pass it a +`Duration` of one nanosecond. Again, modern computers are *fast*: they can do a +lot in one millisecond! + +You can see this for yourself by setting up a little benchmark, such as the one +in Listing 17-26. (This isn’t an especially rigorous way to do performance +testing, but it suffices to show the difference here.) Here, we skip all the +status printing, pass a one-nanosecond `Duration` to `trpl::sleep`, and let +each future run by itself, with no switching between the futures. Then we run +for 1,000 iterations and see how long the future using `trpl::sleep` takes +compared to the future using `trpl::yield_now`. + +<Listing number="17-26" caption="Comparing the performance of `sleep` and `yield_now`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +The version with `yield_now` is *way* faster! + +This means that async can be useful even for compute-bound tasks, depending on +what else your program is doing, because it provides a useful tool for +structuring the relationships between different parts of the program. This is a +form of *cooperative multitasking*, where each future has both the power to +determine when it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore +also has the responsibility to avoid blocking for too long. In some Rust-based +embedded operating systems, this is the *only* kind of multitasking! + +In real-world code, you won’t usually be alternating function calls with await +points on every single line, of course. While yielding control in this way is +relatively inexpensive, it’s not free! In many cases, trying to break up a +compute-bound task might make it significantly slower, so sometimes it’s better +for *overall* performance to let an operation block briefly. You should always +measure to see what your code’s actual performance bottlenecks are. The +underlying dynamic is an important one to keep in mind if you *are* seeing a +lot of work happening in serial that you expected to happen concurrently, +though! + +### Building Our Own Async Abstractions + +We can also compose futures together to create new patterns. For example, we can +build a `timeout` function with async building blocks we already have. When +we’re done, the result will be another building block we could use to build up +yet further async abstractions. + +Listing 17-27 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow +future. + +<Listing number="17-27" caption="Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time limit" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-27/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`: + +* It needs to be an async function itself so we can await it. +* Its first parameter should be a future to run. We can make it generic to allow + it to work with any future. +* Its second parameter will be the maximum time to wait. If we use a `Duration`, + that will make it easy to pass along to `trpl::sleep`. +* It should return a `Result`. If the future completes successfully, the + `Result` will be `Ok` with the value produced by the future. If the timeout + elapses first, the `Result` will be `Err` with the duration that the timeout + waited for. + +Listing 17-28 shows this declaration. + +<!-- This is not tested because it intentionally does not compile. --> + +<Listing number="17-28" caption="Defining the signature of `timeout`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs:declaration}} +``` + +</Listing> + +That satisfies our goals for the types. Now let’s think about the *behavior* we +need: we want to race the future passed in against the duration. We can use +`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::race` to +run that timer with the future the caller passes in. + +We also know that `race` is not fair, and polls arguments in the order they are +passed. Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to `race` first so it gets a chance to +complete even if `max_time` is a very short duration. If `future_to_try` +finishes first, `race` will return `Left` with the output from `future`. If +`timer` finishes first, `race` will return `Right` with the timer’s output of +`()`. + +In Listing 17-29, we match on the result of awaiting `trpl::race`. If the +`future_to_try` succeeded and we get a `Left(output)`, we return `Ok(output)`. +If the sleep timer elapsed instead and we get a `Right(())`, we ignore the `()` +with `_` and return `Err(max_time)` instead. + +<Listing number="17-29" caption="Defining `timeout` with `race` and `sleep`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs:implementation}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With that, we have a working `timeout`, built out of two other async helpers. If +we run our code, it will print the failure mode after the timeout: + +```text +Failed after 2 seconds +``` + +Because futures compose with other futures, you can build really powerful tools +using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same +approach to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with things +such as network calls—one of the examples from the beginning of the chapter! + +In practice, you will usually work directly with `async` and `await`, and +secondarily with functions and macros such as `join`, `join_all`, `race`, and +so on. You’ll only need to reach for `pin` now and again to use them with those +APIs. + +We’ve now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same +time. Up next, we’ll look at how we can work with multiple futures in a +sequence over time, with *streams*. Here are a couple more things you might want +to consider first, though: + +* We used a `Vec` with `join_all` to wait for all of the futures in some group + to finish. How could you use a `Vec` to process a group of futures in + sequence, instead? What are the tradeoffs of doing that? + +* Take a look at the `futures::stream::FuturesUnordered` type from the `futures` + crate. How would using it be different from using a `Vec`? (Don’t worry about + the fact that it is from the `stream` part of the crate; it works just fine + with any collection of futures.) + + +[collections]: ch08-01-vectors.html#using-an-enum-to-store-multiple-types +[dyn]: ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html +[async-program]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-04-streams.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-04-streams.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a3085aa62 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-04-streams.md @@ -0,0 +1,448 @@ +## Streams + +So far in this chapter, we have mostly stuck to individual futures. The one big +exception was the async channel we used. Recall how we used the receiver for our +async channel in the [“Message Passing”][17-02-messages] earlier in the chapter. +The async `recv` method produces a sequence of items over time. This is an +instance of a much more general pattern, often called a *stream*. + +A sequence of items is something we’ve seen before, when we looked at the +`Iterator` trait in Chapter 13, but there are two differences between iterators +and the async channel receiver. The first difference is the element of time: +iterators are synchronous, while the channel receiver is asynchronous. The +second difference is the API. When working directly with an `Iterator`, we call +its synchronous `next` method. With the `trpl::Receiver` stream in particular, +we called an asynchronous `recv` method instead, but these APIs otherwise feel +very similar. + +That similarity isn’t a coincidence. A stream is similar to an asynchronous +form of iteration. Whereas the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive +messages, though, the general-purpose stream API is much more general: it +provides the next item the way `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. The +similarity between iterators and streams in Rust means we can actually create a +stream from any iterator. As with an iterator, we can work with a stream by +calling its `next` method and then awaiting the output, as in Listing 17-30. + +<Listing number="17-30" caption="Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30/src/main.rs:stream}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then call +`map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a stream +using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Then we loop over the items in the +stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop. + +Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it doesn’t compile. Instead, as we +can see in the output, it reports that there is no `next` method available. + +<!-- TODO: fix up the path here? --> +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/chapter-17-async-await/listing-17-30 +cargo build +copy only the error output +--> + +```console +error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `Iter` in the current scope + --> src/main.rs:8:40 + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + | ^^^^ + | + = note: the full type name has been written to '/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30/target/debug/deps/async_await-bbd5bb8f6851cb5f.long-type-18426562901668632191.txt' + = note: consider using `--verbose` to print the full type name to the console + = help: items from traits can only be used if the trait is in scope +help: the following traits which provide `next` are implemented but not in scope; perhaps you want to import one of them + | +1 + use futures_util::stream::stream::StreamExt; + | +1 + use std::iter::Iterator; + | +1 + use std::str::pattern::Searcher; + | +1 + use trpl::StreamExt; + | +help: there is a method `try_next` with a similar name + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.try_next().await { + | ~~~~~~~~ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0599`. +``` + +As the output suggests, the reason for the compiler error is that we need the +right trait in scope to be able to use the `next` method. Given our discussion +so far, you might reasonably expect that to be `Stream`, but the trait we need +here is actually `StreamExt`. The `Ext` there is for “extension”: this is a +common pattern in the Rust community for extending one trait with another. + +Why do we need `StreamExt` instead of `Stream`, and what does the `Stream` trait +itself do? Briefly, the answer is that throughout the Rust ecosystem, the +`Stream` trait defines a low-level interface which effectively combines the +`Iterator` and `Future` traits. The `StreamExt` trait supplies a higher-level +set of APIs on top of `Stream`, including the `next` method as well as other +utility methods similar to those provided by the `Iterator` trait. We’ll return +to the `Stream` and `StreamExt` traits in a bit more detail at the end of the +chapter. For now, this is enough to let us keep moving. + +The fix to the compiler error is to add a `use` statement for `trpl::StreamExt`, +as in Listing 17-31. + +<Listing number="17-31" caption="Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With all those pieces put together, this code works the way we want! What’s +more, now that we have `StreamExt` in scope, we can use all of its utility +methods, just as with iterators. For example, in Listing 17-32, we use the +`filter` method to filter out everything but multiples of three and five. + +<Listing number="17-32" caption="Filtering a `Stream` with the `StreamExt::filter` method" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Of course, this isn’t very interesting. We could do that with normal iterators +and without any async at all. So let’s look at some of the other things we can +do which are unique to streams. + +### Composing Streams + +Many concepts are naturally represented as streams: items becoming available in +a queue, or working with more data than can fit in a computer’s memory by only +pulling chunks of it from the file system at a time, or data arriving over the +network over time. Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other +kind of future, too, and we can combine them in interesting ways. For example, +we can batch up events to avoid triggering too many network calls, set timeouts +on sequences of long-running operations, or throttle user interface events to +avoid doing needless work. + +Let’s start by building a little stream of messages, as a stand-in for a stream +of data we might see from a WebSocket or another real-time communication +protocol. In Listing 17-33, we create a function `get_messages` which returns +`impl Stream<Item = String>`. For its implementation, we create an async +channel, loop over the first ten letters of the English alphabet, and send them +across the channel. + +We also use a new type: `ReceiverStream`, which converts the `rx` receiver from +the `trpl::channel` into a `Stream` with a `next` method. Back in `main`, we use +a `while let` loop to print all the messages from the stream. + +<Listing number="17-33" caption="Using the `rx` receiver as a `ReceiverStream`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-33/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this code, we get exactly the results we would expect: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +Message: 'a' +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Message: 'j' +``` + +We could do this with the regular `Receiver` API, or even the regular `Iterator` +API, though. Let’s add something that requires streams: adding a timeout +which applies to every item in the stream, and a delay on the items we emit. + +In Listing 17-34, we start by adding a timeout to the stream with the `timeout` +method, which comes from the `StreamExt` trait. Then we update the body of the +`while let` loop, because the stream now returns a `Result`. The `Ok` variant +indicates a message arrived in time; the `Err` variant indicates that the +timeout elapsed before any message arrived. We `match` on that result and either +print the message when we receive it successfully, or print a notice about the +timeout. Finally, notice that we pin the messages after applying the timeout to +them, because the timeout helper produces a future which needs to be pinned to +be polled. + +<Listing number="17-34" caption="Using the `StreamExt::timeout` method to set a time limit on the items in a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs:timeout}} +``` + +</Listing> + +However, because there are no delays between messages, this timeout does not +change the behavior of the program. Let’s add a variable delay to the messages +we send. In `get_messages`, we use the `enumerate` iterator method with the +`messages` array so that we can get the index of each item we are sending along +with the item itself. Then we apply a 100 millisecond delay to even-index items +and a 300 millisecond delay to odd-index items, to simulate the different delays +we might see from a stream of messages in the real world. Because our timeout is +for 200 milliseconds, this should affect half of the messages. + +<Listing number="17-35" caption="Sending messages through `tx` with an async delay without making `get_messages` an async function" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs:messages}} +``` + +</Listing> + +To sleep between messages in the `get_messages` function without blocking, we +need to use async. However, we can’t make `get_messages` itself into an async +function, because then we’d return a `Future<Output = Stream<Item = String>>` +instead of a `Stream<Item = String>>`. The caller would have to await +`get_messages` itself to get access to the stream. But remember: everything in a +given future happens linearly; concurrency happens *between* futures. Awaiting +`get_messages` would require it to send all the messages, including sleeping +between sending each message, before returning the receiver stream. As a result, +the timeout would end up useless. There would be no delays in the stream itself: +the delays would all happen before the stream was even available. + +Instead, we leave `get_messages` as a regular function which returns a stream, +and spawn a task to handle the async `sleep` calls. + +> Note: calling `spawn_task` in this way works because we already set up our +> runtime. Calling this particular implementation of `spawn_task` *without* +> first setting up a runtime will cause a panic. Other implementations choose +> different tradeoffs: they might spawn a new runtime and so avoid the panic but +> end up with a bit of extra overhead, or simply not provide a standalone way to +> spawn tasks without reference to a runtime. You should make sure you know what +> tradeoff your runtime has chosen and write your code accordingly! + +Now our code has a much more interesting result! Between every other pair of +messages, we see an error reported: `Problem: Elapsed(())`. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/listing-17-35 +cargo run +copy only the program output, *not* the compiler output +--> + +```text +Message: 'a' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'j' +``` + +The timeout doesn’t prevent the messages from arriving in the end—we still get +all of the original messages. This is because our channel is unbounded: it can +hold as many messages as we can fit in memory. If the message doesn’t arrive +before the timeout, our stream handler will account for that, but when it polls +the stream again, the message may now have arrived. + +You can get different behavior if needed by using other kinds of channels, or +other kinds of streams more generally. Let’s see one of those in practice in our +final example for this section, by combining a stream of time intervals with +this stream of messages. + +### Merging Streams + +First, let’s create another stream, which will emit an item every millisecond if +we let it run directly. For simplicity, we can use the `sleep` function to send +a message on a delay, and combine it with the same approach of creating a stream +from a channel we used in `get_messages`. The difference is that this time, +we’re going to send back the count of intervals which has elapsed, so the return +type will be `impl Stream<Item = u32>`, and we can call the function +`get_intervals`. + +In Listing 17-36, we start by defining a `count` in the task. (We could define +it outside the task, too, but it is clearer to limit the scope of any given +variable.) Then we create an infinite loop. Each iteration of the loop +asynchronously sleeps for one millisecond, increments the count, and then sends +it over the channel. Because this is all wrapped in the task created by +`spawn_task`, all of it will get cleaned up along with the runtime, including +the infinite loop. + +<Listing number="17-36" caption="Creating a stream with a counter that will be emitted once every millisecond" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-36/src/main.rs:intervals}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This kind of infinite loop, which only ends when the whole runtime gets torn +down, is fairly common in async Rust: many programs need to keep running +indefinitely. With async, this doesn’t block anything else, as long as there is +at least one await point in each iteration through the loop. + +Back in our main function’s async block, we start by calling `get_intervals`. +Then we merge the `messages` and `intervals` streams with the `merge` method, +which combines multiple streams into one stream that produces items from any of +the source streams as soon as the items are available, without imposing any +particular ordering. Finally, we loop over that combined stream instead of over +`messages` (Listing 17-37). + +<Listing number="17-37" caption="Attempting to merge streams of messages and intervals" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + +At this point, neither `messages` nor `intervals` needs to be pinned or mutable, +because both will be combined into the single `merged` stream. However, this +call to `merge` does not compile! (Neither does the `next` call in the `while +let` loop, but we’ll come back to that after fixing this.) The two streams +have different types. The `messages` stream has the type `Timeout<impl +Stream<Item = String>>`, where `Timeout` is the type which implements `Stream` +for a `timeout` call. Meanwhile, the `intervals` stream has the type `impl +Stream<Item = u32>`. To merge these two streams, we need to transform one of +them to match the other. + +In Listing 17-38, we rework the `intervals` stream, because `messages` is +already in the basic format we want and has to handle timeout errors. First, we +can use the `map` helper method to transform the `intervals` into a string. +Second, we need to match the `Timeout` from `messages`. Because we don’t +actually *want* a timeout for `intervals`, though, we can just create a timeout +which is longer than the other durations we are using. Here, we create a +10-second timeout with `Duration::from_secs(10)`. Finally, we need to make +`stream` mutable, so that the `while let` loop’s `next` calls can iterate +through the stream, and pin it so that it’s safe to do so. + +<!-- We cannot directly test this one, because it never stops. --> + +<Listing number="17-38" caption="Aligning the types of the the `intervals` stream with the type of the `messages` stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + +That gets us *almost* to where we need to be. Everything type checks. If you run +this, though, there will be two problems. First, it will never stop! You’ll +need to stop it with <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. Second, the +messages from the English alphabet will be buried in the midst of all the +interval counter messages: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the tasks running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +--snip-- +Interval: 38 +Interval: 39 +Interval: 40 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 41 +Interval: 42 +Interval: 43 +--snip-- +``` + +Listing 17-39 shows one way to solve these last two problems. First, we use the +`throttle` method on the `intervals` stream, so that it doesn’t overwhelm the +`messages` stream. Throttling is a way of limiting the rate at which a function +will be called—or, in this case, how often the stream will be polled. Once every +hundred milliseconds should do, because that is in the same ballpark as how +often our messages arrive. + +To limit the number of items we will accept from a stream, we can use the `take` +method. We apply it to the *merged* stream, because we want to limit the final +output, not just one stream or the other. + +<Listing number="17-39" caption="Using `throttle` and `take` to manage the merged streams" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs:throttle}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Now when we run the program, it stops after pulling twenty items from the +stream, and the intervals don’t overwhelm the messages. We also don’t get +`Interval: 100` or `Interval: 200` or so on, but instead get `Interval: 1`, +`Interval: 2`, and so on—even though we have a source stream which *can* +produce an event every millisecond. That’s because the `throttle` call +produces a new stream, wrapping the original stream, so that the original +stream only gets polled at the throttle rate, not its own “native” rate. We +don’t have a bunch of unhandled interval messages we’re choosing to +ignore. Instead, we never produce those interval messages in the first place! +This is the inherent “laziness” of Rust’s futures at work again, allowing us to +choose our performance characteristics. