diff --git a/nano/core_test/CMakeLists.txt b/nano/core_test/CMakeLists.txt
index e5b47c9e43..1d01f6e796 100644
--- a/nano/core_test/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/nano/core_test/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -35,10 +35,12 @@ add_executable(
   network_filter.cpp
   network_functions.cpp
   node.cpp
+  numbers.cpp
   object_stream.cpp
   optimistic_scheduler.cpp
   processing_queue.cpp
   processor_service.cpp
+  random_pool.cpp
   rep_crawler.cpp
   receivable.cpp
   peer_history.cpp
@@ -54,7 +56,6 @@ add_executable(
   throttle.cpp
   toml.cpp
   timer.cpp
-  uint256_union.cpp
   unchecked_map.cpp
   utility.cpp
   vote_cache.cpp
diff --git a/nano/core_test/ledger.cpp b/nano/core_test/ledger.cpp
index 23d3d751b1..0dd6e786db 100644
--- a/nano/core_test/ledger.cpp
+++ b/nano/core_test/ledger.cpp
@@ -2406,7 +2406,7 @@ TEST (ledger, state_account)
 				 .work (*pool.generate (nano::dev::genesis->hash ()))
 				 .build ();
 	ASSERT_EQ (nano::block_status::progress, ledger.process (transaction, send1));
-	ASSERT_EQ (nano::dev::genesis_key.pub, ledger.any.block_account (transaction, send1->hash ()));
+	ASSERT_EQ (nano::dev::genesis_key.pub, ledger.any.block_account (transaction, send1->hash ()).value ());
 }
 
 TEST (ledger, state_send_receive)
diff --git a/nano/core_test/uint256_union.cpp b/nano/core_test/numbers.cpp
similarity index 75%
rename from nano/core_test/uint256_union.cpp
rename to nano/core_test/numbers.cpp
index 743d0fe1c7..a30b2eb108 100644
--- a/nano/core_test/uint256_union.cpp
+++ b/nano/core_test/numbers.cpp
@@ -1,27 +1,192 @@
-#include <nano/crypto_lib/random_pool.hpp>
+#include <nano/lib/numbers.hpp>
 #include <nano/secure/common.hpp>
-#include <nano/test_common/testutil.hpp>
 
 #include <gtest/gtest.h>
 
+#include <boost/container_hash/hash.hpp>
+
 #include <thread>
+#include <unordered_set>
+
+TEST (numbers, identity)
+{
+	ASSERT_EQ (1, nano::uint128_union (1).number ().convert_to<uint8_t> ());
+	ASSERT_EQ (1, nano::uint256_union (1).number ().convert_to<uint8_t> ());
+	ASSERT_EQ (1, nano::uint512_union (1).number ().convert_to<uint8_t> ());
+}
 
 namespace
 {
-template <typename Union, typename Bound>
-void assert_union_types ();
+template <typename Type>
+void check_operator_less_than (Type lhs, Type rhs)
+{
+	ASSERT_TRUE (lhs < rhs);
+	ASSERT_FALSE (rhs < lhs);
+	ASSERT_FALSE (lhs < lhs);
+	ASSERT_FALSE (rhs < rhs);
+}
+
+template <typename Type>
+void test_operator_less_than ()
+{
+	using underlying_t = typename Type::underlying_type;
+
+	// Small
+	check_operator_less_than (Type{ 123 }, Type{ 124 });
+	check_operator_less_than (Type{ 124 }, Type{ 125 });
+
+	// Medium
+	check_operator_less_than (Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint16_t>::max () - 1 }, Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint16_t>::max () + 1 });
+	check_operator_less_than (Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max () - 12345678 }, Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max () - 123456 });
+
+	// Large
+	check_operator_less_than (Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max () - 555555555555 }, Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max () - 1 });
+
+	// Boundary values
+	check_operator_less_than (Type{ std::numeric_limits<underlying_t>::min () }, Type{ std::numeric_limits<underlying_t>::max () });
+}
+
+template <typename Type>
+void check_operator_greater_than (Type lhs, Type rhs)
+{
+	ASSERT_TRUE (lhs > rhs);
+	ASSERT_FALSE (rhs > lhs);
+	ASSERT_FALSE (lhs > lhs);
+	ASSERT_FALSE (rhs > rhs);
+}
+
+template <typename Type>
+void test_operator_greater_than ()
+{
+	using underlying_t = typename Type::underlying_type;
 
-template <typename Union, typename Bound>
-void test_union_operator_less_than ();
+	// Small
+	check_operator_greater_than (Type{ 124 }, Type{ 123 });
+	check_operator_greater_than (Type{ 125 }, Type{ 124 });
 
-template <typename Num>
-void check_operator_less_than (Num lhs, Num rhs);
+	// Medium
+	check_operator_greater_than (Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint16_t>::max () + 1 }, Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint16_t>::max () - 1 });
+	check_operator_greater_than (Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max () - 123456 }, Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max () - 12345678 });
 
-template <typename Union, typename Bound>
-void test_union_operator_greater_than ();
+	// Large
+	check_operator_greater_than (Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max () - 1 }, Type{ std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max () - 555555555555 });
 
-template <typename Num>
-void check_operator_greater_than (Num lhs, Num rhs);
+	// Boundary values
+	check_operator_greater_than (Type{ std::numeric_limits<underlying_t>::max () }, Type{ std::numeric_limits<underlying_t>::min () });
+}
+
+template <typename Type>
+void test_comparison ()
+{
+	test_operator_less_than<Type> ();
+	test_operator_greater_than<Type> ();
+}
+}
+
+TEST (numbers, comparison)
+{
+	test_comparison<nano::uint128_union> ();
+	test_comparison<nano::uint256_union> ();
+	test_comparison<nano::uint512_union> ();
+	test_comparison<nano::block_hash> ();
+	test_comparison<nano::public_key> ();
+	test_comparison<nano::hash_or_account> ();
+	test_comparison<nano::link> ();
+	test_comparison<nano::root> ();
+	test_comparison<nano::raw_key> ();
+	test_comparison<nano::wallet_id> ();
+	test_comparison<nano::qualified_root> ();
+}
+
+namespace
+{
+template <typename Type, template <typename> class Hash>
+void test_hashing ()
+{
+	Hash<Type> hash;
+	using underlying_t = typename Type::underlying_type;
+
+	// Basic equality tests
+	ASSERT_EQ (hash (Type{}), hash (Type{}));
+	ASSERT_EQ (hash (Type{ 123 }), hash (Type{ 123 }));
+
+	// Basic inequality tests
+	ASSERT_NE (hash (Type{ 123 }), hash (Type{ 124 }));
+	ASSERT_NE (hash (Type{ 0 }), hash (Type{ 1 }));
+
+	// Boundary value tests
+	constexpr auto min_val = std::numeric_limits<underlying_t>::min ();
+	constexpr auto max_val = std::numeric_limits<underlying_t>::max ();
+
+	// Min/Max tests
+	ASSERT_EQ (hash (Type{ min_val }), hash (Type{ min_val }));
+	ASSERT_EQ (hash (Type{ max_val }), hash (Type{ max_val }));
+	ASSERT_NE (hash (Type{ min_val }), hash (Type{ max_val }));
+
+	// Near boundary tests
+	ASSERT_NE (hash (Type{ min_val }), hash (Type{ min_val + 1 }));
+	ASSERT_NE (hash (Type{ max_val }), hash (Type{ max_val - 1 }));
+	ASSERT_NE (hash (Type{ min_val + 1 }), hash (Type{ max_val }));
+	ASSERT_NE (hash (Type{ max_val - 1 }), hash (Type{ min_val }));
+
+	// Common value tests
+	std::vector<underlying_t> common_values = {
+		0, // Zero
+		1, // One
+		42, // Common test value
+		0xFF, // Byte boundary
+		0xFFFF, // Word boundary
+		min_val, // Minimum
+		max_val, // Maximum
+		max_val / 2, // Middle value
+		min_val + (max_val / 2) // Offset middle
+	};
+
+	// Test all common values against each other
+	for (size_t i = 0; i < common_values.size (); ++i)
+	{
+		for (size_t j = i + 1; j < common_values.size (); ++j)
+		{
+			if (common_values[i] != common_values[j])
+			{
+				ASSERT_NE (hash (Type{ common_values[i] }), hash (Type{ common_values[j] }));
+			}
+			else
+			{
+				ASSERT_EQ (hash (Type{ common_values[i] }), hash (Type{ common_values[j] }));
+			}
+		}
+	}
+}
+}
+
+TEST (numbers, hashing)
+{
+	// Using std::hash
+	test_hashing<nano::uint128_union, std::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::uint256_union, std::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::uint512_union, std::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::block_hash, std::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::public_key, std::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::hash_or_account, std::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::link, std::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::root, std::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::raw_key, std::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::wallet_id, std::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::qualified_root, std::hash> ();
+
+	// Using boost::hash
+	test_hashing<nano::uint128_union, boost::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::uint256_union, boost::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::uint512_union, boost::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::block_hash, boost::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::public_key, boost::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::hash_or_account, boost::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::link, boost::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::root, boost::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::raw_key, boost::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::wallet_id, boost::hash> ();
+	test_hashing<nano::qualified_root, boost::hash> ();
 }
 