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/listing-17-39 +cargo run +copy and paste only the program output +--> + +```text +Interval: 1 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 2 +Interval: 3 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 4 +Message: 'b' +Interval: 5 +Message: 'c' +Interval: 6 +Interval: 7 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 8 +Message: 'd' +Interval: 9 +Message: 'e' +Interval: 10 +Interval: 11 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 12 +``` + +There’s one last thing we need to handle: errors! With both of these +channel-based streams, the `send` calls could fail when the other side of the +channel closes—and that’s just a matter of how the runtime executes the futures +which make up the stream. Up until now we have ignored this by calling `unwrap`, +but in a well-behaved app, we should explicitly handle the error, at minimum by +ending the loop so we don’t try to send any more messages! Listing 17-40 shows +a simple error strategy: print the issue and then `break` from the loops. As +usual, the correct way to handle a message send error will vary—just make sure +you have a strategy. + +<Listing number="17-40" caption="Handling errors and shutting down the loops"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs:errors}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Now that we’ve seen a bunch of async in practice, let’s take a step back and +dig into a few of the details of how `Future`, `Stream`, and the other key +traits which Rust uses to make async work. + +[17-02-messages]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html#message-passing diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c7c82d871 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md @@ -0,0 +1,472 @@ +## Digging Into the Traits for Async + +Throughout the chapter, we’ve used the `Future`, `Pin`, `Unpin`, `Stream`, and +`StreamExt` traits in various ways. So far, though, we’ve avoided digging too +far into the details of how they work or how they fit together. Much of the time +when writing Rust day to day, this is fine. Sometimes, though, you’ll hit +situations where understanding a few more of these details matters. In this +section, we’ll dig down *enough* further to help with those situations—while +still leaving the *really* deep dive for other documentation! + +### Future + +Back in [Futures and the Async Syntax][futures-syntax], we noted that `Future` +is a trait. Let’s start by taking a closer look at how it works. Here is how +Rust defines a `Future`: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} +``` + +That trait definition includes a bunch of new types and also some syntax we +haven’t seen before, so let’s walk through the definition piece by piece. + +First, `Future`’s associated type `Output` says what the future resolves to. +This is analogous to the `Item` associated type for the `Iterator` trait. +Second, `Future` also has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` +reference for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, +and returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We’ll talk a little more about `Pin` and +`Context` later in the section. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, +the `Poll` type: + +```rust +enum Poll<T> { + Ready(T), + Pending, +} +``` + +This `Poll` type is similar to an `Option`: it has one variant which has a value +(`Ready(T)`), and one which does not (`Pending`). It means something quite +different, though! The `Pending` variant indicates that the future still has +work to do, so the caller will need to check again later. The `Ready` variant +indicates that the `Future` has finished its work and the `T` value is +available. + +> Note: With most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after the +> future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after +> becoming ready! Futures which are safe to poll again will say so explicitly in +> their documentation. This is similar to how `Iterator::next` behaves! + +Under the hood, when you see code which uses `await`, Rust compiles that to code +which calls `poll`. If you look back at Listing 17-4, where we printed out the +page title for a single URL once it resolved, Rust compiles it into something +kind of (although not exactly) like this: + +```rust,ignore +match page_title(url).poll() { + Ready(page_title) => match page_title { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + Pending => { + // But what goes here? + } +} +``` + +What should we do when the `Future` is still `Pending`? We need some way to try +again… and again, and again, until the future is finally ready. In other words, +a loop: + +```rust,ignore +let mut page_title_fut = page_title(url); +loop { + match page_title_fut.poll() { + Ready(value) => match page_title { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + Pending => { + // continue + } + } +} +``` + +If Rust compiled it to exactly that code, though, every `await` would be +blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust needs +makes sure that the loop can hand off control to something which can pause work +on this future and work on other futures and check this one again later. That +“something” is an async runtime, and this scheduling and coordination work is +one of the main jobs for a runtime. + +Recall our description (in the [Counting][counting] section) of waiting on +`rx.recv`. The `recv` call returns a `Future`, and awaiting it polls it. In our +initial discussion, we noted that a runtime will pause the future until it’s +ready with either `Some(message)` or `None` when the channel closes. With our +deeper understanding of `Future` in place, and specifically `Future::poll`, we +can see how that works. The runtime knows the future isn’t ready when it +returns `Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime knows the future is ready and +advances it when `poll` returns `Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or +`Poll::Ready(None)`. + +The exact details of how a runtime does that are more than we will cover in even +this deep dive section. The key here is to see the basic mechanic of futures: a +runtime *polls* each future it is responsible for, putting it back to sleep when +it is not yet ready. + +### Pinning and the Pin and Unpin Traits + +<!-- TODO: get a *very* careful technical review of this section! --> + +When we introduced the idea of pinning, while working on Listing 17-17, we ran +into a very gnarly error message. Here is the relevant part of it again: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17 +cargo build +copy *only* the final `error` block from the errors +--> + +```text +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` + +When we read this error message carefully, it not only tells us that we need to +pin the values, but also tells us why pinning is required. The `trpl::join_all` +function returns a struct called `JoinAll`. That struct, in turn, is generic +over a type `F`, which is constrained to implement the `Future` trait. Finally, +directly awaiting a Future requires that the future in question implement the +`Unpin` trait. That’s a lot! But we can understand it, if we dive a little +further into how the `Future` type actually works, in particular around +*pinning*. + +Let’s look again at the definition of `Future`: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + // Required method + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} +``` + +The `cx` parameter and its `Context` type is the key to how a runtime actually +knows when to check any given future, while still being lazy. The details of how +that works are beyond the scope of this chapter, though: you generally only need +to worry about it when writing a custom `Future` implementation. + +Instead, we’ll focus on the type for `self`. This is the first time we’ve seen +a method where `self` has a type annotation. A type annotation for `self` is +similar to type annotations for other function parameters, with two key +differences. First, when we specify the type of `self` in this way, we’re +telling Rust what type `self` must be to call this method. Second, a type +annotation on `self` can’t be just any type. It’s only allowed to be the type +on which the method is implemented, a reference or smart pointer to that type, +or a `Pin` wrapping a reference to that type. We’ll see more on this syntax in +Chapter 18. For now, it’s enough to know that if we want to poll a future (to +check whether it is `Pending` or `Ready(Output)`), we need a mutable reference +to the type, which is wrapped in a `Pin`. + +`Pin` is a wrapper type. In some ways, it’s similar to the `Box`, `Rc`, and +other smart pointer types we saw in Chapter 15, which also wrap other types. +Unlike those, however, `Pin` only works with *pointer types* such as references +(`&` and `&mut`) and smart pointers (`Box`, `Rc`, and so on). To be precise, +`Pin` works with types which implement the `Deref` or `DerefMut` traits, which +we covered in Chapter 15. You can think of this restriction as equivalent to +only working with pointers, though, because implementing `Deref` or `DerefMut` +means your type behaves similarly to a pointer type. `Pin` is also not a pointer +itself, and it doesn’t have any behavior of its own the way `Rc` and `Arc` do +with ref counting. It’s purely a tool the compiler can use to uphold the +relevant guarantees, by wrapping pointers in the type. + +Recalling that `await` is implemented in terms of calls to `poll`, this starts +to explain the error message we saw above—but that was in terms of `Unpin`, not +`Pin`. So what exactly are `Pin` and `Unpin`, how do they relate, and why does +`Future` need `self` to be in a `Pin` type to call `poll`? + +In [Our First Async Program][first-async], we described how a series of await +points in a future get compiled into a state machine—and noted how the compiler +helps make sure that state machine follows all of Rust’s normal rules around +safety, including borrowing and ownership. To make that work, Rust looks at what +data is needed between each await point and the next await point or the end of +the async block. It then creates a corresponding variant in the state machine it +creates. Each variant gets the access it needs to the data that will be used in +that section of the source code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by +getting a mutable or immutable reference to it. + +So far so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in a +given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move around +the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to pass to +`join_all`, the way we did back in—things get trickier. + +When we move a future—whether by pushing into a data structure to use as an +iterator with `join_all`, or returning them from a function—that actually means +moving the state machine Rust creates for us. And unlike most other types in +Rust, the futures Rust creates for async blocks can end up with references to +themselves in the fields of any given variant, as in Figure 17-4 (a simplified +illustration to help you get a feel for the idea, rather than digging into what +are often fairly complicated details). + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-04.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-4: A self-referential data type.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +By default, though, any object which has a reference to itself is unsafe to +move, because references always point to the actual memory address of the thing +they refer to. If you move the data structure itself, those internal references +will be left pointing to the old location. However, that memory location is now +invalid. For one thing, its value will not be updated when you make changes to +the data structure. For another—and more importantly!—the computer is now free +to reuse that memory for other things! You could end up reading completely +unrelated data later. + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-05.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-5: The unsafe result of moving a self-referential data type.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +In principle, the Rust compiler could try to update every reference to an object +every time it gets moved. That would potentially be a lot of performance +overhead, especially given there can be a whole web of references that need +updating. On the other hand, if we could make sure the data structure in +question *doesn’t move in memory*, we don’t have to update any references. +This is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker requires: you can’t move an item +which has any active references to it using safe code. + +`Pin` builds on that to give us the exact guarantee we need. When we *pin* a +value by wrapping a pointer to that value in `Pin`, it can no longer move. Thus, +if you have `Pin<Box<SomeType>>`, you actually pin the `SomeType` value, *not* +the `Box` pointer. Figure 17-6 illustrates this: + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-06.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-6: Pinning a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +In fact, the `Box` pointer can still move around freely. Remember: we care about +making sure the data ultimately being referenced stays in its place. If a +pointer moves around, but the data it points to is in the same place, as in +Figure 17-7, there’s no potential problem. (How you would do this with a `Pin` +wrapping a `Box` is more than we’ll get into in this particular discussion, +but it would make for a good exercise! If you look at the docs for the types as +well as the `std::pin` module, you might be able to work out how you would do +that.) The key is that the self-referential type itself cannot move, because it +is still pinned. + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-07.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-7: Moving a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +However, most types are perfectly safe to move around, even if they happen to +be behind a `Pin` pointer. We only need to think about pinning when items have +internal references. Primitive values such as numbers and booleans don’t have +any internal references, so they’re obviously safe. Neither do most types you +normally work with in Rust. A `Vec`, for example, doesn’t have any internal +references it needs to keep up to date this way, so you can move it around +without worrying. If you have a `Pin<Vec<String>>`, you’d have to do everything +via the safe but restrictive APIs provided by `Pin`, even though a +`Vec<String>` is always safe to move if there are no other references to it. We +need a way to tell the compiler that it’s actually just fine to move items +around in cases such as these. For that, we have `Unpin`. + +`Unpin` is a marker trait, similar to the `Send` and `Sync` traits we saw in +Chapter 16. Recall that marker traits have no functionality of their own. They +exist only to tell the compiler that it’s safe to use the type which implements +a given trait in a particular context. `Unpin` informs the compiler that a given +type does *not* need to uphold any particular guarantees about whether the value +in question can be moved. + +Just as with `Send` and `Sync`, the compiler implements `Unpin` automatically +for all types where it can prove it is safe. Implementing `Unpin` manually is +unsafe because it requires *you* to uphold all the guarantees which make `Pin` +and `Unpin` safe yourself for a type with internal references. In practice, +this is a very rare thing to implement yourself! + +To make that concrete, think about a `String`: it has a length and the Unicode +characters which make it up. We can wrap a `String` in `Pin`, as seen in Figure +17-7. However + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-08.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-8: Pinning a String, with a dotted line indicating that the String implements the `Unpin` trait, so it is not pinned.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +This means that we can do things such as replace one string with another at the +exact same location in memory as in Figure 17-9. This doesn’t violate the `Pin` +contract because `String`—like most other types in Rust—implements `Unpin`, +because it has no internal references that make it unsafe to move around! + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-09.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-9: Replacing the String with an entirely different String in memory.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +Now we know enough to understand the errors reported for that `join_all` call +from back in Listing 17-17. We originally tried to move the futures produced by +async blocks into a `Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>`, but as we’ve seen, +those futures may have internal references, so they don’t implement `Unpin`. +They need to be pinned, and then we can pass the `Pin` type into the `Vec`, +confident that the underlying data in the futures will *not* be moved. + +`Pin` and `Unpin` are mostly important for building lower-level libraries, or +when you’re building a runtime itself, rather than for day to day Rust code. +When you see these traits in error messages, though, now you’ll have a better +idea of how to fix the code! + +> Note: This combination of `Pin` and `Unpin` allows a whole class of complex +> types to be safe in Rust which are otherwise difficult to implement because +> they’re self-referential. Types which require `Pin` show up *most* commonly +> in async Rust today, but you might—very rarely!—see it in other contexts, too. +> +> The specifics of how `Pin` and `Unpin` work, and the rules they’re required +> to uphold, are covered extensively in the API documentation for `std::pin`, so +> if you’d like to understand them more deeply, that’s a great place to start. +> +> If you want to understand how things work “under the hood” in even more +> detail, the official [_Asynchronous Programming in Rust_][async-book] book has +> you covered: +> +> - [Chapter 2: Under the Hood: Executing Futures and Tasks][under-the-hood] +> - [Chapter 4: Pinning][pinning] + +### The Stream Trait + +Now that we have a deeper grasp on the `Future`, `Pin`, and `Unpin` traits, we +can turn our attention to the `Stream` trait. As described in the section +introducing streams, streams are similar to asynchronous iterators. Unlike +`Iterator` and `Future`, there is no definition of a `Stream` trait in the +standard library as of the time of writing, but there *is* a very common +definition from the `futures` crate used throughout the ecosystem. + +Let’s review the definitions of the `Iterator` and `Future` traits, so we can +build up to how a `Stream` trait that merges them together might look. From +`Iterator`, we have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an +`Option<Self::Item>`. From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: +its `poll` method provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of +items which become ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait which puts those +features together: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_> + ) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>>; +} +``` + +The `Stream` trait defines an associated type `Item` for the type of the items +produced by the stream. This is similar to `Iterator`: there may be zero to +many of these, and unlike `Future`, where there is always a single `Output` +(even if it’s the unit type `()`). + +`Stream` also defines a method to get those items. We call it `poll_next`, to +make it clear that it polls in the same way `Future::poll` does and produces a +sequence of items in the same way `Iterator::next` does. Its return type +combines `Poll` with `Option`. The outer type is `Poll`, because it has to be +checked for readiness, just as a future does. The inner type is `Option`, +because it needs to signal whether there are more messages, just as an iterator +does. + +Something very similar to this will likely end up standardized as part of Rust’s +standard library. In the meantime, it’s part of the toolkit of most runtimes, +so you can rely on it, and everything we cover below should generally apply! + +In the example we saw in the section on streaming, though, we didn’t use +`poll_next` *or* `Stream`, but instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We *could* +work directly in terms of the `poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` +state machines, of course, just as we *could* work with futures directly via +their `poll` method. Using `await` is much nicer, though, so the `StreamExt` +trait supplies the `next` method so we can do just that. + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs:here}} +``` + +<!-- +TODO: update this if/when tokio/etc. update their MSRV and switch to using async functions +in traits, since the lack thereof is the reason they do not yet have this. +--> + +> Note: The actual definition we used earlier in the chapter looks slightly +> different than this, because it supports versions of Rust which did not yet +> support using async functions in traits. As a result, it looks like this: +> +> ```rust,ignore +> fn next(&mut self) -> Next<'_, Self> where Self: Unpin; +> ``` +> +> That `Next` type is a `struct` which implements `Future` and gives a way to +> name the lifetime of the reference to `self` with `Next<'_, Self>`, so that +> `await` can work with this method! + +The `StreamExt` trait is also the home of all the interesting methods available +to use with streams. `StreamExt` is automatically implemented for every type +which implements `Stream`, but these traits are defined separately so that the +community can iterate on the foundational trait distinctly from the convenience +APIs. + +In the version of `StreamExt` used in the `trpl` crate, the trait not only +defines the `next` method, it also supplies an implementation of `next`, which +correctly handles the details of calling `Stream::poll_next`. This means that +even when you need to write your own streaming data type, you *only* have to +implement `Stream`, and then anyone who uses your data type can use `StreamExt` +and its methods with it automatically. + +[futures-syntax]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html +[counting]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html +[async-book]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/ +[under-the-hood]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/02_execution/01_chapter.html +[pinning]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/04_pinning/01_chapter.html +[first-async]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program + +That’s all we’re going to cover for the lower-level details on these traits. To +wrap up, let’s consider how futures (including streams), tasks, and threads all +fit together! diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bda617738 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md @@ -0,0 +1,141 @@ +## Futures, Tasks, and Threads + +As we saw in the previous chapter, threads provide one approach to concurrency. +We’ve seen another approach to concurrency in this chapter, using async with +futures and streams. You might be wondering why you would choose one or the +other. The answer is: it depends! And in many cases, the choice isn’t threads +*or* async but rather threads *and* async. + +Many operating systems have supplied threading-based concurrency models for +decades now, and many programming languages have support for them as a result. +However, they are not without their tradeoffs. On many operating systems, they +use a fair bit of memory for each thread, and they come with some overhead for +starting up and shutting down. Threads are also only an option when your +operating system and hardware support them! Unlike mainstream desktop and mobile +computers, some embedded systems don’t have an OS at all, so they also don’t +have threads! + +The async model provides a different—and ultimately complementary—set of +tradeoffs. In the async model, concurrent operations don’t require their own +threads. Instead, they can run on tasks, as when we used `trpl::spawn_task` to +kick off work from a synchronous function throughout the streams section. A task +is similar to a thread, but instead of being managed by the operating system, +it’s managed by library-level code: the runtime. + +In the previous section, we saw that we could build a `Stream` by using an async +channel and spawning an async task which we could call from synchronous code. We +could do the exact same thing with a thread! In Listing 17-40, we used +`trpl::spawn_task` and `trpl::sleep`. In Listing 17-41, we replace those with +the `thread::spawn` and `thread::sleep` APIs from the standard library in the +`get_intervals` function. + +<Listing number="17-41" caption="Using the `std::thread` APIs instead of the async `trpl` APIs for the `get_intervals` function" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs:threads}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If you run this, the output is identical. And notice how little changes here +from the perspective of the calling code! What’s more, even though one of our +functions spawned an async task on the runtime and the other spawned an +OS thread, the resulting streams were unaffected by the differences. + +Despite the similarities, these two approaches behave very differently, although +we might have a hard time measuring it in this very simple example. We could +spawn millions of async tasks on any modern personal computer. If we tried to do +that with threads, we would literally