 TEST (uint128_union, decode_dec)
@@ -64,16 +229,6 @@ TEST (uint128_union, decode_dec_overflow)
 	ASSERT_TRUE (error);
 }
 
-TEST (uint128_union, operator_less_than)
-{
-	test_union_operator_less_than<nano::uint128_union, nano::uint128_t> ();
-}
-
-TEST (uint128_union, operator_greater_than)
-{
-	test_union_operator_greater_than<nano::uint128_union, nano::uint128_t> ();
-}
-
 struct test_punct : std::moneypunct<char>
 {
 	pattern do_pos_format () const
@@ -149,13 +304,6 @@ TEST (uint128_union, decode_decimal)
 	ASSERT_EQ (1230 * nano::Knano_ratio, amount.number ());
 }
 
-TEST (unions, identity)
-{
-	ASSERT_EQ (1, nano::uint128_union (1).number ().convert_to<uint8_t> ());
-	ASSERT_EQ (1, nano::uint256_union (1).number ().convert_to<uint8_t> ());
-	ASSERT_EQ (1, nano::uint512_union (1).number ().convert_to<uint8_t> ());
-}
-
 TEST (uint256_union, key_encryption)
 {
 	nano::keypair key1;
@@ -449,11 +597,6 @@ TEST (uint256_union, bounds)
 	ASSERT_TRUE (key.decode_account (bad2));
 }
 
-TEST (uint256_union, operator_less_than)
-{
-	test_union_operator_less_than<nano::uint256_union, nano::uint256_t> ();
-}
-
 TEST (uint64_t, parse)
 {
 	uint64_t value0 (1);
@@ -504,114 +647,4 @@ TEST (uint512_union, hash)
 			ASSERT_NE (h (x1), h (x2));
 		}
 	}
-}
-
-namespace
-{
-template <typename Union, typename Bound>
-void assert_union_types ()
-{
-	static_assert ((std::is_same<Union, nano::uint128_union>::value && std::is_same<Bound, nano::uint128_t>::value) || (std::is_same<Union, nano::uint256_union>::value && std::is_same<Bound, nano::uint256_t>::value) || (std::is_same<Union, nano::uint512_union>::value && std::is_same<Bound, nano::uint512_t>::value),
-	"Union type needs to be consistent with the lower/upper Bound type");
-}
-
-template <typename Union, typename Bound>
-void test_union_operator_less_than ()
-{
-	assert_union_types<Union, Bound> ();
-
-	// Small
-	check_operator_less_than (Union (123), Union (124));
-	check_operator_less_than (Union (124), Union (125));
-
-	// Medium
-	check_operator_less_than (Union (std::numeric_limits<uint16_t>::max () - 1), Union (std::numeric_limits<uint16_t>::max () + 1));
-	check_operator_less_than (Union (std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max () - 12345678), Union (std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max () - 123456));
-
-	// Large
-	check_operator_less_than (Union (std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max () - 555555555555), Union (std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max () - 1));
-
-	// Boundary values
-	check_operator_less_than (Union (std::numeric_limits<Bound>::min ()), Union (std::numeric_limits<Bound>::max ()));
-}
-
-template <typename Num>
-void check_operator_less_than (Num lhs, Num rhs)
-{
-	ASSERT_TRUE (lhs < rhs);
-	ASSERT_FALSE (rhs < lhs);
-	ASSERT_FALSE (lhs < lhs);
-	ASSERT_FALSE (rhs < rhs);
-}
-
-template <typename Union, typename Bound>
-void test_union_operator_greater_than ()
-{
-	assert_union_types<Union, Bound> ();
-
-	// Small
-	check_operator_greater_than (Union (124), Union (123));
-	check_operator_greater_than (Union (125), Union (124));
-
-	// Medium
-	check_operator_greater_than (Union (std::numeric_limits<uint16_t>::max () + 1), Union (std::numeric_limits<uint16_t>::max () - 1));
-	check_operator_greater_than (Union (std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max () - 123456), Union (std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max () - 12345678));
-
-	// Large
-	check_operator_greater_than (Union (std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max () - 1), Union (std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max () - 555555555555));
-
-	// Boundary values
-	check_operator_greater_than (Union (std::numeric_limits<Bound>::max ()), Union (std::numeric_limits<Bound>::min ()));
-}
-
-template <typename Num>
-void check_operator_greater_than (Num lhs, Num rhs)
-{
-	ASSERT_TRUE (lhs > rhs);
-	ASSERT_FALSE (rhs > lhs);
-	ASSERT_FALSE (lhs > lhs);
-	ASSERT_FALSE (rhs > rhs);
-}
-}
-
-TEST (random_pool, multithreading)
-{
-	std::vector<std::thread> threads;
-	for (auto i = 0; i < 100; ++i)
-	{
-		threads.emplace_back ([] () {
-			nano::uint256_union number;
-			nano::random_pool::generate_block (number.bytes.data (), number.bytes.size ());
-		});
-	}
-	for (auto & i : threads)
-	{
-		i.join ();
-	}
-}
-
-// Test that random 64bit numbers are within the given range
-TEST (random_pool, generate_word64)
-{
-	int occurrences[10] = { 0 };
-	for (auto i = 0; i < 1000; ++i)
-	{
-		auto random = nano::random_pool::generate_word64 (1, 9);
-		ASSERT_TRUE (random >= 1 && random <= 9);
-		occurrences[random] += 1;
-	}
-
-	for (auto i = 1; i < 10; ++i)
-	{
-		ASSERT_GT (occurrences[i], 0);
-	}
-}
-
-// Test random numbers > uint32 max
-TEST (random_pool, generate_word64_big_number)
-{
-	uint64_t min = static_cast<uint64_t> (std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max ()) + 1;
-	uint64_t max = std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max ();
-	auto big_random = nano::random_pool::generate_word64 (min, max);
-	ASSERT_GE (big_random, min);
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/nano/core_test/random_pool.cpp b/nano/core_test/random_pool.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..227ea87fcb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/nano/core_test/random_pool.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+#include <nano/crypto_lib/random_pool.hpp>
+#include <nano/lib/numbers.hpp>
+
+#include <gtest/gtest.h>
+
+#include <thread>
+
+TEST (random_pool, multithreading)
+{
+	std::vector<std::thread> threads;
+	for (auto i = 0; i < 100; ++i)
+	{
+		threads.emplace_back ([] () {
+			nano::uint256_union number;
+			nano::random_pool::generate_block (number.bytes.data (), number.bytes.size ());
+		});
+	}
+	for (auto & i : threads)
+	{
+		i.join ();
+	}
+}
+
+// Test that random 64bit numbers are within the given range
+TEST (random_pool, generate_word64)
+{
+	int occurrences[10] = { 0 };
+	for (auto i = 0; i < 1000; ++i)
+	{
+		auto random = nano::random_pool::generate_word64 (1, 9);
+		ASSERT_TRUE (random >= 1 && random <= 9);
+		occurrences[random] += 1;
+	}
+
+	for (auto i = 1; i < 10; ++i)
+	{
+		ASSERT_GT (occurrences[i], 0);
+	}
+}
+
+// Test random numbers > uint32 max
+TEST (random_pool, generate_word64_big_number)
+{
+	uint64_t min = static_cast<uint64_t> (std::numeric_limits<uint32_t>::max ()) + 1;
+	uint64_t max = std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max ();
+	auto big_random = nano::random_pool::generate_word64 (min, max);
+	ASSERT_GE (big_random, min);
+}
diff --git a/nano/lib/blocks.cpp b/nano/lib/blocks.cpp
index a4c21b8678..4fc527eb0d 100644
--- a/nano/lib/blocks.cpp
+++ b/nano/lib/blocks.cpp
@@ -609,7 +609,7 @@ std::optional<nano::account> nano::send_block::destination_field () const
 	return hashables.destination;
 }
 