run out of memory! + +However, there’s a reason these APIs are so similar. Threads act as a boundary +for sets of synchronous operations; concurrency is possible *between* threads. +Tasks act as a boundary for sets of *asynchronous* operations; concurrency is +possible both *between* and *within* tasks, because a task can switch between +futures in its body. Finally, futures are Rust’s most granular unit of +concurrency, and each future may represent a tree of other futures. The +runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, and tasks manage futures. In +that regard, tasks are similar to lightweight, runtime-managed threads with +added capabilities that come from being managed by a runtime instead of by the +operating system. + +This doesn’t mean that async tasks are always better than threads, any more than +that threads are always better than tasks. + +Concurrency with threads is in some ways a simpler programming model than +concurrency with `async`. That can be a strength or a weakness. Threads are +somewhat “fire and forget,” they have no native equivalent to a future, so they +simply run to completion, without interruption except by the operating system +itself. That is, they have no built-in support for *intra-task concurrency* the +way futures do. Threads in Rust also have no mechanisms for cancellation—a +subject we haven’t covered in depth in this chapter, but which is implicit in +the fact that whenever we ended a future, its state got cleaned up correctly. + +These limitations also make threads harder to compose than futures. It’s much +more difficult, for example, to use threads to build helpers such as the +`timeout` we built in [“Building Our Own Async Abstractions”][combining-futures] +or the `throttle` method we used with streams in [“Composing Streams”][streams]. +The fact that futures are richer data structures means they can be composed +together more naturally, as we have seen. + +Tasks then give *additional* control over futures, allowing you to choose where +and how to group the futures. And it turns out that threads and tasks often +work very well together, because tasks can (at least in some runtimes) be moved +around between threads. We haven’t mentioned it up until now, but under the +hood the `Runtime` we have been using, including the `spawn_blocking` and +`spawn_task` functions, is multithreaded by default! Many runtimes use an +approach called *work stealing* to transparently move tasks around between +threads based on the current utilization of the threads, with the aim of +improving the overall performance of the system. To build that actually requires +threads *and* tasks, and therefore futures. + +As a default way of thinking about which to use when: + +- If the task is *very parallelizable*, such as processing a bunch of data where + each part can be processed separately, threads are a better choice. +- If the task is *very concurrent*, such as handling messages from a bunch of + different sources which may come in a different intervals or different rates, + async is a better choice. + +And if you need some mix of parallelism and concurrency, you don’t have to +choose between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each +one serve the part it is best at. For example, Listing 17-42 shows a fairly +common example of this kind of mix in real-world Rust code. + +<Listing number="17-42" caption="Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the messages in an async block" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We begin by creating an async channel. Then we spawn a thread which takes +ownership of the sender side of the channel. Within the thread, we send the +numbers 1 through 10, and sleep for a second in between each. Finally, we run a +future created with an async block passed to `trpl::run` just as we have +throughout the chapter. In that future, we await those messages, just as in +the other message-passing examples we have seen. + +To return to the examples we opened the chapter with: you could imagine running +a set of video encoding tasks using a dedicated thread, because video encoding +is compute bound, but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an +async channel. Examples of this kind of mix abound! + +## Summary + +This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the project in +Chapter 21 will use the concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation +than the smaller examples discussed here—and compare more directly what it looks +like to solve these kinds of problems with threading vs. with tasks and futures. + +Whether with threads, with futures and tasks, or with the combination of them +all, Rust gives you the tools you need to write safe, fast, concurrent +code—whether for a high-throughput web server or an embedded operating system. + +Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions +as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms +relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. + + +[combining-futures]: ch17-03-more-futures.html#building-our-own-async-abstractions +[streams]: ch17-04-streams.html#composing-streams diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch18-00-oop.md similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch17-00-oop.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch18-00-oop.md diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md similarity index 92% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md index 4a11b7cc0..8e81826b9 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md @@ -41,33 +41,32 @@ can define a struct `AveragedCollection` that has a field containing a vector of `i32` values. The struct can also have a field that contains the average of the values in the vector, meaning the average doesn’t have to be computed on demand whenever anyone needs it. In other words, `AveragedCollection` will -cache the calculated average for us. Listing 17-1 has the definition of the +cache the calculated average for us. Listing 18-1 has the definition of the `AveragedCollection` struct: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-1" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Listing 18-1: An `AveragedCollection` struct that maintains a list of integers and the average of the items in the collection"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-1: An `AveragedCollection` struct that -maintains a list of integers and the average of the items in the -collection</span> +</Listing> The struct is marked `pub` so that other code can use it, but the fields within the struct remain private. This is important in this case because we want to ensure that whenever a value is added or removed from the list, the average is also updated. We do this by implementing `add`, `remove`, and `average` methods -on the struct, as shown in Listing 17-2: +on the struct, as shown in Listing 18-2: + +<Listing number="18-2" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Listing 18-2: Implementations of the public methods `add`, `remove`, and `average` on `AveragedCollection`"> <span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-2: Implementations of the public methods -`add`, `remove`, and `average` on `AveragedCollection`</span> +</Listing> The public methods `add`, `remove`, and `average` are the only ways to access or modify data in an instance of `AveragedCollection`. When an item is added diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md similarity index 79% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md index 2d3fea24a..6f05a4e0d 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md @@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ implementing our specified trait and a table used to look up trait methods on that type at runtime. We create a trait object by specifying some sort of pointer, such as a `&` reference or a `Box<T>` smart pointer, then the `dyn` keyword, and then specifying the relevant trait. (We’ll talk about the reason -trait objects must use a pointer in Chapter 19 in the section [“Dynamically +trait objects must use a pointer in Chapter 20 in the section [“Dynamically Sized Types and the `Sized` Trait.”][dynamically-sized]<!-- ignore -->) We can use trait objects in place of a generic or concrete type. Wherever we use a trait object, Rust’s type system will ensure at compile time that any value @@ -63,60 +63,56 @@ a trait object. Trait objects aren’t as generally useful as objects in other languages: their specific purpose is to allow abstraction across common behavior. -Listing 17-3 shows how to define a trait named `Draw` with one method named +Listing 18-3 shows how to define a trait named `Draw` with one method named `draw`: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-3" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Definition of the `Draw` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-3: Definition of the `Draw` trait</span> +</Listing> This syntax should look familiar from our discussions on how to define traits -in Chapter 10. Next comes some new syntax: Listing 17-4 defines a struct named +in Chapter 10. Next comes some new syntax: Listing 18-4 defines a struct named `Screen` that holds a vector named `components`. This vector is of type `Box<dyn Draw>`, which is a trait object; it’s a stand-in for any type inside a `Box` that implements the `Draw` trait. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-4" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Definition of the `Screen` struct with a `components` field holding a vector of trait objects that implement the `Draw` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-4: Definition of the `Screen` struct with a -`components` field holding a vector of trait objects that implement the `Draw` -trait</span> +</Listing> On the `Screen` struct, we’ll define a method named `run` that will call the -`draw` method on each of its `components`, as shown in Listing 17-5: +`draw` method on each of its `components`, as shown in Listing 18-5: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-5" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A `run` method on `Screen` that calls the `draw` method on each component"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-5: A `run` method on `Screen` that calls the -`draw` method on each component</span> +</Listing> This works differently from defining a struct that uses a generic type parameter with trait bounds. A generic type parameter can only be substituted with one concrete type at a time, whereas trait objects allow for multiple concrete types to fill in for the trait object at runtime. For example, we could have defined the `Screen` struct using a generic type and a trait bound -as in Listing 17-6: +as in Listing 18-6: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-6" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="An alternate implementation of the `Screen` struct and its `run` method using generics and trait bounds"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-6: An alternate implementation of the `Screen` -struct and its `run` method using generics and trait bounds</span> +</Listing> This restricts us to a `Screen` instance that has a list of components all of type `Button` or all of type `TextField`. If you’ll only ever have homogeneous @@ -134,16 +130,15 @@ Now we’ll add some types that implement the `Draw` trait. We’ll provide the `Button` type. Again, actually implementing a GUI library is beyond the scope of this book, so the `draw` method won’t have any useful implementation in its body. To imagine what the implementation might look like, a `Button` struct -might have fields for `width`, `height`, and `label`, as shown in Listing 17-7: +might have fields for `width`, `height`, and `label`, as shown in Listing 18-7: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-7" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A `Button` struct that implements the `Draw` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-7: A `Button` struct that implements the -`Draw` trait</span> +</Listing> The `width`, `height`, and `label` fields on `Button` will differ from the fields on other components; for example, a `TextField` type might have those @@ -157,31 +152,29 @@ types like `TextField`. If someone using our library decides to implement a `SelectBox` struct that has `width`, `height`, and `options` fields, they implement the `Draw` trait on the -`SelectBox` type as well, as shown in Listing 17-8: +`SelectBox` type as well, as shown in Listing 18-8: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-8" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Another crate using `gui` and implementing the `Draw` trait on a `SelectBox` struct"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-8: Another crate using `gui` and implementing -the `Draw` trait on a `SelectBox` struct</span> +</Listing> Our library’s user can now write their `main` function to create a `Screen` instance. To the `Screen` instance, they can add a `SelectBox` and a `Button` by putting each in a `Box<T>` to become a trait object. They can then call the `run` method on the `Screen` instance, which will call `draw` on each of the -components. Listing 17-9 shows this implementation: +components. Listing 18-9 shows this implementation: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-9" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Using trait objects to store values of different types that implement the same trait"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-9: Using trait objects to store values of -different types that implement the same trait</span> +</Listing> When we wrote the library, we didn’t know that someone might add the `SelectBox` type, but our `Screen` implementation was able to operate on the @@ -192,7 +185,7 @@ This concept—of being concerned only with the messages a value responds to rather than the value’s concrete type—is similar to the concept of *duck typing* in dynamically typed languages: if it walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, then it must be a duck! In the implementation of `run` on `Screen` -in Listing 17-5, `run` doesn’t need to know what the concrete type of each +in Listing 18-5, `run` doesn’t need to know what the concrete type of each component is. It doesn’t check whether a component is an instance of a `Button` or a `SelectBox`, it just calls the `draw` method on the component. By specifying `Box<dyn Draw>` as the type of the values in the `components` @@ -205,22 +198,21 @@ value implements a particular method at runtime or worry about getting errors if a value doesn’t implement a method but we call it anyway. Rust won’t compile our code if the values don’t implement the traits that the trait objects need. -For example, Listing 17-10 shows what happens if we try to create a `Screen` +For example, Listing 18-10 shows what happens if we try to create a `Screen` with a `String` as a component: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-10" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Attempting to use a type that doesn’t implement the trait object’s trait"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-10: Attempting to use a type that doesn’t -implement the trait object’s trait</span> +</Listing> We’ll get this error because `String` doesn’t implement the `Draw` trait: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/output.txt}} ``` This error lets us know that either we’re passing something to `Screen` we @@ -248,9 +240,9 @@ runtime, Rust uses the pointers inside the trait object to know which method to call. This lookup incurs a runtime cost that doesn’t occur with static dispatch. Dynamic dispatch also prevents the compiler from choosing to inline a method’s code, which in turn prevents some optimizations. However, we did get -extra flexibility in the code that we wrote in Listing 17-5 and were able to -support in Listing 17-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. +extra flexibility in the code that we wrote in Listing 18-5 and were able to +support in Listing 18-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. [performance-of-code-using-generics]: ch10-01-syntax.html#performance-of-code-using-generics -[dynamically-sized]: ch19-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait +[dynamically-sized]: ch20-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md similarity index 85% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 13503ef02..683528c5d 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -36,18 +36,17 @@ Any other changes attempted on a post should have no effect. For example, if we try to approve a draft blog post before we’ve requested a review, the post should remain an unpublished draft. -Listing 17-11 shows this workflow in code form: this is an example usage of the +Listing 18-11 shows this workflow in code form: this is an example usage of the API we’ll implement in a library crate named `blog`. This won’t compile yet because we haven’t implemented the `blog` crate. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Code that demonstrates the desired behavior we want our `blog` crate to have"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:all}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs:all}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-11: Code that demonstrates the desired -behavior we want our `blog` crate to have</span> +</Listing> We want to allow the user to create a new draft blog post with `Post::new`. We want to allow text to be added to the blog post. If we try to get the post’s @@ -76,7 +75,7 @@ make a mistake with the states, like publishing a post before it’s reviewed. Let’s get started on the implementation of the library! We know we need a public `Post` struct that holds some content, so we’ll start with the definition of the struct and an associated public `new` function to create an -instance of `Post`, as shown in Listing 17-12. We’ll also make a private +instance of `Post`, as shown in Listing 18-12. We’ll also make a private `State` trait that will define the behavior that all state objects for a `Post` must have. @@ -84,15 +83,13 @@ Then `Post` will hold a trait object of `Box<dyn State>` inside an `Option<T>` in a private field named `state` to hold the state object. You’ll see why the `Option<T>` is necessary in a bit. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-12" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Definition of a `Post` struct and a `new` function that creates a new `Post` instance, a `State` trait, and a `Draft` struct"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-12: Definition of a `Post` struct and a `new` -function that creates a new `Post` instance, a `State` trait, and a `Draft` -struct</span> +</Listing> The `State` trait defines the behavior shared by different post states. The state objects are `Draft`, `PendingReview`, and `Published`, and they will all @@ -109,22 +106,21 @@ create a `Post` in any other state! In the `Post::new` function, we set the ### Storing the Text of the Post Content -We saw in Listing 17-11 that we want to be able to call a method named +We saw in Listing 18-11 that we want to be able to call a method named `add_text` and pass it a `&str` that is then added as the text content of the blog post. We implement this as a method, rather than exposing the `content` field as `pub`, so that later we can implement a method that will control how the `content` field’s data is read. The `add_text` method is pretty -straightforward, so let’s add the implementation in Listing 17-13 to the `impl +straightforward, so let’s add the implementation in Listing 18-13 to the `impl Post` block: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-13" fie-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing the `add_text` method to add text to a post’s `content`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-13: Implementing the `add_text` method to add -text to a post’s `content`</span> +</Listing> The `add_text` method takes a mutable reference to `self`, because we’re changing the `Post` instance that we’re calling `add_text` on. We then call @@ -138,38 +134,36 @@ support. Even after we’ve called `add_text` and added some content to our post, we still want the `content` method to return an empty string slice because the post is -still in the draft state, as shown on line 7 of Listing 17-11. For now, let’s +still in the draft state, as shown on line 7 of Listing 18-11. For now, let’s implement the `content` method with the simplest thing that will fulfill this requirement: always returning an empty string slice. We’ll change this later once we implement the ability to change a post’s state so it can be published. So far, posts can only be in the draft state, so the post content should always -be empty. Listing 17-14 shows this placeholder implementation: +be empty. Listing 18-14 shows this placeholder implementation: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-14" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Adding a placeholder implementation for the `content` method on `Post` that always returns an empty string slice"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-14: Adding a placeholder implementation for -the `content` method on `Post` that always returns an empty string slice</span> +</Listing> -With this added `content` method, everything in Listing 17-11 up to line 7 +With this added `content` method, everything in Listing 18-11 up to line 7 works as intended. ### Requesting a Review of the Post Changes Its State Next, we need to add functionality to request a review of a post, which should -change its state from `Draft` to `PendingReview`. Listing 17-15 shows this code: +change its state from `Draft` to `PendingReview`. Listing 18-15 shows this code: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-15" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing `request_review` methods on `Post` and the `State` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-15: Implementing `request_review` methods on -`Post` and the `State` trait</span> +</Listing> We give `Post` a public method named `request_review` that will take a mutable reference to `self`. Then we call an internal `request_review` method on the @@ -211,7 +205,7 @@ state is responsible for its own rules. We’ll leave the `content` method on `Post` as is, returning an empty string slice. We can now have a `Post` in the `PendingReview` state as well as in the `Draft` state, but we want the same behavior in the `PendingReview` state. -Listing 17-11 now works up to line 10! +Listing 18-11 now works up to line 10! <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="adding-the-approve-method-that-changes-the-behavior-of-content"></a> @@ -220,16 +214,15 @@ Listing 17-11 now works up to line 10! The `approve` method will be similar to the `request_review` method: it will set `state` to the value that the current state says it should have when that -state is approved, as shown in Listing 17-16: +state is approved, as shown in Listing 18-16: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-16" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing the `approve` method on `Post` and the `State` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-16: Implementing the `approve` method on -`Post` and the `State` trait</span> +</Listing> We add the `approve` method to the `State` trait and add a new struct that implements `State`, the `Published` state. @@ -245,16 +238,15 @@ state in those cases. Now we need to update the `content` method on `Post`. We want the value returned from `content` to depend on the current state of the `Post`, so we’re going to have the `Post` delegate to a `content` method defined on its `state`, -as shown in Listing 17-17: +as shown in Listing 18-17: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-17" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Updating the `content` method on `Post` to delegate to a `content` method on `State`"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-17: Updating the `content` method on `Post` to -delegate to a `content` method on `State`</span> +</Listing> Because the goal is to keep all these rules inside the structs that implement `State`, we call a `content` method on the value in `state` and pass the post @@ -280,16 +272,15 @@ will take effect on the `&` and the `Box` so the `content` method will ultimately be called on the type that implements the `State` trait. That means we need to add `content` to the `State` trait definition, and that is where we’ll put the logic for what content to return depending on which state we -have, as