-nano::root const & nano::send_block::root () const
+nano::root nano::send_block::root () const
 {
 	return hashables.previous;
 }
@@ -899,7 +899,7 @@ std::optional<nano::block_hash> nano::open_block::source_field () const
 	return hashables.source;
 }
 
-nano::root const & nano::open_block::root () const
+nano::root nano::open_block::root () const
 {
 	return hashables.account;
 }
@@ -1165,7 +1165,7 @@ bool nano::change_block::valid_predecessor (nano::block const & block_a) const
 	return result;
 }
 
-nano::root const & nano::change_block::root () const
+nano::root nano::change_block::root () const
 {
 	return hashables.previous;
 }
@@ -1482,7 +1482,7 @@ bool nano::state_block::valid_predecessor (nano::block const & block_a) const
 	return true;
 }
 
-nano::root const & nano::state_block::root () const
+nano::root nano::state_block::root () const
 {
 	if (!hashables.previous.is_zero ())
 	{
@@ -1836,7 +1836,7 @@ std::optional<nano::block_hash> nano::receive_block::source_field () const
 	return hashables.source;
 }
 
-nano::root const & nano::receive_block::root () const
+nano::root nano::receive_block::root () const
 {
 	return hashables.previous;
 }
diff --git a/nano/lib/blocks.hpp b/nano/lib/blocks.hpp
index 1ddb8302dd..2312855cb6 100644
--- a/nano/lib/blocks.hpp
+++ b/nano/lib/blocks.hpp
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ class block
 	virtual uint64_t block_work () const = 0;
 	virtual void block_work_set (uint64_t) = 0;
 	// Previous block or account number for open blocks
-	virtual nano::root const & root () const = 0;
+	virtual nano::root root () const = 0;
 	// Qualified root value based on previous() and root()
 	virtual nano::qualified_root qualified_root () const;
 	virtual void serialize (nano::stream &) const = 0;
@@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ class send_block : public nano::block
 	virtual ~send_block () = default;
 	uint64_t block_work () const override;
 	void block_work_set (uint64_t) override;
-	nano::root const & root () const override;
+	nano::root root () const override;
 	void serialize (nano::stream &) const override;
 	bool deserialize (nano::stream &);
 	void serialize_json (std::string &, bool = false) const override;
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ class receive_block : public nano::block
 	virtual ~receive_block () = default;
 	uint64_t block_work () const override;
 	void block_work_set (uint64_t) override;
-	nano::root const & root () const override;
+	nano::root root () const override;
 	void serialize (nano::stream &) const override;
 	bool deserialize (nano::stream &);
 	void serialize_json (std::string &, bool = false) const override;
@@ -232,7 +232,7 @@ class open_block : public nano::block
 	virtual ~open_block () = default;
 	uint64_t block_work () const override;
 	void block_work_set (uint64_t) override;
-	nano::root const & root () const override;
+	nano::root root () const override;
 	void serialize (nano::stream &) const override;
 	bool deserialize (nano::stream &);
 	void serialize_json (std::string &, bool = false) const override;
@@ -287,7 +287,7 @@ class change_block : public nano::block
 	virtual ~change_block () = default;
 	uint64_t block_work () const override;
 	void block_work_set (uint64_t) override;
-	nano::root const & root () const override;
+	nano::root root () const override;
 	void serialize (nano::stream &) const override;
 	bool deserialize (nano::stream &);
 	void serialize_json (std::string &, bool = false) const override;
@@ -353,7 +353,7 @@ class state_block : public nano::block
 	virtual ~state_block () = default;
 	uint64_t block_work () const override;
 	void block_work_set (uint64_t) override;
-	nano::root const & root () const override;
+	nano::root root () const override;
 	void serialize (nano::stream &) const override;
 	bool deserialize (nano::stream &);
 	void serialize_json (std::string &, bool = false) const override;
diff --git a/nano/lib/numbers.cpp b/nano/lib/numbers.cpp
index f33d6f3cb3..916329b673 100644
--- a/nano/lib/numbers.cpp
+++ b/nano/lib/numbers.cpp
@@ -61,11 +61,6 @@ std::string nano::public_key::to_account () const
 	return result;
 }
 
-nano::public_key::public_key () :
-	uint256_union{ 0 }
-{
-}
-
 nano::public_key const & nano::public_key::null ()
 {
 	return nano::hardened_constants::get ().not_an_account;
@@ -143,12 +138,6 @@ bool nano::public_key::decode_account (std::string const & source_a)
 	return error;
 }
 
-nano::uint256_union::uint256_union (nano::uint256_t const & number_a)
-{
-	bytes.fill (0);
-	boost::multiprecision::export_bits (number_a, bytes.rbegin (), 8, false);
-}
-
 // Construct a uint256_union = AES_ENC_CTR (cleartext, key, iv)
 void nano::uint256_union::encrypt (nano::raw_key const & cleartext, nano::raw_key const & key, uint128_union const & iv)
 {
@@ -157,11 +146,6 @@ void nano::uint256_union::encrypt (nano::raw_key const & cleartext, nano::raw_ke
 	enc.ProcessData (bytes.data (), cleartext.bytes.data (), sizeof (cleartext.bytes));
 }
 
-bool nano::uint256_union::is_zero () const
-{
-	return qwords[0] == 0 && qwords[1] == 0 && qwords[2] == 0 && qwords[3] == 0;
-}
-
 std::string nano::uint256_union::to_string () const
 {
 	std::string result;
@@ -193,22 +177,9 @@ nano::uint256_union nano::uint256_union::operator^ (nano::uint256_union const &
 nano::uint256_union::uint256_union (std::string const & hex_a)
 {
 	auto error (decode_hex (hex_a));
-
 	release_assert (!error);
 }
 
-void nano::uint256_union::clear ()
-{
-	qwords.fill (0);
-}
-
-nano::uint256_t nano::uint256_union::number () const
-{
-	nano::uint256_t result;
-	boost::multiprecision::import_bits (result, bytes.begin (), bytes.end ());
-	return result;
-}
-
 void nano::uint256_union::encode_hex (std::string & text) const
 {
 	debug_assert (text.empty ());
@@ -281,46 +252,6 @@ bool nano::uint256_union::decode_dec (std::string const & text)
 	return error;
 }
 
-nano::uint256_union::uint256_union (uint64_t value0)
-{
-	*this = nano::uint256_t (value0);
-}
-
-bool nano::uint512_union::operator== (nano::uint512_union const & other_a) const
-{
-	return bytes == other_a.bytes;
-}
-
-nano::uint512_union::uint512_union (nano::uint256_union const & upper, nano::uint256_union const & lower)
-{
-	uint256s[0] = upper;
-	uint256s[1] = lower;
-}
-
-nano::uint512_union::uint512_union (nano::uint512_t const & number_a)
-{
-	bytes.fill (0);
-	boost::multiprecision::export_bits (number_a, bytes.rbegin (), 8, false);
-}
-
-bool nano::uint512_union::is_zero () const
-{
-	return qwords[0] == 0 && qwords[1] == 0 && qwords[2] == 0 && qwords[3] == 0
-	&& qwords[4] == 0 && qwords[5] == 0 && qwords[6] == 0 && qwords[7] == 0;
-}
-
-void nano::uint512_union::clear ()
-{
-	bytes.fill (0);
-}
-
-nano::uint512_t nano::uint512_union::number () const
-{
-	nano::uint512_t result;
-	boost::multiprecision::import_bits (result, bytes.begin (), bytes.end ());
-	return result;
-}
-
 void nano::uint512_union::encode_hex (std::string & text) const
 {
 	debug_assert (text.empty ());
@@ -355,18 +286,6 @@ bool nano::uint512_union::decode_hex (std::string const & text)
 	return error;
 }
 
-bool nano::uint512_union::operator!= (nano::uint512_union const & other_a) const
-{
-	return !(*this == other_a);
-}
-
-nano::uint512_union & nano::uint512_union::operator^= (nano::uint512_union const & other_a)
-{
-	uint256s[0] ^= other_a.uint256s[0];
-	uint256s[1] ^= other_a.uint256s[1];
-	return *this;
-}
-
 std::string nano::uint512_union::to_string () const
 {
 	std::string result;
@@ -431,48 +350,9 @@ bool nano::validate_message (nano::public_key const & public_key, nano::uint256_
 nano::uint128_union::uint128_union (std::string const & string_a)
 {
 	auto error (decode_hex (string_a));
-
 	release_assert (!error);
 }
 
-nano::uint128_union::uint128_union (uint64_t value_a)
-{
-	*this = nano::uint128_t (value_a);
-}
-
-nano::uint128_union::uint128_union (nano::uint128_t const & number_a)
-{
-	bytes.fill (0);
-	boost::multiprecision::export_bits (number_a, bytes.rbegin (), 8, false);
-}
-
-bool nano::uint128_union::operator== (nano::uint128_union const & other_a) const
-{
-	return qwords[0] == other_a.qwords[0] && qwords[1] == other_a.qwords[1];
-}
-
-bool nano::uint128_union::operator!= (nano::uint128_union const & other_a) const
-{
-	return !(*this == other_a);
-}
-
-bool nano::uint128_union::operator< (nano::uint128_union const & other_a) const
-{
-	return std::memcmp (bytes.data (), other_a.bytes.data (), 16) < 0;
-}
-
-bool nano::uint128_union::operator> (nano::uint128_union const & other_a) const
-{
-	return std::memcmp (bytes.data (), other_a.bytes.data (), 16) > 0;
-}
-
-nano::uint128_t nano::uint128_union::number () const
-{
-	nano::uint128_t result;
-	boost::multiprecision::import_bits (result, bytes.begin (), bytes.end ());
-	return result;
-}
-
 void nano::uint128_union::encode_hex (std::string & text) const
 {
 	debug_assert (text.empty ());
@@ -747,16 +627,6 @@ std::string nano::uint128_union::format_balance (nano::uint128_t scale, int prec
 	return ::format_balance (number (), scale, precision, group_digits, thousands_sep, decimal_point, grouping);
 }
 
-void nano::uint128_union::clear ()
-{
-	qwords.fill (0);
-}
-
-bool nano::uint128_union::is_zero () const
-{
-	return qwords[0] == 0 && qwords[1] == 0;
-}
-
 std::string nano::uint128_union::to_string () const
 {
 	std::string result;
@@ -771,26 +641,6 @@ std::string nano::uint128_union::to_string_dec () const
 	return result;
 }
 
-nano::hash_or_account::hash_or_account () :
-	account{}
-{
-}
-
-nano::hash_or_account::hash_or_account (uint64_t value_a) :
-	raw (value_a)
-{
-}
-
-bool nano::hash_or_account::is_zero () const
-{
-	return raw.is_zero ();
-}
-
-void nano::hash_or_account::clear ()
-{
-	raw.clear ();
-}
-
 bool nano::hash_or_account::decode_hex (std::string const & text_a)
 {
 	return raw.decode_hex (text_a);
@@ -811,36 +661,6 @@ std::string nano::hash_or_account::to_account () const
 	return account.to_account ();
 }
 
-nano::block_hash const & nano::hash_or_account::as_block_hash () const
-{
-	return hash;
-}
-
-nano::account const & nano::hash_or_account::as_account () const
-{
-	return account;
-}
-
-nano::hash_or_account::operator nano::uint256_union const & () const
-{
-	return raw;
-}
-
-nano::block_hash const & nano::root::previous () const
-{
-	return hash;
-}
-
-bool nano::hash_or_account::operator== (nano::hash_or_account const & hash_or_account_a) const
-{
-	return bytes == hash_or_account_a.bytes;
-}
-
-bool nano::hash_or_account::operator!= (nano::hash_or_account const & hash_or_account_a) const
-{
-	return !(*this == hash_or_account_a);
-}
-
 std::string nano::to_string_hex (uint64_t const value_a)
 {
 	std::stringstream stream;
@@ -915,6 +735,13 @@ std::ostream & nano::operator<< (std::ostream & os, const uint512_union & val)
 	return os;
 }
 