shown in Listing 17-18: +have, as shown in Listing 18-18: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-18" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Adding the `content` method to the `State` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-18: Adding the `content` method to the `State` -trait</span> +</Listing> We add a default implementation for the `content` method that returns an empty string slice. That means we don’t need to implement `content` on the `Draft` @@ -301,7 +292,7 @@ Chapter 10. We’re taking a reference to a `post` as an argument and returning reference to part of that `post`, so the lifetime of the returned reference is related to the lifetime of the `post` argument. -And we’re done—all of Listing 17-11 now works! We’ve implemented the state +And we’re done—all of Listing 18-11 now works! We’ve implemented the state pattern with the rules of the blog post workflow. The logic related to the rules lives in the state objects rather than being scattered throughout `Post`. @@ -366,7 +357,7 @@ and `approve` methods on `Post`. Both methods delegate to the implementation of the same method on the value in the `state` field of `Option` and set the new value of the `state` field to the result. If we had a lot of methods on `Post` that followed this pattern, we might consider defining a macro to eliminate the -repetition (see the [“Macros”][macros]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 19). +repetition (see the [“Macros”][macros]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 20). By implementing the state pattern exactly as it’s defined for object-oriented languages, we’re not taking as full advantage of Rust’s strengths as we could. @@ -381,14 +372,16 @@ outside code has no knowledge of them, we’ll encode the states into different types. Consequently, Rust’s type checking system will prevent attempts to use draft posts where only published posts are allowed by issuing a compiler error. -Let’s consider the first part of `main` in Listing 17-11: +Let’s consider the first part of `main` in Listing 18-11: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + We still enable the creation of new posts in the draft state using `Post::new` and the ability to add text to the post’s content. But instead of having a `content` method on a draft post that returns an empty string, we’ll make it so @@ -396,17 +389,16 @@ draft posts don’t have the `content` method at all. That way, if we try to get a draft post’s content, we’ll get a compiler error telling us the method doesn’t exist. As a result, it will be impossible for us to accidentally display draft post content in production, because that code won’t even compile. -Listing 17-19 shows the definition of a `Post` struct and a `DraftPost` struct, +Listing 18-19 shows the definition of a `Post` struct and a `DraftPost` struct, as well as methods on each: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-19" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A `Post` with a `content` method and `DraftPost` without a `content` method"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-19: A `Post` with a `content` method and a -`DraftPost` without a `content` method</span> +</Listing> Both the `Post` and `DraftPost` structs have a private `content` field that stores the blog post text. The structs no longer have the `state` field because @@ -433,17 +425,15 @@ pending review state should still not display any content. Let’s implement these constraints by adding another struct, `PendingReviewPost`, defining the `request_review` method on `DraftPost` to return a `PendingReviewPost`, and defining an `approve` method on `PendingReviewPost` to return a `Post`, as -shown in Listing 17-20: +shown in Listing 18-20: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-20" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A `PendingReviewPost` that gets created by calling `request_review` on `DraftPost` and an `approve` method that turns a `PendingReviewPost` into a published `Post`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-20: A `PendingReviewPost` that gets created by -calling `request_review` on `DraftPost` and an `approve` method that turns a -`PendingReviewPost` into a published `Post`</span> +</Listing> The `request_review` and `approve` methods take ownership of `self`, thus consuming the `DraftPost` and `PendingReviewPost` instances and transforming @@ -463,16 +453,15 @@ called on, so we need to add more `let post =` shadowing assignments to save the returned instances. We also can’t have the assertions about the draft and pending review posts’ contents be empty strings, nor do we need them: we can’t compile code that tries to use the content of posts in those states any longer. -The updated code in `main` is shown in Listing 17-21: +The updated code in `main` is shown in Listing 18-21: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-21" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Modifications to `main` to use the new implementation of the blog post workflow"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-21: Modifications to `main` to use the new -implementation of the blog post workflow</span> +</Listing> The changes we needed to make to `main` to reassign `post` mean that this implementation doesn’t quite follow the object-oriented state pattern anymore: @@ -483,7 +472,7 @@ compile time! This ensures that certain bugs, such as display of the content of an unpublished post, will be discovered before they make it to production. Try the tasks suggested at the start of this section on the `blog` crate as it -is after Listing 17-21 to see what you think about the design of this version +is after Listing 18-21 to see what you think about the design of this version of the code. Note that some of the tasks might be completed already in this design. @@ -513,4 +502,4 @@ lots of flexibility. We’ve looked at them briefly throughout the book but haven’t seen their full capability yet. Let’s go! [more-info-than-rustc]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#cases-in-which-you-have-more-information-than-the-compiler -[macros]: ch19-06-macros.html#macros +[macros]: ch20-06-macros.html#macros diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch19-00-patterns.md similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch18-00-patterns.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch19-00-patterns.md diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md similarity index 78% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md index 58f5af573..30e7135c5 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md @@ -52,25 +52,24 @@ way to write the equivalent of a `match` that only matches one case. Optionally, `if let` can have a corresponding `else` containing code to run if the pattern in the `if let` doesn’t match. -Listing 18-1 shows that it’s also possible to mix and match `if let`, `else +Listing 19-1 shows that it’s also possible to mix and match `if let`, `else if`, and `else if let` expressions. Doing so gives us more flexibility than a `match` expression in which we can express only one value to compare with the patterns. Also, Rust doesn't require that the conditions in a series of `if let`, `else if`, `else if let` arms relate to each other. -The code in Listing 18-1 determines what color to make your background based on +The code in Listing 19-1 determines what color to make your background based on a series of checks for several conditions. For this example, we’ve created variables with hardcoded values that a real program might receive from user input. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Mixing `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, and `else`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-1: Mixing `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, -and `else`</span> +</Listing> If the user specifies a favorite color, that color is used as the background. If no favorite color is specified and today is Tuesday, the background color is @@ -100,15 +99,16 @@ not alert us to the possible logic bug. Similar in construction to `if let`, the `while let` conditional loop allows a `while` loop to run for as long as a pattern continues to match. In Listing -18-2 we code a `while let` loop that uses a vector as a stack and prints the +19-2 we code a `while let` loop that uses a vector as a stack and prints the values in the vector in the opposite order in which they were pushed. +<Listing number="19-2" caption="Using a `while let` loop to print values for as long as `stack.pop()` returns `Some`"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-2: Using a `while let` loop to print values -for as long as `stack.pop()` returns `Some`</span> +</Listing> This example prints 3, 2, and then 1. The `pop` method takes the last element out of the vector and returns `Some(value)`. If the vector is empty, `pop` @@ -119,21 +119,22 @@ use `while let` to pop every element off our stack. ### `for` Loops In a `for` loop, the value that directly follows the keyword `for` is a -pattern. For example, in `for x in y` the `x` is the pattern. Listing 18-3 +pattern. For example, in `for x in y` the `x` is the pattern. Listing 19-3 demonstrates how to use a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure, or break apart, a tuple as part of the `for` loop. +<Listing number="19-3" caption="Using a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure a tuple"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-3: Using a pattern in a `for` loop to -destructure a tuple</span> +</Listing> -The code in Listing 18-3 will print the following: +The code in Listing 19-3 will print the following: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/output.txt}} ``` We adapt an iterator using the `enumerate` method so it produces a value and @@ -169,14 +170,15 @@ the variable `x`.” Because the name `x` is the whole pattern, this pattern effectively means “bind everything to the variable `x`, whatever the value is.” To see the pattern matching aspect of `let` more clearly, consider Listing -18-4, which uses a pattern with `let` to destructure a tuple. +19-4, which uses a pattern with `let` to destructure a tuple. + +<Listing number="19-4" caption="Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and create three variables at once"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-4: Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and -create three variables at once</span> +</Listing> Here, we match a tuple against a pattern. Rust compares the value `(1, 2, 3)` to the pattern `(x, y, z)` and sees that the value matches the pattern, so Rust @@ -185,20 +187,21 @@ pattern as nesting three individual variable patterns inside it. If the number of elements in the pattern doesn’t match the number of elements in the tuple, the overall type won’t match and we’ll get a compiler error. For -example, Listing 18-5 shows an attempt to destructure a tuple with three +example, Listing 19-5 shows an attempt to destructure a tuple with three elements into two variables, which won’t work. +<Listing number="19-5" caption="Incorrectly constructing a pattern whose variables don’t match the number of elements in the tuple"> + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-5: Incorrectly constructing a pattern whose -variables don’t match the number of elements in the tuple</span> +</Listing> Attempting to compile this code results in this type error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/output.txt}} ``` To fix the error, we could ignore one or more of the values in the tuple using @@ -210,29 +213,29 @@ of elements in the tuple. ### Function Parameters -Function parameters can also be patterns. The code in Listing 18-6, which +Function parameters can also be patterns. The code in Listing 19-6, which declares a function named `foo` that takes one parameter named `x` of type `i32`, should by now look familiar. +<Listing number="19-6" caption="A function signature uses patterns in the parameters"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-6: A function signature uses patterns in the -parameters</span> +</Listing> The `x` part is a pattern! As we did with `let`, we could match a tuple in a -function’s arguments to the pattern. Listing 18-7 splits the values in a tuple +function’s arguments to the pattern. Listing 19-7 splits the values in a tuple as we pass it to a function. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-7" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="A function with parameters that destructure a tuple"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-7: A function with parameters that destructure -a tuple</span> +</Listing> This code prints `Current location: (3, 5)`. The values `&(3, 5)` match the pattern `&(x, y)`, so `x` is the value `3` and `y` is the value `5`. @@ -247,4 +250,4 @@ be irrefutable; in other circumstances, they can be refutable. We’ll discuss these two concepts next. [ignoring-values-in-a-pattern]: -ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html#ignoring-values-in-a-pattern +ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html#ignoring-values-in-a-pattern diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch19-02-refutability.md similarity index 80% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch18-02-refutability.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch19-02-refutability.md index c8ca8b576..3601f5d14 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch18-02-refutability.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch19-02-refutability.md @@ -23,16 +23,17 @@ those cases, you’ll need to change either the pattern or the construct you’r using the pattern with, depending on the intended behavior of the code. Let’s look at an example of what happens when we try to use a refutable pattern -where Rust requires an irrefutable pattern and vice versa. Listing 18-8 shows a +where Rust requires an irrefutable pattern and vice versa. Listing 19-8 shows a `let` statement, but for the pattern we’ve specified `Some(x)`, a refutable pattern. As you might expect, this code will not compile. +<Listing number="19-8" caption="Attempting to use a refutable pattern with `let`"> + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-8: Attempting to use a refutable pattern with -`let`</span> +</Listing> If `some_option_value` was a `None` value, it would fail to match the pattern `Some(x)`, meaning the pattern is refutable. However, the `let` statement can @@ -41,7 +42,7 @@ do with a `None` value. At compile time, Rust will complain that we’ve tried t use a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is required: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt}} ``` Because we didn’t cover (and couldn’t cover!) every valid value with the @@ -51,32 +52,34 @@ If we have a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is needed, we can fix it by changing the code that uses the pattern: instead of using `let`, we can use `if let`. Then if the pattern doesn’t match, the code will just skip the code in the curly brackets, giving it a way to continue validly. Listing -18-9 shows how to fix the code in Listing 18-8. +19-9 shows how to fix the code in Listing 19-8. + +<Listing number="19-9" caption="Using `if let` and a block with refutable patterns instead of `let`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-9: Using `if let` and a block with refutable -patterns instead of `let`</span> +</Listing> We’ve given the code an out! This code is perfectly valid now. However, if we give `if let` an irrefutable pattern (a pattern that will always -match), such as `x`, as shown in Listing 18-10, the compiler will give a +match), such as `x`, as shown in Listing 19-10, the compiler will give a warning. +<Listing number="19-10" caption="Attempting to use an irrefutable pattern with `if let`"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-10: Attempting to use an irrefutable pattern -with `if let`</span> +</Listing> Rust complains that it doesn’t make sense to use `if let` with an irrefutable pattern: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/output.txt}} ``` For this reason, match arms must use refutable patterns, except for the last diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md similarity index 78% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md index aeaa766ff..4a471bd67 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ As you saw in Chapter 6, you can match patterns against literals directly. The following code gives some examples: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs:here}} ``` This code prints `one` because the value in `x` is 1. This syntax is useful @@ -23,20 +23,19 @@ them many times in the book. However, there is a complication when you use named variables in `match` expressions. Because `match` starts a new scope, variables declared as part of a pattern inside the `match` expression will shadow those with the same name outside the `match` construct, as is the case -with all variables. In Listing 18-11, we declare a variable named `x` with the +with all variables. In Listing 19-11, we declare a variable named `x` with the value `Some(5)` and a variable `y` with the value `10`. We then create a `match` expression on the value `x`. Look at the patterns in the match arms and `println!` at the end, and try to figure out what the code will print before running this code or reading further. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="A `match` expression with an arm that introduces a shadowed variable `y`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-11: A `match` expression with an arm that -introduces a shadowed variable `y`</span> +</Listing> Let’s walk through what happens when the `match` expression runs. The pattern in the first match arm doesn’t match the defined value of `x`, so the code @@ -75,7 +74,7 @@ meaning if the value of `x` matches either of the values in that arm, that arm’s code will run: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs:here}} ``` This code prints `one or two`. @@ -87,7 +86,7 @@ following code, when a pattern matches any of the values within the given range, that arm will execute: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/src/main.rs:here}} ``` If `x` is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, the first arm will match. This syntax is more @@ -103,7 +102,7 @@ numeric values, ranges are only allowed with numeric or `char` values. Here is an example using ranges of `char` values: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Rust can tell that `'c'` is within the first pattern’s range and prints `early @@ -116,17 +115,16 @@ different parts of these values. Let’s walk through each value. #### Destructuring Structs -Listing 18-12 shows a `Point` struct with two fields, `x` and `y`, that we can +Listing 19-12 shows a `Point` struct with two fields, `x` and `y`, that we can break apart using a pattern with a `let` statement. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-12" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Destructuring a struct’s fields into separate variables"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-12: Destructuring a struct’s fields into -separate variables</span> +</Listing> This code creates the variables `a` and `b` that match the values of the `x` and `y` fields of the `p` struct. This example shows that the names of the @@ -136,18 +134,17 @@ easier to remember which variables came from which fields. Because of this common usage, and because writing `let Point { x: x, y: y } = p;` contains a lot of duplication, Rust has a shorthand for patterns that match struct fields: you only need to list the name of the struct field, and the variables created -from the pattern will have the same names. Listing 18-13 behaves in the same -way as the code in Listing 18-12, but the variables created in the `let` +from the pattern will have the same names. Listing 19-13 behaves in the same +way as the code in Listing 19-12, but the variables created in the `let` pattern are `x` and `y` instead of `a` and `b`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-13" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Destructuring struct fields using struct field shorthand"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-13: Destructuring struct fields using struct -field shorthand</span> +</Listing> This code creates the variables `x` and `y` that match the `x` and `y` fields of the `p` variable. The outcome is that the variables `x` and `y` contain the @@ -158,18 +155,17 @@ rather than creating variables for all the fields. Doing so allows us to test some of the fields for particular values while creating variables to destructure the other fields. -In Listing 18-14, we have a `match` expression that separates `Point` values +In Listing 19-14, we have a `match` expression that separates `Point` values into three cases: points that lie directly on the `x` axis (which is true when `y = 0`), on the `y` axis (`x = 0`), or neither. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-14" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Destructuring and matching literal values in one pattern"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-14: Destructuring and matching literal values -in one pattern</span> +</Listing> The first arm will match any point that lies on the `x` axis by specifying that the `y` field matches if its value matches the literal `0`. The pattern still @@ -192,17 +188,16 @@ and the `y` axis, this code would only print `On the x axis at 0`. We've destructured enums in this book (for example, Listing 6-5 in Chapter 6), but haven’t yet explicitly discussed that the pattern to destructure an enum corresponds to the way the data stored within the enum is defined. As an -example, in Listing 18-15 we use the `Message` enum from Listing 6-2 and write +example, in Listing 19-15 we use the `Message` enum from Listing 6-2 and write a `match` with patterns that will destructure each inner value. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-15" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Destructuring enum variants that hold different kinds of values"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-15: Destructuring enum variants that hold -different kinds of values</span> +</Listing> This code will print `Change the color to red 0, green 160, and blue 255`. Try changing the value of `msg` to see the code from the other arms run. @@ -215,7 +210,7 @@ For struct-like enum variants, such as `Message::Move`, we can use a pattern similar to the pattern we specify to match structs. After the variant name, we place curly brackets and then list the fields with variables so we break apart the pieces to use in the code for this arm. Here we use the shorthand form as -we did in Listing 18-13. +we did in Listing 19-13. For tuple-like enum variants, like `Message::Write` that holds a tuple with one element and `Message::ChangeColor` that holds a tuple with three elements, the @@ -227,14 +222,16 @@ matching. So far, our examples have all been matching structs or enums one level deep, but matching can work on nested items too! For example, we can refactor the -code in Listing 18-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor` -message, as shown in Listing 18-16. +code in Listing 19-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor` +message, as shown in Listing 19-16. + +<Listing number="19-16" caption="Matching on nested enums"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-16: Matching on nested enums</span> +</Listing> The pattern of the first arm in the `match` expression matches a `Message::ChangeColor` enum variant that contains a `Color::Rgb` variant; then @@ -250,7 +247,7 @@ The following example shows a complicated destructure where we nest structs and tuples inside a tuple and destructure all the primitive values out: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs:here}} ``` This code lets us break complex types into their component parts so we can use @@ -274,15 +271,15 @@ parts of a value. Let’s explore how and why to use each of these patterns. We’ve used the underscore as a wildcard pattern that will match any value but not bind to the value. This is especially useful as the last arm in a `match` expression, but we can also use it in any pattern, including function -parameters, as shown in Listing 18-17. +parameters, as shown in Listing 19-17. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-17" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Using `_` in a function signature"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-17: Using `_` in a function signature</span> +</Listing> This code will completely ignore the value `3` passed as the first argument, and will print `This code only uses the y parameter: 4`. @@ -299,18 +296,18 @@ would if you used a name instead. We can also use `_` inside another pattern to ignore just part of a value, for example, when we want to test for only part of a value but have no use for the -other parts in the corresponding code we want to run. Listing 18-18 shows code +other parts in the corresponding code we want to run. Listing 19-18 shows code responsible for managing a setting’s value. The business requirements are that the user should not be allowed to overwrite an existing customization of a setting but can unset the setting and give it a value if it is currently unset. +<Listing number="19-18" caption=" Using an underscore within patterns that match `Some` variants when we don’t need to use the value inside the `Some`"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-18: Using an underscore within patterns that -match `Some` variants when we don’t need to use the value inside the -`Some`</span> +</Listing> This code will print `Can't overwrite an existing customized value` and then `setting is Some(5)`. In the first match arm, we don’t need to match on or use @@ -324,14 +321,16 @@ In all other cases (if either `setting_value` or `new_setting_value` are `new_setting_value` to become `setting_value`. We can also use underscores in multiple places within one pattern to ignore -particular values. Listing 18-19 shows an example of ignoring the second and +particular values. Listing 19-19 shows an example of ignoring the second and fourth values in a tuple of five items. +<Listing number="19-19" caption="Ignoring multiple parts of a tuple"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-19: Ignoring multiple parts of a tuple</span> +</Listing> This code will print `Some numbers: 2, 8, 32`, and the values 4 and 16 will be ignored. @@ -343,17 +342,16 @@ warning because an unused variable could be a bug. However, sometimes it’s useful to be able to create a variable you won’t use yet, such as when you’re prototyping or just starting a project. In this situation, you can tell Rust not to warn you about the unused variable by starting the name of the variable -with an underscore. In Listing 18-20, we create two unused variables, but when +with an underscore. In Listing 19-20, we create two unused variables, but when we compile this code, we should only get a warning about one of them. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-20" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Starting a variable name with an underscore to avoid getting unused variable warnings"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-20: Starting a variable name with an -underscore to avoid getting unused variable warnings</span> +</Listing> Here we get a warning about not using the variable `y`, but we don’t get a warning about not using `_x`. @@ -361,26 +359,28 @@ warning about not using `_x`. Note that there is a subtle difference between using only `_` and using a name that starts with an underscore. The syntax `_x` still binds the value to the variable, whereas `_` doesn’t bind at all. To show a case where this -distinction matters, Listing 18-21 will provide us with an error. +distinction matters, Listing 19-21 will provide us with an error. + +<Listing number="19-21" caption="An unused variable starting with an underscore still binds the value, which might take ownership of the value"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-21: An unused variable starting with an -underscore still binds the value, which might take ownership of the value</span> +</Listing> We’ll receive an error because the `s` value will still be moved into `_s`, which prevents us from using `s` again. However, using the underscore by itself -doesn’t ever bind to the value. Listing 18-22 will compile without any errors +doesn’t ever bind to the value. Listing 19-22 will compile without any errors because `s` doesn’t get moved into `_`. +<Listing number="19-22" caption="Using an underscore does not bind the value"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-22: Using an underscore does not bind the -value</span> +</Listing> This code works just fine because we never bind `s` to anything; it isn’t moved. @@ -389,56 +389,55 @@ This code works just fine because we never bind `s` to anything; it isn’t move With values that have many parts, we can use the `..` syntax to use specific parts and ignore the rest, avoiding the need to list underscores for each ignored value. The `..` pattern ignores any parts of a value that we haven’t -explicitly matched in the rest of the pattern. In Listing 18-23, we have a +explicitly matched in the rest of the pattern. In Listing 19-23, we have a `Point` struct that holds a coordinate in three-dimensional space. In the `match` expression, we want to operate only on the `x` coordinate and ignore the values in the `y` and `z` fields. +<Listing number="19-23" caption="Ignoring all fields of a `Point` except for `x` by using `..`"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-23: Ignoring all fields of a `Point` except -for `x` by using `..`</span> +</Listing> We list the `x` value and then just include the `..` pattern. This is quicker than having to list `y: _` and `z: _`, particularly when we’re working with structs that have lots of fields in situations where only one or two fields are relevant. -The syntax `..` will expand to as many values as it needs to be. Listing 18-24 +The syntax `..` will expand to as many values as it needs to be. Listing 19-24 shows how to use `..` with a tuple. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-24" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Matching only the first and last values in a tuple and ignoring all other values"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-24: Matching only the first and last values in -a tuple and ignoring all other values</span> +</Listing> In this code, the first and last value are matched with `first` and `last`. The `..` will match and ignore everything in the middle. However, using `..` must be unambiguous. If it is unclear which values are intended for matching and which should be ignored, Rust will give us an error. -Listing 18-25 shows an example of using `..` ambiguously, so it will not +Listing 19-25 shows an example of using `..` ambiguously, so it will not compile. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-25" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="An attempt to use `..` in an ambiguous way"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-25: An attempt to use `..` in an ambiguous -way</span> +</Listing> When we compile this example, we get this error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/output.txt}} ``` It’s impossible for Rust to determine how many values in the tuple to ignore @@ -455,15 +454,17 @@ A *match guard* is an additional `if` condition, specified after the pattern in a `match` arm, that must also match for that arm to be chosen. Match guards are useful for expressing more complex ideas than a pattern alone allows. -The condition can use variables created in the pattern. Listing 18-26 shows a +The condition can use variables created in the pattern. Listing 19-26 shows a `match` where the first arm has the pattern `Some(x)` and also has a match guard of `if x % 2 == 0` (which will be true if the number is even). +<Listing number="19-26" caption="Adding a match guard to a pattern"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-26: Adding a match guard to a pattern</span> +</Listing> This example will print `The number 4 is even`. When `num` is compared to the pattern in the first arm, it matches, because `Some(4)` matches `Some(x)`. Then @@ -480,21 +481,20 @@ the match guard gives us the ability to express this logic. The downside of this additional expressiveness is that the compiler doesn't try to check for exhaustiveness when match guard expressions are involved. -In Listing 18-11, we mentioned that we could use match guards to solve our +In Listing 19-11, we mentioned that we could use match guards to solve our pattern-shadowing problem. Recall that we created a new variable inside the pattern in the `match` expression instead of using the variable outside the `match`. That new variable meant we couldn’t test against the value of the -outer variable. Listing 18-27 shows how we can use a match guard to fix this +outer variable. Listing 19-27 shows how we can use a match guard to fix this problem. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-27" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Using a match guard to test for equality with an outer variable"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-27/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-27/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-27: Using a match guard to test for equality -with an outer variable</span> +</Listing> This code will now print `Default case, x = Some(5)`. The pattern in the second match arm doesn’t introduce a new variable `y` that would shadow the outer `y`, @@ -510,17 +510,18 @@ we can look for a value that has the same value as the outer `y` by comparing You can also use the *or* operator `|` in a match guard to specify multiple patterns; the match guard condition will apply to all the patterns. Listing -18-28 shows the precedence when combining a pattern that uses `|` with a match +19-28 shows the precedence when combining a pattern that uses `|` with a match guard. The important part of this example is that the `if y` match guard applies to `4`, `5`, *and* `6`, even though it might look like `if y` only applies to `6`. +<Listing number="19-28" caption="Combining multiple patterns with a match guard"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-28/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-28/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-28: Combining multiple patterns with a match -guard</span> +</Listing> The match condition states that the arm only matches if the value of `x` is equal to `4`, `5`, or `6` *and* if `y` is `true`. When this code runs, the @@ -549,18 +550,19 @@ were applied only to the final value in the list of values specified using the ### `@` Bindings The *at* operator `@` lets us create a variable that holds a value at the same -time as we’re testing that value for a pattern match. In Listing 18-29, we want +time as we’re testing that value for a pattern match. In Listing 19-29, we want to test that a `Message::Hello` `id` field is within the range `3..=7`. We also want to bind the value to the variable `id_variable` so we can use it in the code associated with the arm. We could name this variable `id`, the same as the field, but for this example we’ll use a different name. +<Listing number="19-29" caption="Using `@` to bind to a value in a pattern while also testing it"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-29/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-29/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-29: Using `@` to bind to a value in a pattern -while also testing it</span> +</Listing> This example will print `Found an id in range: 5`. By specifying `id_variable @` before the range `3..=7`, we’re capturing whatever value matched the range diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md similarity index 94% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md index a0db41fde..3e612d2af 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ # Advanced Features By now, you’ve learned the most commonly used parts of the Rust programming -language. Before we do one more project in Chapter 20, we’ll look at a few +language. Before we do one more project in Chapter 21, we’ll look at a few aspects of the language you might run into every once in a while, but may not use every day. You can use this chapter as a reference for when you encounter any unknowns. The features covered here are useful in very specific situations. diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md similarity index 87% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md index a8133ca8e..ae4e674f1 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md @@ -88,14 +88,16 @@ By opting out of having Rust enforce these guarantees, you can give up guaranteed safety in exchange for greater performance or the ability to interface with another language or hardware where Rust’s guarantees don’t apply. -Listing 19-1 shows how to create an immutable and a mutable raw pointer from +Listing 20-1 shows how to create an immutable and a mutable raw pointer from references. +<Listing number="20-1" caption="Creating raw pointers from references"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-1: Creating raw pointers from references</span> +</Listing> Notice that we don’t include the `unsafe` keyword in this code. We can create raw pointers in safe code; we just can’t dereference raw pointers outside an @@ -108,35 +110,37 @@ pointers are valid, but we can’t make that assumption about just any raw pointer. To demonstrate this, next we’ll create a raw pointer whose validity we can’t be -so certain of. Listing 19-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary +so certain of. Listing 20-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary location in memory. Trying to use arbitrary memory is undefined: there might be data at that address or there might not, the compiler might optimize the code so there is no memory access, or the program might error with a segmentation fault. Usually, there is no good reason to write code like this, but it is possible. +<Listing number="20-2" caption="Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary memory address"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-2: Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary -memory address</span> +</Listing> Recall that we can create raw pointers in safe code, but we can’t *dereference* -raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. In Listing 19-3, we use the +raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. In Listing 20-3, we use the dereference operator `*` on a raw pointer that requires an `unsafe` block. +<Listing number="20-3" caption="Dereferencing raw pointers within an `unsafe` block"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-3: Dereferencing raw pointers within an -`unsafe` block</span> +</Listing> Creating a pointer does no harm; it’s only when we try to access the value that it points at that we might end up dealing with an invalid value. -Note also that in Listing 19-1 and 19-3, we created `*const i32` and `*mut i32` +Note also that in Listing 20-1 and 20-3, we created `*const i32` and `*mut i32` raw pointers that both pointed to the same memory location, where `num` is stored. If we instead tried to create an immutable and a mutable reference to `num`, the code would not have compiled because Rust’s ownership rules don’t @@ -168,14 +172,14 @@ Here is an unsafe function named `dangerous` that doesn’t do anything in its body: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs:here}} ``` We must call the `dangerous` function within a separate `unsafe` block. If we try to call `dangerous` without the `unsafe` block, we’ll get an error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt}} ``` With the `unsafe` block, we’re asserting to Rust that we’ve read the function’s @@ -194,26 +198,28 @@ a common abstraction. As an example, let’s study the `split_at_mut` function from the standard library, which requires some unsafe code. We’ll explore how we might implement it. This safe method is defined on mutable slices: it takes one slice and makes it two by splitting the slice at the index given as an -argument. Listing 19-4 shows how to use `split_at_mut`. +argument. Listing 20-4 shows how to use `split_at_mut`. + +<Listing number="20-4" caption="Using the safe `split_at_mut` function"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-4: Using the safe `split_at_mut` -function</span> +</Listing> We can’t implement this function using only safe Rust. An attempt might look -something like Listing 19-5, which won’t compile. For simplicity, we’ll +something like Listing 20-5, which won’t compile. For simplicity, we’ll implement `split_at_mut` as a function rather than a method and only for slices of `i32` values rather than for a generic type `T`. +<Listing number="20-5" caption="An attempted implementation of `split_at_mut` using only safe Rust"> + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-5: An attempted implementation of -`split_at_mut` using only safe Rust</span> +</Listing> This function first gets the total length of the slice. Then it asserts that the index given as a parameter is within the slice by checking whether it’s @@ -225,10 +231,10 @@ Then we return two mutable slices in a tuple: one from the start of the original slice to the `mid` index and another from `mid` to the end of the slice. -When we try to compile the code in Listing 19-5, we’ll get an error. +When we try to compile the code in Listing 20-5, we’ll get an error. ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/output.txt}} ``` Rust’s borrow checker can’t understand that we’re borrowing different parts of @@ -237,15 +243,16 @@ Borrowing different parts of a slice is fundamentally okay because the two slices aren’t overlapping, but Rust isn’t smart enough to know this. When we know code is okay, but Rust doesn’t, it’s time to reach for unsafe code. -Listing 19-6 shows how to use an `unsafe` block, a raw pointer, and some calls +Listing 20-6 shows how to use an `unsafe` block, a raw pointer, and some calls to unsafe functions to make the implementation of `split_at_mut` work. +<Listing number="20-6" caption="Using unsafe code in the implementation of the `split_at_mut` function"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-6: Using unsafe code in the implementation of -the `split_at_mut` function</span> +</Listing> Recall from [“The Slice Type”][the-slice-type]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 4 that slices are a pointer to some data and the length of the slice. @@ -278,16 +285,17 @@ abstraction to the unsafe code with an implementation of the function that uses `unsafe` code in a safe way, because it creates only valid pointers from the data this function has access to. -In contrast, the use of `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` in Listing 19-7 would +In contrast, the use of `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` in Listing 20-7 would likely crash when the slice is used. This code takes an arbitrary memory location and creates a slice 10,000 items long. +<Listing number="20-7" caption="Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory location"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-7: Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory -location</span> +</Listing> We don’t own the memory at this arbitrary location, and there is no guarantee that the slice this code creates contains valid `i32` values. Attempting to use @@ -301,20 +309,19 @@ and use of a *Foreign Function Interface (FFI)*. An FFI is a way for a programming language to define functions and enable a different (foreign) programming language to call those functions. -Listing 19-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the `abs` function +Listing 20-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the `abs` function from the C standard library. Functions declared within `extern` blocks are always unsafe to call from Rust code. The reason is that other languages don’t enforce Rust’s rules and guarantees, and Rust can’t check them, so responsibility falls on the programmer to ensure safety. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-8" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Declaring and calling an `extern` function defined in another language"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-8: Declaring and calling an `extern` function -defined in another language</span> +</Listing> Within the `extern "C"` block, we list the names and signatures of external functions from another language we want to call. The `"C"` part defines which @@ -353,18 +360,17 @@ In this book, we’ve not yet talked about *global variables*, which Rust does support but can be problematic with Rust’s ownership rules. If two threads are accessing the same mutable global variable, it can cause a data race. -In Rust, global variables are called *static* variables. Listing 19-9 shows an +In Rust, global variables are called *static* variables. Listing 20-9 shows an example declaration and use of a static variable with a string slice as a value. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-9" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Defining and using an immutable static variable"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-9: Defining and using an immutable static -variable</span> +</Listing> Static variables are similar to constants, which we discussed in the [“Differences Between Variables and @@ -380,17 +386,16 @@ values in a static variable have a fixed address in memory. Using the value will always access the same data. Constants, on the other hand, are allowed to duplicate their data whenever they’re used. Another difference is that static variables can be mutable. Accessing and modifying mutable static variables is -*unsafe*. Listing 19-10 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable +*unsafe*. Listing 20-10 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable static variable named `COUNTER`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-10" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Reading from or writing to a mutable static variable is unsafe"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-10: Reading from or writing to a mutable -static variable is unsafe</span> +</Listing> As with regular variables, we specify mutability using the `mut` keyword. Any code that reads or writes from `COUNTER` must be within an `unsafe` block. This @@ -410,14 +415,15 @@ We can use `unsafe` to implement an unsafe trait. A trait is unsafe when at least one of its methods has some invariant that the compiler can’t verify. We declare that a trait is `unsafe` by adding the `unsafe` keyword before `trait` and marking the implementation of the trait as `unsafe` too, as shown in -Listing 19-11. +Listing 20-11. + +<Listing number="20-11" caption="Defining and implementing an unsafe trait"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-11: Defining and implementing an unsafe -trait</span> +</Listing> By using `unsafe impl`, we’re promising that we’ll uphold the invariants that the compiler can’t verify. diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md similarity index 79% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md index 789591357..e411dd57d 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md @@ -23,14 +23,15 @@ One example of a trait with an associated type is the `Iterator` trait that the standard library provides. The associated type is named `Item` and stands in for the type of the values the type implementing the `Iterator` trait is iterating over. The definition of the `Iterator` trait is as shown in Listing -19-12. +20-12. + +<Listing number="20-12" caption="The definition of the `Iterator` trait that has an associated type `Item`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-12: The definition of the `Iterator` trait -that has an associated type `Item`</span> +</Listing> The type `Item` is a placeholder, and the `next` method’s definition shows that it will return values of type `Option<Self::Item>`. Implementors of the @@ -43,23 +44,26 @@ handle. To examine the difference between the two concepts, we’ll look at an implementation of the `Iterator` trait on a type named `Counter` that specifies the `Item` type is `u32`: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs:ch19}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs:ch19}} ``` +</Listing> + This syntax seems comparable to that of generics. So why not just define the -`Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 19-13? +`Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 20-13? + +<Listing number="20-13" number="A hypothetical definition of the `Iterator` trait using generics"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-13: A hypothetical definition of the -`Iterator` trait using generics</span> +</Listing> -The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 19-13, we must +The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 20-13, we must annotate the types in each implementation; because we can also implement `Iterator<String> for Counter` or any other type, we could have multiple implementations of `Iterator` for `Counter`. In other words, when a trait has a @@ -69,7 +73,7 @@ the concrete types of the generic type parameters each time. When we use the indicate which implementation of `Iterator` we want to use. With associated types, we don’t need to annotate types because we can’t -implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 19-12 with the +implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 20-12 with the definition that uses associated types, we can only choose what the type of `Item` will be once, because there can only be one `impl Iterator for Counter`. We don’t have to specify that we want an iterator of `u32` values everywhere @@ -94,18 +98,17 @@ in particular situations. Rust doesn’t allow you to create your own operators or overload arbitrary operators. But you can overload the operations and corresponding traits listed in `std::ops` by implementing the traits associated with the operator. For -example, in Listing 19-14 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` +example, in Listing 20-14 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` instances together. We do this by implementing the `Add` trait on a `Point` struct: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-14" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Implementing the `Add` trait to overload the `+` operator for `Point` instances"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-14: Implementing the `Add` trait to overload -the `+` operator for `Point` instances</span> +</Listing> The `add` method adds the `x` values of two `Point` instances and the `y` values of two `Point` instances to create a new `Point`. The `Add` trait has an @@ -142,16 +145,15 @@ units. This thin wrapping of an existing type in another struct is known as the Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types”][newtype]<!-- ignore --> section. We want to add values in millimeters to values in meters and have the implementation of `Add` do the conversion correctly. We can implement `Add` -for `Millimeters` with `Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 19-15. +for `Millimeters` with `Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 20-15. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-15" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing the `Add` trait on `Millimeters` to add `Millimeters` to `Meters`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-15: Implementing the `Add` trait on -`Millimeters` to add `Millimeters` to `Meters`</span> +</Listing> To add `Millimeters` and `Meters`, we specify `impl Add<Meters>` to set the value of the `Rhs` type parameter instead of using the default of `Self`. @@ -181,59 +183,55 @@ on one type. It’s also possible to implement a method directly on the type wit the same name as methods from traits. When calling methods with the same name, you’ll need to tell Rust which one you -want to use. Consider the code in Listing 19-16 where we’ve defined two traits, +want to use. Consider the code in Listing 20-16 where we’ve defined two traits, `Pilot` and `Wizard`, that both have a method called `fly`. We then implement both traits on a type `Human` that already has a method named `fly` implemented on it. Each `fly` method does something different. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-16" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Two traits are defined to have a ` method and are implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is implemented on `Human` directly"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-16: Two traits are defined to have a `fly` -method and are implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is -implemented on `Human` directly</span> +</Listing> When we call `fly` on an instance of `Human`, the compiler defaults to calling -the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 19-17. +the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 20-17. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-17" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Calling `fly` on an instance of `Human`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-17: Calling `fly` on an instance of -`Human`</span> +</Listing> Running this code will print `*waving arms furiously*`, showing that Rust called the `fly` method implemented on `Human` directly. To call the `fly` methods from either the `Pilot` trait or the `Wizard` trait, we need to use more explicit syntax to specify which `fly` method we mean. -Listing 19-18 demonstrates this syntax. +Listing 20-18 demonstrates this syntax. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-18" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we want to call"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-18: Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we -want to call</span> +</Listing> Specifying the trait name before the method name clarifies to Rust which implementation of `fly` we want to call. We could also write `Human::fly(&person)`, which is equivalent to the `person.fly()` that we used -in Listing 19-18, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to +in Listing 20-18, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to disambiguate. Running this code prints the following: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/output.txt}} ``` Because the `fly` method takes a `self` parameter, if we had two *types* that @@ -243,21 +241,19 @@ trait to use based on the type of `self`. However, associated functions that are not methods don’t have a `self` parameter. When there are multiple types or traits that define non-method functions with the same function name, Rust doesn't always know which type you -mean unless you use *fully qualified syntax*. For example, in Listing 19-19 we +mean unless you use *fully qualified syntax*. For example, in Listing 20-19 we create a trait for an animal shelter that wants to name all baby dogs *Spot*. We make an `Animal` trait with an associated non-method function `baby_name`. The `Animal` trait is implemented for the struct `Dog`, on which we also provide an associated non-method function `baby_name` directly. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-19" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="A trait with an associated function and a type with an associated function of the same name that also implements the trait"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-19: A trait with an associated function and a -type with an associated function of the same name that also implements the -trait</span> +</Listing> We implement the code for naming all puppies Spot in the `baby_name` associated function that is defined on `Dog`. The `Dog` type also implements the trait @@ -269,47 +265,43 @@ In `main`, we call the `Dog::baby_name` function, which calls the associated function defined on `Dog` directly. This code prints the following: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/output.txt}} ``` This output isn’t what we wanted. We want to call the `baby_name` function that is part of the `Animal` trait that we implemented on `Dog` so the code prints `A baby dog is called a puppy`. The technique of specifying the trait name that -we used in Listing 19-18 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in -Listing 19-20, we’ll get a compilation error. +we used in Listing 20-18 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in +Listing 20-20, we’ll get a compilation error. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-20" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Attempting to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to use"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-20: Attempting to call the `baby_name` -function from the `Animal` trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to -use</span> +</Listing> Because `Animal::baby_name` doesn’t have a `self` parameter, and there could be other types that implement the `Animal` trait, Rust can’t figure out which implementation of `Animal::baby_name` we want. We’ll get this compiler error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/output.txt}} ``` To disambiguate and tell Rust that we want to use the implementation of `Animal` for `Dog` as opposed to the implementation of `Animal` for some other -type, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 19-21 demonstrates how to +type, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 20-21 demonstrates how to use fully qualified syntax. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-21" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Using fully qualified syntax to specify that we want to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as implemented on `Dog`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-21: Using fully qualified syntax to specify -that we want to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as -implemented on `Dog`</span> +</Listing> We’re providing Rust with a type annotation within the angle brackets, which indicates we want to call the `baby_name` method from the `Animal` trait as @@ -317,7 +309,7 @@ implemented on `Dog` by saying that we want to treat the `Dog` type as an `Animal` for this function call. This code will now print what we want: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/output.txt}} ``` In general, fully qualified syntax is defined as follows: @@ -362,17 +354,16 @@ In the implementation of the `outline_print` method, we want to use the `OutlinePrint` trait will work only for types that also implement `Display` and provide the functionality that `OutlinePrint` needs. We can do that in the trait definition by specifying `OutlinePrint: Display`. This technique is -similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 19-22 shows an +similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 20-22 shows an implementation of the `OutlinePrint` trait. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-22" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that requires the functionality from `Display`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-22/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-22: Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that -requires the functionality from `Display`</span> +</Listing> Because we’ve specified that `OutlinePrint` requires the `Display` trait, we can use the `to_string` function that is automatically implemented for any type @@ -384,27 +375,31 @@ the current scope. Let’s see what happens when we try to implement `OutlinePrint` on a type that doesn’t implement `Display`, such as the `Point` struct: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + We get an error saying that `Display` is required but not implemented: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt}} ``` To fix this, we implement `Display` on `Point` and satisfy the constraint that `OutlinePrint` requires, like so: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + Then implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait on `Point` will compile successfully, and we can call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance to display it within an outline of asterisks. @@ -429,16 +424,15 @@ As an example, let’s say we want to implement `Display` on `Vec<T>`, which the orphan rule prevents us from doing directly because the `Display` trait and the `Vec<T>` type are defined outside our crate. We can make a `Wrapper` struct that holds an instance of `Vec<T>`; then we can implement `Display` on -`Wrapper` and use the `Vec<T>` value, as shown in Listing 19-23. +`Wrapper` and use the `Vec<T>` value, as shown in Listing 20-23. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-23" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Creating a `Wrapper` type around `Vec<String>` to implement `Display`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-23: Creating a `Wrapper` type around -`Vec<String>` to implement `Display`</span> +</Listing> The implementation of `Display` uses `self.0` to access the inner `Vec<T>`, because `Wrapper` is a tuple struct and `Vec<T>` is the item at index 0 in the @@ -459,7 +453,7 @@ behavior—we would have to implement just the methods we do want manually. This newtype pattern is also useful even when traits are not involved. Let’s switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type system. -[newtype]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types +[newtype]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types [implementing-a-trait-on-a-type]: ch10-02-traits.html#implementing-a-trait-on-a-type [traits-defining-shared-behavior]: diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md similarity index 87% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md index 2dfed23cc..88f2b36f6 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ the `!` type and dynamically sized types. The newtype pattern is also useful for tasks beyond those we’ve discussed so far, including statically enforcing that values are never confused and indicating the units of a value. You saw an example of using newtypes to -indicate units in Listing 19-15: recall that the `Millimeters` and `Meters` +indicate units in Listing 20-15: recall that the `Millimeters` and `Meters` structs wrapped `u32` values in a newtype. If we wrote a function with a parameter of type `Millimeters`, we couldn’t compile a program that accidentally tried to call that function with a value of type `Meters` or a @@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ internally. The newtype pattern is a lightweight way to achieve encapsulation to hide implementation details, which we discussed in the [“Encapsulation that Hides Implementation Details”][encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details]<!-- ignore --> -section of Chapter 17. +section of Chapter 18. ### Creating Type Synonyms with Type Aliases @@ -43,16 +43,16 @@ another name. For this we use the `type` keyword. For example, we can create the alias `Kilometers` to `i32` like so: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Now, the alias `Kilometers` is a *synonym* for `i32`; unlike the `Millimeters` -and `Meters` types we created in Listing 19-15, `Kilometers` is not a separate, +and `Meters` types we created in Listing 20-15, `Kilometers` is not a separate, new type. Values that have the type `Kilometers` will be treated the same as values of type `i32`: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:there}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:there}} ``` Because `Kilometers` and `i32` are the same type, we can add values of both @@ -71,24 +71,27 @@ Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> Writing this lengthy type in function signatures and as type annotations all over the code can be tiresome and error prone. Imagine having a project full of -code like that in Listing 19-24. +code like that in Listing 20-24. + +<Listing number="20-24" caption="Using a long type in many places"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-24: Using a long type in many places</span> +</Listing> A type alias makes this code more manageable by reducing the repetition. In -Listing 19-25, we’ve introduced an alias named `Thunk` for the verbose type and +Listing 20-25, we’ve introduced an alias named `Thunk` for the verbose type and can replace all uses of the type with the shorter alias `Thunk`. +<Listing number="20-25" caption="Introducing a type alias `Thunk` to reduce repetition"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-25: Introducing a type alias `Thunk` to reduce -repetition</span> +</Listing> This code is much easier to read and write! Choosing a meaningful name for a type alias can help communicate your intent as well (*thunk* is a word for code @@ -104,14 +107,14 @@ possible I/O errors. Many of the functions in `std::io` will be returning the `Write` trait: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs}} ``` The `Result<..., Error>` is repeated a lot. As such, `std::io` has this type alias declaration: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` Because this declaration is in the `std::io` module, we can use the fully @@ -120,7 +123,7 @@ filled in as `std::io::Error`. The `Write` trait function signatures end up looking like this: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:there}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:there}} ``` The type alias helps in two ways: it makes code easier to write *and* it gives @@ -136,7 +139,7 @@ because it stands in the place of the return type when a function will never return. Here is an example: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` This code is read as “the function `bar` returns never.” Functions that return @@ -145,14 +148,15 @@ so `bar` can never possibly return. But what use is a type you can never create values for? Recall the code from Listing 2-5, part of the number guessing game; we’ve reproduced a bit of it -here in Listing 19-26. +here in Listing 20-26. + +<Listing number="20-26" caption="A `match` with an arm that ends in `continue`"> ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/src/main.rs:ch19}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-26: A `match` with an arm that ends in -`continue`</span> +</Listing> At the time, we skipped over some details in this code. In Chapter 6 in [“The `match` Control Flow Operator”][the-match-control-flow-operator]<!-- ignore --> @@ -160,13 +164,13 @@ section, we discussed that `match` arms must all return the same type. So, for example, the following code doesn’t work: ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs:here}} ``` The type of `guess` in this code would have to be an integer *and* a string, and Rust requires that `guess` have only one type. So what does `continue` return? How were we allowed to return a `u32` from one arm and have another arm -that ends with `continue` in Listing 19-26? +that ends with `continue` in Listing 20-26? As you might have guessed, `continue` has a `!` value. That is, when Rust computes the type of `guess`, it looks at both match arms, the former with a @@ -184,10 +188,10 @@ function that we call on `Option<T>` values to produce a value or panic with this definition: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -In this code, the same thing happens as in the `match` in Listing 19-26: Rust +In this code, the same thing happens as in the `match` in Listing 20-26: Rust sees that `val` has the type `T` and `panic!` has the type `!`, so the result of the overall `match` expression is `T`. This code works because `panic!` doesn’t produce a value; it ends the program. In the `None` case, we won’t be @@ -196,7 +200,7 @@ returning a value from `unwrap`, so this code is valid. One final expression that has the type `!` is a `loop`: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Here, the loop never ends, so `!` is the value of the expression. However, this @@ -218,7 +222,7 @@ we can’t create a variable of type `str`, nor can we take an argument of type `str`. Consider the following code, which does not work: ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Rust needs to know how much memory to allocate for any value of a particular @@ -245,7 +249,7 @@ types behind a pointer of some kind. We can combine `str` with all kinds of pointers: for example, `Box<str>` or `Rc<str>`. In fact, you’ve seen this before but with a different dynamically sized type: traits. Every trait is a dynamically sized type we can refer to by -using the name of the trait. In Chapter 17 in the [“Using Trait Objects That +using the name of the trait. In Chapter 18 in the [“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types”][using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]<!-- ignore --> section, we mentioned that to use traits as trait objects, we must @@ -259,13 +263,13 @@ implicitly adds a bound on `Sized` to every generic function. That is, a generic function definition like this: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs}} ``` is actually treated as though we had written this: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs}} ``` By default, generic functions will work only on types that have a known size at @@ -273,7 +277,7 @@ compile time. However, you can use the following special syntax to relax this restriction: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs}} ``` A trait bound on `?Sized` means “`T` may or may not be `Sized`” and this @@ -288,10 +292,10 @@ pointer. In this case, we’ve chosen a reference. Next, we’ll talk about functions and closures! [encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details]: -ch17-01-what-is-oo.html#encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details +ch18-01-what-is-oo.html#encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details [string-slices]: ch04-03-slices.html#string-slices [the-match-control-flow-operator]: ch06-02-match.html#the-match-control-flow-operator [using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: -ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types -[using-the-newtype-pattern]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types +ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[using-the-newtype-pattern]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md similarity index 86% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md index 88c46847d..70385af32 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md @@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ with function pointers will allow you to use functions as arguments to other functions. The syntax for specifying that a parameter is a function pointer is similar to -that of closures, as shown in Listing 19-27, where we’ve defined a function +that of closures, as shown in Listing 20-27, where we’ve defined a function `add_one` that adds one to its parameter. The function `do_twice` takes two parameters: a function pointer to any function that takes an `i32` parameter and returns an `i32`, and one `i32` value. The `do_twice` function calls the @@ -22,14 +22,13 @@ function `f` twice, passing it the `arg` value, then adds the two function call results together. The `main` function calls `do_twice` with the arguments `add_one` and `5`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-27" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Using the `fn` type to accept a function pointer as an argument"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-27/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-27: Using the `fn` type to accept a function -pointer as an argument</span> +</Listing> This code prints `The answer is: 12`. We specify that the parameter `f` in `do_twice` is an `fn` that takes one parameter of type `i32` and returns an @@ -56,14 +55,14 @@ trait in the standard library. To use the `map` function to turn a vector of numbers into a vector of strings, we could use a closure, like this: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Or we could name a function as the argument to `map` instead of the closure, like this: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Note that we must use the fully qualified syntax that we talked about earlier @@ -79,7 +78,7 @@ implement the closure traits, which means we can specify the initializer functions as arguments for methods that take closures, like so: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Here we create `Status::Value` instances using each `u32` value in the range @@ -99,13 +98,13 @@ pointer `fn` as a return type, for example. The following code tries to return a closure directly, but it won’t compile: ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs}} ``` The compiler error is as follows: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt}} ``` The error references the `Sized` trait again! Rust doesn’t know how much space @@ -113,18 +112,18 @@ it will need to store the closure. We saw a solution to this problem earlier. We can use a trait object: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs}} ``` This code will compile just fine. For more about trait objects, refer to the section [“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types”][using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]<!