+std::ostream & nano::operator<< (std::ostream & os, const hash_or_account & val)
+{
+	// TODO: Replace with streaming implementation
+	os << val.to_string ();
+	return os;
+}
+
 #ifdef _WIN32
 #pragma warning(push)
 #pragma warning(disable : 4146) // warning C4146: unary minus operator applied to unsigned type, result still unsigned
@@ -947,43 +774,3 @@ double nano::difficulty::to_multiplier (uint64_t const difficulty_a, uint64_t co
 #ifdef _WIN32
 #pragma warning(pop)
 #endif
-
-nano::public_key::operator nano::link const & () const
-{
-	return reinterpret_cast<nano::link const &> (*this);
-}
-
-nano::public_key::operator nano::root const & () const
-{
-	return reinterpret_cast<nano::root const &> (*this);
-}
-
-nano::public_key::operator nano::hash_or_account const & () const
-{
-	return reinterpret_cast<nano::hash_or_account const &> (*this);
-}
-
-bool nano::public_key::operator== (std::nullptr_t) const
-{
-	return bytes == null ().bytes;
-}
-
-bool nano::public_key::operator!= (std::nullptr_t) const
-{
-	return !(*this == nullptr);
-}
-
-nano::block_hash::operator nano::link const & () const
-{
-	return reinterpret_cast<nano::link const &> (*this);
-}
-
-nano::block_hash::operator nano::root const & () const
-{
-	return reinterpret_cast<nano::root const &> (*this);
-}
-
-nano::block_hash::operator nano::hash_or_account const & () const
-{
-	return reinterpret_cast<nano::hash_or_account const &> (*this);
-}
diff --git a/nano/lib/numbers.hpp b/nano/lib/numbers.hpp
index c637e1594b..bf8137c657 100644
--- a/nano/lib/numbers.hpp
+++ b/nano/lib/numbers.hpp
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@
 #include <boost/multiprecision/cpp_int.hpp>
 
 #include <array>
+#include <compare>
+#include <limits>
 #include <ostream>
 
 #include <fmt/ostream.h>
@@ -13,6 +15,7 @@ namespace nano
 using uint128_t = boost::multiprecision::uint128_t;
 using uint256_t = boost::multiprecision::uint256_t;
 using uint512_t = boost::multiprecision::uint512_t;
+
 // SI dividers
 nano::uint128_t const Knano_ratio = nano::uint128_t ("1000000000000000000000000000000000"); // 10^33 = 1000 nano
 nano::uint128_t const nano_ratio = nano::uint128_t ("1000000000000000000000000000000"); // 10^30 = 1 nano
@@ -20,31 +23,55 @@ nano::uint128_t const raw_ratio = nano::uint128_t ("1"); // 10^0
 
 class uint128_union
 {
+public:
+	// Type that is implicitly convertible to this union
+	using underlying_type = nano::uint128_t;
+
 public:
 	uint128_union () = default;
+	uint128_union (uint64_t value) :
+		uint128_union (nano::uint128_t{ value }){};
+	uint128_union (nano::uint128_t const & value)
+	{
+		bytes.fill (0);
+		boost::multiprecision::export_bits (value, bytes.rbegin (), 8, false);
+	}
+
 	/**
 	 * Decode from hex string
 	 * @warning Aborts at runtime if the input is invalid
 	 */
-	uint128_union (std::string const &);
-	uint128_union (uint64_t);
-	uint128_union (nano::uint128_t const &);
-	bool operator== (nano::uint128_union const &) const;
-	bool operator!= (nano::uint128_union const &) const;
-	bool operator< (nano::uint128_union const &) const;
-	bool operator> (nano::uint128_union const &) const;
+	explicit uint128_union (std::string const &);
+
 	void encode_hex (std::string &) const;
 	bool decode_hex (std::string const &);
 	void encode_dec (std::string &) const;
 	bool decode_dec (std::string const &, bool = false);
 	bool decode_dec (std::string const &, nano::uint128_t);
+
 	std::string format_balance (nano::uint128_t scale, int precision, bool group_digits) const;
 	std::string format_balance (nano::uint128_t scale, int precision, bool group_digits, std::locale const & locale) const;
-	nano::uint128_t number () const;
-	void clear ();
-	bool is_zero () const;
+
+	void clear ()
+	{
+		qwords.fill (0);
+	}
+	bool is_zero () const
+	{
+		return qwords[0] == 0 && qwords[1] == 0;
+	}
+
+	nano::uint128_t number () const
+	{
+		nano::uint128_t result;
+		boost::multiprecision::import_bits (result, bytes.begin (), bytes.end ());
+		return result;
+	}
+
 	std::string to_string () const;
 	std::string to_string_dec () const;
+
+public:
 	union
 	{
 		std::array<uint8_t, 16> bytes;
@@ -52,6 +79,24 @@ class uint128_union
 		std::array<uint32_t, 4> dwords;
 		std::array<uint64_t, 2> qwords;
 	};
+
+public: // Keep operators inlined
+	std::strong_ordering operator<=> (nano::uint128_union const & other) const
+	{
+		return std::memcmp (bytes.data (), other.bytes.data (), 16) <=> 0;
+	};
+	bool operator== (nano::uint128_union const & other) const
+	{
+		return *this <=> other == 0;
+	}
+	operator nano::uint128_t () const
+	{
+		return number ();
+	}
+	uint128_union const & as_union () const
+	{
+		return *this;
+	}
 };
 static_assert (std::is_nothrow_move_constructible<uint128_union>::value, "uint128_union should be noexcept MoveConstructible");
 
@@ -61,37 +106,69 @@ class amount : public uint128_union
 public:
 	using uint128_union::uint128_union;
 
+	auto operator<=> (nano::amount const & other) const
+	{
+		return uint128_union::operator<=> (other);
+	}
 	operator nano::uint128_t () const
 	{
 		return number ();
 	}
 };
+
 class raw_key;
 
 class uint256_union
 {
+public:
+	// Type that is implicitly convertible to this union
+	using underlying_type = nano::uint256_t;
+
 public:
 	uint256_union () = default;
+	uint256_union (uint64_t value) :
+		uint256_union (nano::uint256_t{ value }){};
+	uint256_union (nano::uint256_t const & value)
+	{
+		bytes.fill (0);
+		boost::multiprecision::export_bits (value, bytes.rbegin (), 8, false);
+	}
+
 	/**
 	 * Decode from hex string
 	 * @warning Aborts at runtime if the input is invalid
 	 */
 	explicit uint256_union (std::string const &);
-	uint256_union (uint64_t);
-	uint256_union (nano::uint256_t const &);
+
 	void encrypt (nano::raw_key const &, nano::raw_key const &, uint128_union const &);
-	uint256_union & operator^= (nano::uint256_union const &);
-	uint256_union operator^ (nano::uint256_union const &) const;
+
+	uint256_union & operator^= (uint256_union const &);
+	uint256_union operator^ (uint256_union const &) const;
+
 	void encode_hex (std::string &) const;
 	bool decode_hex (std::string const &);
 	void encode_dec (std::string &) const;
 	bool decode_dec (std::string const &);
 
-	void clear ();
-	bool is_zero () const;
+	void clear ()
+	{
+		qwords.fill (0);
+	}
+	bool is_zero () const
+	{
+		return owords[0].is_zero () && owords[1].is_zero ();
+	}
+
+	nano::uint256_t number () const
+	{
+		nano::uint256_t result;
+		boost::multiprecision::import_bits (result, bytes.begin (), bytes.end ());
+		return result;
+	}
+
 	std::string to_string () const;
-	nano::uint256_t number () const;
 
+public:
 	union
 	{
 		std::array<uint8_t, 32> bytes;
@@ -100,33 +177,46 @@ class uint256_union
 		std::array<uint64_t, 4> qwords;
 		std::array<uint128_union, 2> owords;
 	};
+
+public: // Keep operators inlined
+	std::strong_ordering operator<=> (nano::uint256_union const & other) const
+	{
+		return std::memcmp (bytes.data (), other.bytes.data (), 32) <=> 0;
+	};
+	bool operator== (nano::uint256_union const & other) const
+	{
+		return *this <=> other == 0;
+	}
+	operator nano::uint256_t () const
+	{
+		return number ();
+	}
+	uint256_union const & as_union () const
+	{
+		return *this;
+	}
 };
-inline bool operator== (nano::uint256_union const & lhs, nano::uint256_union const & rhs)
-{
-	return lhs.bytes == rhs.bytes;
-}
-inline bool operator!= (nano::uint256_union const & lhs, nano::uint256_union const & rhs)
-{
-	return !(lhs == rhs);
-}
-inline bool operator< (nano::uint256_union const & lhs, nano::uint256_union const & rhs)
-{
-	return std::memcmp (lhs.bytes.data (), rhs.bytes.data (), 32) < 0;
-}
 static_assert (std::is_nothrow_move_constructible<uint256_union>::value, "uint256_union should be noexcept MoveConstructible");
 
-class link;
-class root;
-class hash_or_account;
-
 // All keys and hashes are 256 bit.
 class block_hash final : public uint256_union
 {
 public:
 	using uint256_union::uint256_union;
-	operator nano::link const & () const;
-	operator nano::root const & () const;
-	operator nano::hash_or_account const & () const;
+
+public: // Keep operators inlined
+	auto operator<=> (nano::block_hash const & other) const
+	{
+		return uint256_union::operator<=> (other);
+	}
+	bool operator== (nano::block_hash const & other) const
+	{
+		return *this <=> other == 0;
+	}
+	operator nano::uint256_t () const
+	{
+		return number ();
+	}
 };
 
 class public_key final : public uint256_union
@@ -134,21 +224,35 @@ class public_key final : public uint256_union
 public:
 	using uint256_union::uint256_union;
 
-	public_key ();
+	public_key () :
+		uint256_union{ 0 } {};
 
 	static const public_key & null ();
 
-	std::string to_node_id () const;
-	bool decode_node_id (std::string const & source_a);
+	bool decode_node_id (std::string const &);
 	void encode_account (std::string &) const;
-	std::string to_account () const;
 	bool decode_account (std::string const &);
 
-	operator nano::link const & () const;
-	operator nano::root const & () const;
-	operator nano::hash_or_account const & () const;
-	bool operator== (std::nullptr_t) const;
-	bool operator!= (std::nullptr_t) const;
+	std::string to_node_id () const;
+	std::string to_account () const;
+
+public: // Keep operators inlined
+	auto operator<=> (nano::public_key const & other) const
+	{
+		return uint256_union::operator<=> (other);
+	}
+	bool operator== (nano::public_key const & other) const
+	{
+		return *this <=> other == 0;
+	}
+	bool operator== (std::nullptr_t) const
+	{
+		return *this == null ();
+	}
+	operator nano::uint256_t () const
+	{
+		return number ();
+	}
 };
 
 class wallet_id : public uint256_union
@@ -162,24 +266,33 @@ using account = public_key;
 class hash_or_account
 {
 public:
-	hash_or_account ();
-	hash_or_account (uint64_t value_a);
+	// Type that is implicitly convertible to this union
+	using underlying_type = nano::uint256_t;
+
+public:
+	hash_or_account () :
+		account{} {};
+	hash_or_account (uint64_t value) :
+		raw{ value } {};
+	hash_or_account (uint256_union const & value) :
+		raw{ value } {};
+
+	void clear ()
+	{
+		raw.clear ();
+	}
+	bool is_zero () const
+	{
+		return raw.is_zero ();
+	}
 
-	bool is_zero () const;
-	void clear ();
-	std::string to_string () const;
 	bool decode_hex (std::string const &);
 	bool decode_account (std::string const &);
-	std::string to_account () const;
-
-	nano::account const & as_account () const;
-	nano::block_hash const & as_block_hash () const;
 
-	operator nano::uint256_union const & () const;
-
-	bool operator== (nano::hash_or_account const &) const;
-	bool operator!= (nano::hash_or_account const &) const;
+	std::string to_string () const;
+	std::string to_account () const;
 
+public:
 	union
 	{
 		std::array<uint8_t, 32> bytes;
@@ -187,6 +300,36 @@ class hash_or_account
 		nano::account account;
 		nano::block_hash hash;
 	};
+
+public: // Keep operators inlined
+	auto operator<=> (nano::hash_or_account const & other) const
+	{
+		return raw <=> other.raw;
+	};
+	bool operator== (nano::hash_or_account const & other) const
+	{
+		return *this <=> other == 0;
+	}
+	explicit operator nano::uint256_t () const
+	{
+		return raw.number ();
+	}
+	explicit operator nano::uint256_union () const
+	{
+		return raw;
+	}
+	nano::account const & as_account () const
+	{
+		return account;
+	}
+	nano::block_hash const & as_block_hash () const
+	{
+		return hash;
+	}
+	nano::uint256_union const & as_union () const
+	{
+		return raw;
+	}
 };
 
 // A link can either be a destination account or source hash
@@ -194,6 +337,16 @@ class link final : public hash_or_account
 {
 public:
 	using hash_or_account::hash_or_account;
+
+public: // Keep operators inlined
+	auto operator<=> (nano::link const & other) const
+	{
+		return hash_or_account::operator<=> (other);
+	}
+	bool operator== (nano::link const & other) const
+	{
+		return *this <=> other == 0;
+	}
 };
 
 // A root can either be an open block hash or a previous hash
@@ -202,7 +355,20 @@ class root final : public hash_or_account
 public:
 	using hash_or_account::hash_or_account;
 
-	nano::block_hash const & previous () const;
+	nano::block_hash const & previous () const
+	{
+		return hash;
+	}
+
+public: // Keep operators inlined
+	auto operator<=> (nano::root const & other) const
+	{
+		return hash_or_account::operator<=> (other);
+	}
+	bool operator== (nano::root const & other) const
+	{
+		return *this <=> other == 0;
+	}
 };
 
 // The seed or private key
@@ -213,22 +379,52 @@ class raw_key final : public uint256_union
 	~raw_key ();
 	void decrypt (nano::uint256_union const &, nano::raw_key const &, uint128_union const &);
 };
+
 class uint512_union
 {
+public:
+	// Type that is implicitly convertible to this union
+	using underlying_type = nano::uint512_t;
+
 public:
 	uint512_union () = default;
-	uint512_union (nano::uint256_union const &, nano::uint256_union const &);
-	uint512_union (nano::uint512_t const &);
-	bool operator== (nano::uint512_union const &) const;
-	bool operator!= (nano::uint512_union const &) const;
-	nano::uint512_union & operator^= (nano::uint512_union const &);
+	uint512_union (nano::uint512_t const & value)
+	{
+		bytes.fill (0);
+		boost::multiprecision::export_bits (value, bytes.rbegin (), 8, false);
+	}
+	uint512_union (nano::uint256_union const & upper, nano::uint256_union const & lower) :
+		uint256s{ upper, lower } {};
+
+	nano::uint512_union & operator^= (nano::uint512_union const & other)
+	{
+		uint256s[0] ^= other.uint256s[0];
+		uint256s[1] ^= other.uint256s[1];
+		return *this;
+	}
+
 	void encode_hex (std::string &) const;
 	bool decode_hex (std::string const &);
-	void clear ();
-	bool is_zero () const;
-	nano::uint512_t number () const;
+
+	void clear ()
+	{
+		bytes.fill (0);
+	}
+	bool is_zero () const
+	{
+		return uint256s[0].is_zero () && uint256s[1].is_zero ();
+	}
+
+	nano::uint512_t number () const
+	{
+		nano::uint512_t result;
+		boost::multiprecision::import_bits (result, bytes.begin (), bytes.end ());
+		return result;
+	}
+
 	std::string to_string () const;
 