-- -ignore --> in Chapter 17. +ignore --> in Chapter 19. Next, let’s look at macros! [advanced-traits]: -ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#advanced-traits +ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#advanced-traits [enum-values]: ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html#enum-values [using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: -ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-06-macros.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-06-macros.md similarity index 90% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch19-06-macros.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch20-06-macros.md index f24a818c1..7900a015b 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch19-06-macros.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch20-06-macros.md @@ -73,16 +73,15 @@ We could also use the `vec!` macro to make a vector of two integers or a vector of five string slices. We wouldn’t be able to use a function to do the same because we wouldn’t know the number or type of values up front. -Listing 19-28 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro. +Listing 20-28 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-28" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A simplified version of the `vec!` macro definition"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-28: A simplified version of the `vec!` macro -definition</span> +</Listing> > Note: The actual definition of the `vec!` macro in the standard library > includes code to preallocate the correct amount of memory up front. That code @@ -105,9 +104,9 @@ other pattern will result in an error. More complex macros will have more than one arm. Valid pattern syntax in macro definitions is different than the pattern syntax -covered in Chapter 18 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code +covered in Chapter 19 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code structure rather than values. Let’s walk through what the pattern pieces in -Listing 19-28 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the [Rust +Listing 20-28 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the [Rust Reference][ref]. First, we use a set of parentheses to encompass the whole pattern. We use a @@ -160,11 +159,11 @@ attribute-like, and function-like, and all work in a similar fashion. When creating procedural macros, the definitions must reside in their own crate with a special crate type. This is for complex technical reasons that we hope -to eliminate in the future. In Listing 19-29, we show how to define a +to eliminate in the future. In Listing 20-29, we show how to define a procedural macro, where `some_attribute` is a placeholder for using a specific macro variety. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-29" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="An example of defining a procedural macro"> ```rust,ignore use proc_macro; @@ -174,8 +173,7 @@ pub fn some_name(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { } ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-29: An example of defining a procedural -macro</span> +</Listing> The function that defines a procedural macro takes a `TokenStream` as an input and produces a `TokenStream` as an output. The `TokenStream` type is defined by @@ -200,16 +198,15 @@ we’ll provide a procedural macro so users can annotate their type with function. The default implementation will print `Hello, Macro! My name is TypeName!` where `TypeName` is the name of the type on which this trait has been defined. In other words, we’ll write a crate that enables another -programmer to write code like Listing 19-30 using our crate. +programmer to write code like Listing 20-30 using our crate. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-30" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="The code a user of our crate will be able to write when using our procedural macro"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-30/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-30: The code a user of our crate will be able -to write when using our procedural macro</span> +</Listing> This code will print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` when we’re done. The first step is to make a new library crate, like this: @@ -220,17 +217,19 @@ $ cargo new hello_macro --lib Next, we’ll define the `HelloMacro` trait and its associated function: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs}} ``` +</Listing> + We have a trait and its function. At this point, our crate user could implement the trait to achieve the desired functionality, like so: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs}} ``` However, they would need to write the implementation block for each type they @@ -269,24 +268,25 @@ We’ll also need functionality from the `syn` and `quote` crates, as you’ll s in a moment, so we need to add them as dependencies. Add the following to the *Cargo.toml* file for `hello_macro_derive`: -<span class="filename">Filename: hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml</span> +<Listing file-name="hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml"> ```toml -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml:6:12}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml:6:12}} ``` -To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 19-31 into +</Listing> + +To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 20-31 into your *src/lib.rs* file for the `hello_macro_derive` crate. Note that this code won’t compile until we add a definition for the `impl_hello_macro` function. -<span class="filename">Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-31" file-name="hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs" caption="Code that most procedural macro crates will require in order to process Rust code"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-31: Code that most procedural macro crates -will require in order to process Rust code</span> +</Listing> Notice that we’ve split the code into the `hello_macro_derive` function, which is responsible for parsing the `TokenStream`, and the `impl_hello_macro` @@ -318,9 +318,11 @@ The `hello_macro_derive` function first converts the `input` from a `TokenStream` to a data structure that we can then interpret and perform operations on. This is where `syn` comes into play. The `parse` function in `syn` takes a `TokenStream` and returns a `DeriveInput` struct representing the -parsed Rust code. Listing 19-32 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput` +parsed Rust code. Listing 20-32 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput` struct we get from parsing the `struct Pancakes;` string: +<Listing number="20-32" caption="The `DeriveInput` instance we get when parsing the code that has the macro’s attribute in Listing 20-30"> + ```rust,ignore DeriveInput { // --snip-- @@ -341,8 +343,7 @@ DeriveInput { } ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-32: The `DeriveInput` instance we get when -parsing the code that has the macro’s attribute in Listing 19-30</span> +</Listing> The fields of this struct show that the Rust code we’ve parsed is a unit struct with the `ident` (identifier, meaning the name) of `Pancakes`. There are more @@ -366,24 +367,23 @@ about what went wrong by using `panic!` or `expect`. Now that we have the code to turn the annotated Rust code from a `TokenStream` into a `DeriveInput` instance, let’s generate the code that implements the -`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 19-33. +`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 20-33. -<span class="filename">Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-33" file-name="hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using the parsed Rust code"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-33/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-33: Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using -the parsed Rust code</span> +</Listing> We get an `Ident` struct instance containing the name (identifier) of the -annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 19-32 shows that when -we run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 19-30, the +annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 20-32 shows that when +we run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 20-30, the `ident` we get will have the `ident` field with a value of `"Pancakes"`. Thus, -the `name` variable in Listing 19-33 will contain an `Ident` struct instance +the `name` variable in Listing 20-33 will contain an `Ident` struct instance that, when printed, will be the string `"Pancakes"`, the name of the struct in -Listing 19-30. +Listing 20-30. The `quote!` macro lets us define the Rust code that we want to return. The compiler expects something different to the direct result of the `quote!` @@ -412,7 +412,7 @@ saves an allocation by converting `#name` to a string literal at compile time. At this point, `cargo build` should complete successfully in both `hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive`. Let’s hook up these crates to the code in Listing -19-30 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in +20-30 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in your *projects* directory using `cargo new pancakes`. We need to add `hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive` as dependencies in the `pancakes` crate’s *Cargo.toml*. If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` and @@ -420,10 +420,10 @@ crate’s *Cargo.toml*. If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` an dependencies; if not, you can specify them as `path` dependencies as follows: ```toml -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml:7:9}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml:7:9}} ``` -Put the code in Listing 19-30 into *src/main.rs*, and run `cargo run`: it +Put the code in Listing 20-30 into *src/main.rs*, and run `cargo run`: it should print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` The implementation of the `HelloMacro` trait from the procedural macro was included without the `pancakes` crate needing to implement it; the `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` added the diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md similarity index 100% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md similarity index 87% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md index b474d926f..9712b69a4 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md @@ -30,18 +30,17 @@ $ cargo new hello $ cd hello ``` -Now enter the code in Listing 20-1 in *src/main.rs* to start. This code will +Now enter the code in Listing 21-1 in *src/main.rs* to start. This code will listen at the local address `127.0.0.1:7878` for incoming TCP streams. When it gets an incoming stream, it will print `Connection established!`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Listening for incoming streams and printing a message when we receive a stream"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-1: Listening for incoming streams and printing -a message when we receive a stream</span> +</Listing> Using `TcpListener`, we can listen for TCP connections at the address `127.0.0.1:7878`. In the address, the section before the colon is an IP address @@ -125,16 +124,15 @@ separate the concerns of first getting a connection and then taking some action with the connection, we’ll start a new function for processing connections. In this new `handle_connection` function, we’ll read data from the TCP stream and print it so we can see the data being sent from the browser. Change the code to -look like Listing 20-2. +look like Listing 21-2. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-2" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Reading from the `TcpStream` and printing the data"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-2: Reading from the `TcpStream` and printing -the data</span> +</Listing> We bring `std::io::prelude` and `std::io::BufReader` into scope to get access to traits and types that let us read from and write to the stream. In the `for` @@ -271,16 +269,15 @@ The status code 200 is the standard success response. The text is a tiny successful HTTP response. Let’s write this to the stream as our response to a successful request! From the `handle_connection` function, remove the `println!` that was printing the request data and replace it with the code in -Listing 20-3. +Listing 21-3. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-3" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Writing a tiny successful HTTP response to the stream"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-3: Writing a tiny successful HTTP response to -the stream</span> +</Listing> The first new line defines the `response` variable that holds the success message’s data. Then we call `as_bytes` on our `response` to convert the string @@ -299,31 +296,29 @@ request and sending a response! Let’s implement the functionality for returning more than a blank page. Create the new file *hello.html* in the root of your project directory, not in the -*src* directory. You can input any HTML you want; Listing 20-4 shows one +*src* directory. You can input any HTML you want; Listing 21-4 shows one possibility. -<span class="filename">Filename: hello.html</span> +<Listing number="21-4" file-name="hello.html" caption="A sample HTML file to return in a response"> ```html -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/hello.html}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/hello.html}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-4: A sample HTML file to return in a -response</span> +</Listing> This is a minimal HTML5 document with a heading and some text. To return this from the server when a request is received, we’ll modify `handle_connection` as -shown in Listing 20-5 to read the HTML file, add it to the response as a body, +shown in Listing 21-5 to read the HTML file, add it to the response as a body, and send it. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-5" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Sending the contents of *hello.html* as the body of the response"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-5: Sending the contents of *hello.html* as the -body of the response</span> +</Listing> We’ve added `fs` to the `use` statement to bring the standard library’s filesystem module into scope. The code for reading the contents of a file to a @@ -352,25 +347,24 @@ Right now, our web server will return the HTML in the file no matter what the client requested. Let’s add functionality to check that the browser is requesting */* before returning the HTML file and return an error if the browser requests anything else. For this we need to modify `handle_connection`, -as shown in Listing 20-6. This new code checks the content of the request +as shown in Listing 21-6. This new code checks the content of the request received against what we know a request for */* looks like and adds `if` and `else` blocks to treat requests differently. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-6" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Handling requests to */* differently from other requests"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-6: Handling requests to */* differently from -other requests</span> +</Listing> We’re only going to be looking at the first line of the HTTP request, so rather than reading the entire request into a vector, we’re calling `next` to get the first item from the iterator. The first `unwrap` takes care of the `Option` and stops the program if the iterator has no items. The second `unwrap` handles the `Result` and has the same effect as the `unwrap` that was in the `map` added in -Listing 20-2. +Listing 21-2. Next, we check the `request_line` to see if it equals the request line of a GET request to the */* path. If it does, the `if` block returns the contents of our @@ -383,36 +377,34 @@ a moment to respond to all other requests. Run this code now and request *127.0.0.1:7878*; you should get the HTML in *hello.html*. If you make any other request, such as *127.0.0.1:7878/something-else*, you’ll get a connection error like those you -saw when running the code in Listing 20-1 and Listing 20-2. +saw when running the code in Listing 21-1 and Listing 21-2. -Now let’s add the code in Listing 20-7 to the `else` block to return a response +Now let’s add the code in Listing 21-7 to the `else` block to return a response with the status code 404, which signals that the content for the request was not found. We’ll also return some HTML for a page to render in the browser indicating the response to the end user. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-7" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Responding with status code 404 and an error page if anything other than */* was requested"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-7: Responding with status code 404 and an -error page if anything other than */* was requested</span> +</Listing> Here, our response has a status line with status code 404 and the reason phrase `NOT FOUND`. The body of the response will be the HTML in the file *404.html*. You’ll need to create a *404.html* file next to *hello.html* for the error page; again feel free to use any HTML you want or use the example HTML in -Listing 20-8. +Listing 21-8. -<span class="filename">Filename: 404.html</span> +<Listing number="21-8" file-name="404.html" caption="Sample content for the page to send back with any 404 response"> ```html -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/404.html}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/404.html}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-8: Sample content for the page to send back -with any 404 response</span> +</Listing> With these changes, run your server again. Requesting *127.0.0.1:7878* should return the contents of *hello.html*, and any other request, like @@ -426,29 +418,28 @@ differences are the status line and the filename. Let’s make the code more concise by pulling out those differences into separate `if` and `else` lines that will assign the values of the status line and the filename to variables; we can then use those variables unconditionally in the code to read the file -and write the response. Listing 20-9 shows the resulting code after replacing +and write the response. Listing 21-9 shows the resulting code after replacing the large `if` and `else` blocks. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-9" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Refactoring the `if` and `else` blocks to contain only the code that differs between the two cases"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-9: Refactoring the `if` and `else` blocks to -contain only the code that differs between the two cases</span> +</Listing> Now the `if` and `else` blocks only return the appropriate values for the status line and filename in a tuple; we then use destructuring to assign these two values to `status_line` and `filename` using a pattern in the `let` -statement, as discussed in Chapter 18. +statement, as discussed in Chapter 19. The previously duplicated code is now outside the `if` and `else` blocks and uses the `status_line` and `filename` variables. This makes it easier to see the difference between the two cases, and it means we have only one place to update the code if we want to change how the file reading and response writing -work. The behavior of the code in Listing 20-9 will be the same as that in -Listing 20-7. +work. The behavior of the code in Listing 21-9 will be the same as that in +Listing 21-7. Awesome! We now have a simple web server in approximately 40 lines of Rust code that responds to one request with a page of content and responds to all other diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md similarity index 85% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md index cec2272db..c4220a7bf 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md @@ -11,28 +11,27 @@ this, but first, we’ll look at the problem in action. ### Simulating a Slow Request in the Current Server Implementation We’ll look at how a slow-processing request can affect other requests made to -our current server implementation. Listing 20-10 implements handling a request +our current server implementation. Listing 21-10 implements handling a request to */sleep* with a simulated slow response that will cause the server to sleep for 5 seconds before responding. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-10" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Simulating a slow request by sleeping for 5 seconds"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-10: Simulating a slow request by sleeping for -5 seconds</span> +</Listing> We switched from `if` to `match` now that we have three cases. We need to explicitly match on a slice of `request_line` to pattern match against the string literal values; `match` doesn’t do automatic referencing and dereferencing like the equality method does. -The first arm is the same as the `if` block from Listing 20-9. The second arm +The first arm is the same as the `if` block from Listing 21-9. The second arm matches a request to */sleep*. When that request is received, the server will sleep for 5 seconds before rendering the successful HTML page. The third arm is -the same as the `else` block from Listing 20-9. +the same as the `else` block from Listing 21-9. You can see how primitive our server is: real libraries would handle the recognition of multiple requests in a much less verbose way! @@ -103,17 +102,16 @@ every connection. As mentioned earlier, this isn’t our final plan due to the problems with potentially spawning an unlimited number of threads, but it is a starting point to get a working multithreaded server first. Then we’ll add the thread pool as an improvement, and contrasting the two solutions will be -easier. Listing 20-11 shows the changes to make to `main` to spawn a new thread +easier. Listing 21-11 shows the changes to make to `main` to spawn a new thread to handle each stream within the `for` loop. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Spawning a new thread for each stream"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-11: Spawning a new thread for each -stream</span> +</Listing> As you learned in Chapter 16, `thread::spawn` will create a new thread and then run the code in the closure in the new thread. If you run this code and load @@ -129,16 +127,16 @@ new threads without any limit. We want our thread pool to work in a similar, familiar way so switching from threads to a thread pool doesn’t require large changes to the code that uses -our API. Listing 20-12 shows the hypothetical interface for a `ThreadPool` +our API. Listing 21-12 shows the hypothetical interface for a `ThreadPool` struct we want to use instead of `thread::spawn`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-12" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Our ideal `ThreadPool` interface"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-12: Our ideal `ThreadPool` interface</span> +</Listing> We use `ThreadPool::new` to create a new thread pool with a configurable number of threads, in this case four. Then, in the `for` loop, `pool.execute` has a @@ -152,12 +150,12 @@ compile, but we’ll try so the compiler can guide us in how to fix it. #### Building `ThreadPool` Using Compiler Driven Development -Make the changes in Listing 20-12 to *src/main.rs*, and then let’s use the +Make the changes in Listing 21-12 to *src/main.rs*, and then let’s use the compiler errors from `cargo check` to drive our development. Here is the first error we get: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/output.txt}} ``` Great! This error tells us we need a `ThreadPool` type or module, so we’ll @@ -171,26 +169,30 @@ web requests. Create a *src/lib.rs* that contains the following, which is the simplest definition of a `ThreadPool` struct that we can have for now: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs}} ``` +</Listing> + Then edit *main.rs* file to bring `ThreadPool` into scope from the library crate by adding the following code to the top of *src/main.rs*: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + This code still won’t work, but let’s check it again to get the next error that we need to address: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt}} ``` This error indicates that next we need to create an associated function named @@ -199,12 +201,14 @@ that can accept `4` as an argument and should return a `ThreadPool` instance. Let’s implement the simplest `new` function that will have those characteristics: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs}} ``` +</Listing> + We chose `usize` as the type of the `size` parameter, because we know that a negative number of threads doesn’t make any sense. We also know we’ll use this 4 as the number of elements in a collection of threads, which is what the @@ -214,7 +218,7 @@ ignore --> section of Chapter 3. Let’s check the code again: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt}} ``` Now the error occurs because we don’t have an `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. @@ -255,12 +259,14 @@ closure from one thread to another and `'static` because we don’t know how lon the thread will take to execute. Let’s create an `execute` method on `ThreadPool` that will take a generic parameter of type `F` with these bounds: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + We still use the `()` after `FnOnce` because this `FnOnce` represents a closure that takes no parameters and returns the unit type `()`. Just like function definitions, the return type can be omitted from the signature, but even if we @@ -270,7 +276,7 @@ Again, this is the simplest implementation of the `execute` method: it does nothing, but we’re trying only to make our code compile. Let’s check it again: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt}} ``` It compiles! But note that if you try `cargo run` and make a request in the @@ -294,16 +300,15 @@ parameter, because a pool with a negative number of threads makes no sense. However, a pool with zero threads also makes no sense, yet zero is a perfectly valid `usize`. We’ll add code to check that `size` is greater than zero before we return a `ThreadPool` instance and have the program panic if it receives a -zero by using the `assert!