+public:
 	union
 	{
 		std::array<uint8_t, 64> bytes;
@@ -236,6 +432,24 @@ class uint512_union
 		std::array<uint64_t, 8> qwords;
 		std::array<uint256_union, 2> uint256s;
 	};
+
+public: // Keep operators inlined
+	std::strong_ordering operator<=> (nano::uint512_union const & other) const
+	{
+		return std::memcmp (bytes.data (), other.bytes.data (), 64) <=> 0;
+	};
+	bool operator== (nano::uint512_union const & other) const
+	{
+		return *this <=> other == 0;
+	}
+	operator nano::uint512_t () const
+	{
+		return number ();
+	}
+	uint512_union const & as_union () const
+	{
+		return *this;
+	}
 };
 static_assert (std::is_nothrow_move_constructible<uint512_union>::value, "uint512_union should be noexcept MoveConstructible");
 
@@ -248,15 +462,19 @@ class signature : public uint512_union
 class qualified_root : public uint512_union
 {
 public:
-	using uint512_union::uint512_union;
+	qualified_root () = default;
+	qualified_root (nano::root const & root, nano::block_hash const & previous) :
+		uint512_union{ root.as_union (), previous.as_union () } {};
+	qualified_root (nano::uint512_t const & value) :
+		uint512_union{ value } {};
 
-	nano::root const & root () const
+	nano::root root () const
 	{
-		return reinterpret_cast<nano::root const &> (uint256s[0]);
+		return nano::root{ uint256s[0] };
 	}
-	nano::block_hash const & previous () const
+	nano::block_hash previous () const
 	{
-		return reinterpret_cast<nano::block_hash const &> (uint256s[1]);
+		return nano::block_hash{ uint256s[1] };
 	}
 };
 
@@ -276,6 +494,7 @@ bool from_string_hex (std::string const &, uint64_t &);
 std::ostream & operator<< (std::ostream &, const uint128_union &);
 std::ostream & operator<< (std::ostream &, const uint256_union &);
 std::ostream & operator<< (std::ostream &, const uint512_union &);
+std::ostream & operator<< (std::ostream &, const hash_or_account &);
 
 /**
  * Convert a double to string in fixed format
@@ -297,113 +516,183 @@ namespace difficulty
 namespace std
 {
 template <>
+struct hash<::nano::uint128_union>
+{
+	size_t operator() (::nano::uint128_union const & value) const noexcept
+	{
+		return value.qwords[0] + value.qwords[1];
+	}
+};
+template <>
 struct hash<::nano::uint256_union>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::uint256_union const & data_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::uint256_union const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return data_a.qwords[0] + data_a.qwords[1] + data_a.qwords[2] + data_a.qwords[3];
+		return value.qwords[0] + value.qwords[1] + value.qwords[2] + value.qwords[3];
 	}
 };
 template <>
-struct hash<::nano::account>
+struct hash<::nano::public_key>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::account const & data_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::public_key const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return hash<::nano::uint256_union> () (data_a);
+		return hash<::nano::uint256_union>{}(value);
 	}
 };
 template <>
 struct hash<::nano::block_hash>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::block_hash const & data_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::block_hash const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return hash<::nano::uint256_union> () (data_a);
+		return hash<::nano::uint256_union>{}(value);
 	}
 };
 template <>
 struct hash<::nano::hash_or_account>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::hash_or_account const & data_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::hash_or_account const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return hash<::nano::block_hash> () (data_a.as_block_hash ());
+		return hash<::nano::block_hash>{}(value.as_block_hash ());
 	}
 };
 template <>
-struct hash<::nano::raw_key>
+struct hash<::nano::root>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::raw_key const & data_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::root const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return hash<::nano::uint256_union> () (data_a);
+		return hash<::nano::hash_or_account>{}(value);
 	}
 };
 template <>
-struct hash<::nano::root>
+struct hash<::nano::link>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::root const & data_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::link const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return hash<::nano::uint256_union> () (data_a);
+		return hash<::nano::hash_or_account>{}(value);
 	}
 };
 template <>
-struct hash<::nano::wallet_id>
+struct hash<::nano::raw_key>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::wallet_id const & data_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::raw_key const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return hash<::nano::uint256_union> () (data_a);
+		return hash<::nano::uint256_union>{}(value);
 	}
 };
 template <>
-struct hash<::nano::uint256_t>
+struct hash<::nano::wallet_id>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::uint256_t const & number_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::wallet_id const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return number_a.convert_to<size_t> ();
+		return hash<::nano::uint256_union>{}(value);
 	}
 };
 template <>
 struct hash<::nano::uint512_union>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::uint512_union const & data_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::uint512_union const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return hash<::nano::uint256_union> () (data_a.uint256s[0]) + hash<::nano::uint256_union> () (data_a.uint256s[1]);
+		return hash<::nano::uint256_union>{}(value.uint256s[0]) + hash<::nano::uint256_union> () (value.uint256s[1]);
 	}
 };
 template <>
 struct hash<::nano::qualified_root>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::qualified_root const & data_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::qualified_root const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return hash<::nano::uint512_union> () (data_a);
+		return hash<::nano::uint512_union>{}(value);
 	}
 };
+}
 
+namespace boost
+{
 template <>
-struct equal_to<std::reference_wrapper<::nano::block_hash const>>
+struct hash<::nano::uint128_union>
 {
-	bool operator() (std::reference_wrapper<::nano::block_hash const> const & lhs, std::reference_wrapper<::nano::block_hash const> const & rhs) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::uint128_union const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return lhs.get () == rhs.get ();
+		return std::hash<::nano::uint128_union> () (value);
 	}
 };
-}
-
-namespace boost
+template <>
+struct hash<::nano::uint256_union>
 {
+	size_t operator() (::nano::uint256_union const & value) const noexcept
+	{
+		return std::hash<::nano::uint256_union> () (value);
+	}
+};
 template <>
-struct hash<std::reference_wrapper<::nano::block_hash const>>
+struct hash<::nano::public_key>
 {
-	size_t operator() (std::reference_wrapper<::nano::block_hash const> const & hash_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::public_key const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		std::hash<::nano::block_hash> hash;
-		return hash (hash_a);
+		return std::hash<::nano::public_key> () (value);
+	}
+};
+template <>
+struct hash<::nano::block_hash>
+{
+	size_t operator() (::nano::block_hash const & value) const noexcept
+	{
+		return std::hash<::nano::block_hash> () (value);
+	}
+};
+template <>
+struct hash<::nano::hash_or_account>
+{
+	size_t operator() (::nano::hash_or_account const & value) const noexcept
+	{
+		return std::hash<::nano::hash_or_account> () (value);
 	}
 };
 template <>
 struct hash<::nano::root>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::root const & value_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::root const & value) const noexcept
 	{
-		return std::hash<::nano::root> () (value_a);
+		return std::hash<::nano::root> () (value);
+	}
+};
+template <>
+struct hash<::nano::link>
+{
+	size_t operator() (::nano::link const & value) const noexcept
+	{
+		return std::hash<::nano::link> () (value);
+	}
+};
+template <>
+struct hash<::nano::raw_key>
+{
+	size_t operator() (::nano::raw_key const & value) const noexcept
+	{
+		return std::hash<::nano::raw_key> () (value);
+	}
+};
+template <>
+struct hash<::nano::wallet_id>
+{
+	size_t operator() (::nano::wallet_id const & value) const noexcept
+	{
+		return std::hash<::nano::wallet_id> () (value);
+	}
+};
+template <>
+struct hash<::nano::uint512_union>
+{
+	size_t operator() (::nano::uint512_union const & value) const noexcept
+	{
+		return std::hash<::nano::uint512_union> () (value);
+	}
+};
+template <>
+struct hash<::nano::qualified_root>
+{
+	size_t operator() (::nano::qualified_root const & value) const noexcept
+	{
+		return std::hash<::nano::qualified_root> () (value);
 	}
 };
 }
@@ -427,6 +716,11 @@ struct fmt::formatter<nano::uint512_union> : fmt::ostream_formatter
 {
 };
 