` macro, as shown in Listing 20-13. +zero by using the `assert!` macro, as shown in Listing 21-13. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-13" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing `ThreadPool::new` to panic if `size` is zero"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-13: Implementing `ThreadPool::new` to panic if -`size` is zero</span> +</Listing> We’ve also added some documentation for our `ThreadPool` with doc comments. Note that we followed good documentation practices by adding a section that @@ -342,20 +347,19 @@ closure returns. Let’s try using `JoinHandle` too and see what happens. In our case, the closures we’re passing to the thread pool will handle the connection and not return anything, so `T` will be the unit type `()`. -The code in Listing 20-14 will compile but doesn’t create any threads yet. +The code in Listing 21-14 will compile but doesn’t create any threads yet. We’ve changed the definition of `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of `thread::JoinHandle<()>` instances, initialized the vector with a capacity of `size`, set up a `for` loop that will run some code to create the threads, and returned a `ThreadPool` instance containing them. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-14" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Creating a vector for `ThreadPool` to hold the threads"> ```rust,ignore,not_desired_behavior -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-14: Creating a vector for `ThreadPool` to hold -the threads</span> +</Listing> We’ve brought `std::thread` into scope in the library crate, because we’re using `thread::JoinHandle` as the type of the items in the vector in @@ -372,7 +376,7 @@ When you run `cargo check` again, it should succeed. #### A `Worker` Struct Responsible for Sending Code from the `ThreadPool` to a Thread -We left a comment in the `for` loop in Listing 20-14 regarding the creation of +We left a comment in the `for` loop in Listing 21-14 regarding the creation of threads. Here, we’ll look at how we actually create threads. The standard library provides `thread::spawn` as a way to create threads, and `thread::spawn` expects to get some code the thread should run as soon as the @@ -409,18 +413,17 @@ set up in this way: a new `Worker` with that `id`, and store the worker in the vector. If you’re up for a challenge, try implementing these changes on your own before -looking at the code in Listing 20-15. +looking at the code in Listing 21-15. -Ready? Here is Listing 20-15 with one way to make the preceding modifications. +Ready? Here is Listing 21-15 with one way to make the preceding modifications. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-15" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Modifying `ThreadPool` to hold `Worker` instances instead of holding threads directly"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-15: Modifying `ThreadPool` to hold `Worker` -instances instead of holding threads directly</span> +</Listing> We’ve changed the name of the field on `ThreadPool` from `threads` to `workers` because it’s now holding `Worker` instances instead of `JoinHandle<()>` @@ -470,18 +473,17 @@ the `Worker` instances, which will send the job to its thread. Here is the plan: closures of any jobs it receives. Let’s start by creating a channel in `ThreadPool::new` and holding the sender -in the `ThreadPool` instance, as shown in Listing 20-16. The `Job` struct +in the `ThreadPool` instance, as shown in Listing 21-16. The `Job` struct doesn’t hold anything for now but will be the type of item we’re sending down the channel. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-16" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Modifying `ThreadPool` to store the sender of a channel that transmits `Job` instances"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-16: Modifying `ThreadPool` to store the -sender of a channel that transmits `Job` instances</span> +</Listing> In `ThreadPool::new`, we create our new channel and have the pool hold the sender. This will successfully compile. @@ -489,15 +491,15 @@ sender. This will successfully compile. Let’s try passing a receiver of the channel into each worker as the thread pool creates the channel. We know we want to use the receiver in the thread that the workers spawn, so we’ll reference the `receiver` parameter in the closure. The -code in Listing 20-17 won’t quite compile yet. +code in Listing 21-17 won’t quite compile yet. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-17" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Passing the receiver to the workers"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-17: Passing the receiver to the workers</span> +</Listing> We’ve made some small and straightforward changes: we pass the receiver into `Worker::new`, and then we use it inside the closure. @@ -505,7 +507,7 @@ We’ve made some small and straightforward changes: we pass the receiver into When we try to check this code, we get this error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/output.txt}} ``` The code is trying to pass `receiver` to multiple `Worker` instances. This @@ -523,16 +525,15 @@ Recall the thread-safe smart pointers discussed in Chapter 16: to share ownership across multiple threads and allow the threads to mutate the value, we need to use `Arc<Mutex<T>>`. The `Arc` type will let multiple workers own the receiver, and `Mutex` will ensure that only one worker gets a job from the -receiver at a time. Listing 20-18 shows the changes we need to make. +receiver at a time. Listing 21-18 shows the changes we need to make. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-18" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Sharing the receiver among the workers using `Arc` and `Mutex`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-18: Sharing the receiver among the workers -using `Arc` and `Mutex`</span> +</Listing> In `ThreadPool::new`, we put the receiver in an `Arc` and a `Mutex`. For each new worker, we clone the `Arc` to bump the reference count so the workers can @@ -546,17 +547,16 @@ Let’s finally implement the `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. We’ll also cha `Job` from a struct to a type alias for a trait object that holds the type of closure that `execute` receives. As discussed in the [“Creating Type Synonyms with Type Aliases”][creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases]<!-- ignore --> -section of Chapter 19, type aliases allow us to make long types shorter for -ease of use. Look at Listing 20-19. +section of Chapter 20, type aliases allow us to make long types shorter for +ease of use. Look at Listing 21-19. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-19" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Creating a `Job` type alias for a `Box` that holds each closure and then sending the job down the channel"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-19: Creating a `Job` type alias for a `Box` -that holds each closure and then sending the job down the channel</span> +</Listing> After creating a new `Job` instance using the closure we get in `execute`, we send that job down the sending end of the channel. We’re calling `unwrap` on @@ -571,16 +571,15 @@ But we’re not quite done yet! In the worker, our closure being passed to `thread::spawn` still only *references* the receiving end of the channel. Instead, we need the closure to loop forever, asking the receiving end of the channel for a job and running the job when it gets one. Let’s make the change -shown in Listing 20-20 to `Worker::new`. +shown in Listing 21-20 to `Worker::new`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-20" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Receiving and executing the jobs in the worker’s thread"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-20: Receiving and executing the jobs in the -worker’s thread</span> +</Listing> Here, we first call `lock` on the `receiver` to acquire the mutex, and then we call `unwrap` to panic on any errors. Acquiring a lock might fail if the mutex @@ -603,7 +602,7 @@ Our thread pool is now in a working state! Give it a `cargo run` and make some requests: <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20 +cd listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20 cargo run make some requests to 127.0.0.1:7878 Can't automate because the output depends on making requests @@ -658,17 +657,16 @@ thread run them. > multiple instances of the same request sequentially for caching reasons. This > limitation is not caused by our web server. -After learning about the `while let` loop in Chapter 18, you might be wondering -why we didn’t write the worker thread code as shown in Listing 20-21. +After learning about the `while let` loop in Chapters 17 and 18, you might be +wondering why we didn’t write the worker thread code as shown in Listing 21-21. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-21" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="An alternative implementation of `Worker::new` using `while let`"> ```rust,ignore,not_desired_behavior -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-21: An alternative implementation of -`Worker::new` using `while let`</span> +</Listing> This code compiles and runs but doesn’t result in the desired threading behavior: a slow request will still cause other requests to wait to be @@ -681,16 +679,16 @@ lock. However, this implementation can also result in the lock being held longer than intended if we aren’t mindful of the lifetime of the `MutexGuard<T>`. -The code in Listing 20-20 that uses `let job = +The code in Listing 21-20 that uses `let job = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv().unwrap();` works because with `let`, any temporary values used in the expression on the right hand side of the equals sign are immediately dropped when the `let` statement ends. However, `while let` (and `if let` and `match`) does not drop temporary values until the end of -the associated block. In Listing 20-21, the lock remains held for the duration +the associated block. In Listing 21-21, the lock remains held for the duration of the call to `job()`, meaning other workers cannot receive jobs. [creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases]: -ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases +ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases [integer-types]: ch03-02-data-types.html#integer-types [fn-traits]: ch13-01-closures.html#moving-captured-values-out-of-the-closure-and-the-fn-traits diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/rustbook-en/src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md similarity index 81% rename from rustbook-en/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md rename to rustbook-en/src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md index e07b5379d..e73c4a5a5 100644 --- a/rustbook-en/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md +++ b/rustbook-en/src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ ## Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup -The code in Listing 20-20 is responding to requests asynchronously through the +The code in Listing 21-20 is responding to requests asynchronously through the use of a thread pool, as we intended. We get some warnings about the `workers`, `id`, and `thread` fields that we’re not using in a direct way that reminds us we’re not cleaning up anything. When we use the less elegant @@ -19,17 +19,16 @@ thread pool. Let’s start with implementing `Drop` on our thread pool. When the pool is dropped, our threads should all join to make sure they finish their work. -Listing 20-22 shows a first attempt at a `Drop` implementation; this code won’t +Listing 21-22 shows a first attempt at a `Drop` implementation; this code won’t quite work yet. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-22" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Joining each thread when the thread pool goes out of scope"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-22: Joining each thread when the thread pool -goes out of scope</span> +</Listing> First, we loop through each of the thread pool `workers`. We use `&mut` for this because `self` is a mutable reference, and we also need to be able to @@ -41,7 +40,7 @@ into an ungraceful shutdown. Here is the error we get when we compile this code: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/output.txt}} ``` The error tells us we can’t call `join` because we only have a mutable borrow @@ -57,40 +56,46 @@ thread to run. So we know we want to update the definition of `Worker` like this: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + Now let’s lean on the compiler to find the other places that need to change. Checking this code, we get two errors: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt}} ``` Let’s address the second error, which points to the code at the end of `Worker::new`; we need to wrap the `thread` value in `Some` when we create a new `Worker`. Make the following changes to fix this error: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + The first error is in our `Drop` implementation. We mentioned earlier that we intended to call `take` on the `Option` value to move `thread` out of `worker`. The following changes will do so: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,ignore,not_desired_behavior -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -As discussed in Chapter 17, the `take` method on `Option` takes the `Some` +</Listing> + +As discussed in Chapter 18, the `take` method on `Option` takes the `Some` variant out and leaves `None` in its place. We’re using `if let` to destructure the `Some` and get the thread; then we call `join` on the thread. If a worker’s thread is already `None`, we know that worker has already had its thread @@ -110,46 +115,43 @@ To fix this problem, we’ll need a change in the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation and then a change in the `Worker` loop. First, we’ll change the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation to explicitly drop -the `sender` before waiting for the threads to finish. Listing 20-23 shows the +the `sender` before waiting for the threads to finish. Listing 21-23 shows the changes to `ThreadPool` to explicitly drop `sender`. We use the same `Option` and `take` technique as we did with the thread to be able to move `sender` out of `ThreadPool`: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-23" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Explicitly drop `sender` before joining the worker threads"> ```rust,noplayground,not_desired_behavior -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-23: Explicitly drop `sender` before joining -the worker threads</span> +</Listing> Dropping `sender` closes the channel, which indicates no more messages will be sent. When that happens, all the calls to `recv` that the workers do in the -infinite loop will return an error. In Listing 20-24, we change the `Worker` +infinite loop will return an error. In Listing 21-24, we change the `Worker` loop to gracefully exit the loop in that case, which means the threads will finish when the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation calls `join` on them. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-24" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Explicitly break out of the loop when `recv` returns an error"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-24: Explicitly break out of the loop when -`recv` returns an error</span> +</Listing> To see this code in action, let’s modify `main` to accept only two requests -before gracefully shutting down the server, as shown in Listing 20-25. +before gracefully shutting down the server, as shown in Listing 21-25. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-25" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Shut down the server after serving two requests by exiting the loop"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-25: Shut down the server after serving two -requests by exiting the loop</span> +</Listing> You wouldn’t want a real-world web server to shut down after serving only two requests. This code just demonstrates that the graceful shutdown and cleanup is @@ -163,7 +165,7 @@ Start the server with `cargo run`, and make three requests. The third request should error, and in your terminal you should see output similar to this: <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25 +cd listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25 cargo run curl http://127.0.0.1:7878 curl http://127.0.0.1:7878 @@ -213,18 +215,22 @@ shutdown of the server, which cleans up all the threads in the pool. Here’s the full code for reference: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +</Listing> + +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs}} ``` +</Listing> + We could do more here! If you want to continue enhancing this project, here are some ideas: diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-01.svg b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-01.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..483bf7216 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-01.svg @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> +<!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"> +<!-- Generated by graphviz version 12.1.0 (20240811.2233) + --> +<!-- Pages: 1 --> +<svg + viewBox="0.00 0.00 2884 775.00" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> +<g id="graph0" class="graph" transform="scale(4.16667 4.16667) rotate(0) translate(4 182)"> +<polygon fill="white" stroke="none" points="-4,4 -4,-182 688.21,-182 688.21,4 -4,4"/> +<g id="clust1" class="cluster"> +<title>cluster_task_a + +Task A + + +cluster_task_b + +Task B + + + +A1 + +A1 + + + +A2 + +A2 + + + + +B1 + +B1 + + + +A1->B1 + + + + + +A3 + +A3 + + + + +B2 + +B2 + + + +A2->B2 + + + + + +A4 + +A4 + + + + +A3->A4 + + + + + + + + +B3 + +B3 + + + +A4->B3 + + + + + + + +B1->A2 + + + + + + +B2->A3 + + + + + + diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-02.svg b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-02.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5c32a1a26 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-02.svg @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_ColleagueB + +Task B + + +cluster_ColleagueA + +Task A + + + +B1 + +B1 + + + +B2 + +B2 + + + +B1->B2 + + + + + +B3 + +B3 + + + +B2->B3 + + + + + + + +A1 + +A1 + + + +A2 + +A2 + + + +A1->A2 + + + + + +A3 + +A3 + + + +A2->A3 + + + + + +A4 + +A4 + + + +A3->A4 + + + + + diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-03.svg b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-03.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad105a583 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-03.svg @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_ColleagueB + +Task A + + +cluster_ColleagueA + +Task B + + + +A1 + +A1 + + + +A2 + +A2 + + + +A1->A2 + + + + + + +A2->A0_1:c + + + + + + +A3 + +A3 + + + +A0_1->A3 + + + + + + + +B1 + +B1 + + + +B2 + +B2 + + + +B1->B2 + + + + + +B3 + +B3 + + + +B2->B3 + + + + + +B3->A3 + + + + + +B4 + +B4 + + + +B3->B4 + + + + + diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-04.svg b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-04.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fed6c3604 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-04.svg @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ + + + + + + + + + +fut1 + +fut1 + +0 + +1 + +   + + + +fut1:c->fut1:target + + + + + diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-05.svg b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-05.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e3472baa7 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-05.svg @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ + + + + + + + + +%3 + + + +fut1 + + +fut1 + +? + +? + +? + + + +fut2 + +fut2 + +0 + +1 + + + + + +fut2:c->fut1:c + + + + + diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-06.svg b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-06.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..443bb568d --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-06.svg @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_box + + +cluster_box_internal + +b1 + + +cluster_deref + +pinned + + + +pinned_box + +Pin + + + + + +pin + + + + +pinned_box:c->pin + + + + +box + +fut + +0 + + + +... + +1 + + + +pin->box:target + + + + + +box:c->box:internal + + + + + diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-07.svg b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-07.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..712e3006f --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-07.svg @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_not_fut + + +cluster_boxes + + +cluster_box_1 + + +cluster_box_2_internal + +b1 + + +cluster_box_2 + + +cluster_box_2_internal + +b2 + + +cluster_target + +pinned + + + +pin + +Pin + + + + + + + +box2 + + + + +pin:c->box2 + + + + + +fut + +fut + +0 + + + +... + +1 + + + +box2->fut:target + + + + + +fut:c->fut:internal + + + + + diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-08.svg b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-08.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b2275ac19 --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-08.svg @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_deref + +String + + + +pinned_box + +Pin + + + + + +pin + + + + +pinned_box:c->pin + + + + +fut + +5usize + +h + +e + +l + +l + +o + + + +pin->fut:target + + + + + diff --git a/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-09.svg b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-09.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..997d9b82e --- /dev/null +++ b/rustbook-en/src/img/trpl17-09.svg @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_both + + +cluster_deref + +String + + + +pinned_box + +Pin + + + + + +pin + + + + +pinned_box:c->pin + + + + +string1 + + +s1 + +5usize + +h + +e + +l + +l + +o + + + +string2 + +s2 + +7usize + +g + +o + +o + +d + +b + +y + +e + + + +pin->string2:target + + + + + diff --git a/rustbook-en/tests/integration/main.rs b/rustbook-en/tests/integration/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 6944fae69..000000000 --- a/rustbook-en/tests/integration/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ -use assert_cmd::Command; - -#[test] -fn supports_html_renderer() { - let cmd = Command::cargo_bin(env!("CARGO_PKG_NAME")) - .unwrap() - .args(["supports", "html"]) - .ok(); - assert!(cmd.is_ok()); -} - -#[test] -fn errors_for_other_renderers() { - let cmd = Command::cargo_bin(env!("CARGO_PKG_NAME")) - .unwrap() - .args(["supports", "total-nonsense"]) - .ok(); - assert!(cmd.is_err()); -} - -// It would be nice to add an actual fixture for an mdbook, but doing *that* is -// going to be a bit of a pain, and what I have should cover it for now.