+template <>
+struct fmt::formatter<nano::hash_or_account> : fmt::ostream_formatter
+{
+};
+
 template <>
 struct fmt::formatter<nano::block_hash> : fmt::formatter<nano::uint256_union>
 {
@@ -440,4 +734,4 @@ struct fmt::formatter<nano::public_key> : fmt::formatter<nano::uint256_union>
 template <>
 struct fmt::formatter<nano::qualified_root> : fmt::formatter<nano::uint512_union>
 {
-};
\ No newline at end of file
+};
diff --git a/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap.cpp b/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap.cpp
index 3db711dfce..8779400eec 100644
--- a/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap.cpp
+++ b/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap.cpp
@@ -313,7 +313,7 @@ void nano::pulls_cache::add (nano::pull_info const & pull_a)
 			cache.erase (cache.begin ());
 		}
 		debug_assert (cache.size () <= cache_size_max);
-		nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head, pull_a.head_original);
+		nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head.as_union (), pull_a.head_original);
 		auto existing (cache.get<account_head_tag> ().find (head_512));
 		if (existing == cache.get<account_head_tag> ().end ())
 		{
@@ -336,7 +336,7 @@ void nano::pulls_cache::add (nano::pull_info const & pull_a)
 void nano::pulls_cache::update_pull (nano::pull_info & pull_a)
 {
 	nano::lock_guard<nano::mutex> guard{ pulls_cache_mutex };
-	nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head, pull_a.head_original);
+	nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head.as_union (), pull_a.head_original);
 	auto existing (cache.get<account_head_tag> ().find (head_512));
 	if (existing != cache.get<account_head_tag> ().end ())
 	{
@@ -347,7 +347,7 @@ void nano::pulls_cache::update_pull (nano::pull_info & pull_a)
 void nano::pulls_cache::remove (nano::pull_info const & pull_a)
 {
 	nano::lock_guard<nano::mutex> guard{ pulls_cache_mutex };
-	nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head, pull_a.head_original);
+	nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head.as_union (), pull_a.head_original);
 	cache.get<account_head_tag> ().erase (head_512);
 }
 
diff --git a/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_bulk_pull.cpp b/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_bulk_pull.cpp
index a4967bf35c..892e28691d 100644
--- a/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_bulk_pull.cpp
+++ b/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_bulk_pull.cpp
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ void nano::bulk_pull_client::received_block (boost::system::error_code ec, std::
 	// Is block expected?
 	bool block_expected (false);
 	// Unconfirmed head is used only for lazy destinations if legacy bootstrap is not available, see nano::bootstrap_attempt::lazy_destinations_increment (...)
-	bool unconfirmed_account_head = node->flags.disable_legacy_bootstrap && pull_blocks == 0 && pull.retry_limit <= node->network_params.bootstrap.lazy_retry_limit && (expected == pull.account_or_head.as_block_hash ()) && (block->account_field () == pull.account_or_head.as_account ());
+	bool unconfirmed_account_head = node->flags.disable_legacy_bootstrap && pull_blocks == 0 && pull.retry_limit <= node->network_params.bootstrap.lazy_retry_limit && (expected == pull.account_or_head.as_block_hash ()) && (block->account_field ().value_or (0) == pull.account_or_head.as_account ());
 	if (hash == expected || unconfirmed_account_head)
 	{
 		expected = block->previous ();
@@ -394,7 +394,7 @@ void nano::bulk_pull_server::set_current_end ()
 			if (!request->end.is_zero ())
 			{
 				auto account (node->ledger.any.block_account (transaction, request->end));
-				if (account != request->start.as_account ())
+				if (account.value_or (0) != request->start.as_account ())
 				{
 					node->logger.debug (nano::log::type::bulk_pull_server, "Request for block that is not on account chain: {} not on {}", request->end.to_string (), request->start.to_account ());
 
diff --git a/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_frontier.cpp b/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_frontier.cpp
index db696dbd61..d0ad8276a1 100644
--- a/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_frontier.cpp
+++ b/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_frontier.cpp
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ void nano::frontier_req_client::run (nano::account const & start_account_a, uint
 		return;
 	}
 	nano::frontier_req request{ node->network_params.network };
-	request.start = (start_account_a.is_zero () || start_account_a.number () == std::numeric_limits<nano::uint256_t>::max ()) ? start_account_a : start_account_a.number () + 1;
+	request.start = (start_account_a.is_zero () || start_account_a.number () == std::numeric_limits<nano::uint256_t>::max ()) ? start_account_a.number () : start_account_a.number () + 1;
 	request.age = frontiers_age_a;
 	request.count = count_a;
 	current = start_account_a;
diff --git a/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_lazy.cpp b/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_lazy.cpp
index 30661abd7a..439aa0ced0 100644
--- a/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_lazy.cpp
+++ b/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap_lazy.cpp
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ bool nano::bootstrap_attempt_lazy::process_block_lazy (std::shared_ptr<nano::blo
 	if (!lazy_blocks_processed (hash))
 	{
 		// Search for new dependencies
-		if (block_a->source_field () && !node->block_or_pruned_exists (block_a->source_field ().value ()) && block_a->source_field ().value () != node->network_params.ledger.genesis->account ())
+		if (block_a->source_field () && !node->block_or_pruned_exists (block_a->source_field ().value ()) && block_a->source_field ().value () != node->network_params.ledger.genesis->account ().as_union ())
 		{
 			lazy_add (block_a->source_field ().value (), retry_limit);
 		}
diff --git a/nano/node/bootstrap_ascending/service.cpp b/nano/node/bootstrap_ascending/service.cpp
index 776f0b3d8e..661072b448 100644
--- a/nano/node/bootstrap_ascending/service.cpp
+++ b/nano/node/bootstrap_ascending/service.cpp
@@ -789,7 +789,7 @@ nano::bootstrap_ascending::service::verify_result nano::bootstrap_ascending::ser
 		case query_type::blocks_by_account:
 		{
 			// Open & state blocks always contain account field
-			if (first->account_field () != tag.start.as_account ())
+			if (first->account_field ().value_or (0) != tag.start.as_account ())
 			{
 				// TODO: Stat & log
 				return verify_result::invalid;
diff --git a/nano/node/json_handler.cpp b/nano/node/json_handler.cpp
index 591ce4b997..1091f38283 100644
--- a/nano/node/json_handler.cpp
+++ b/nano/node/json_handler.cpp
@@ -2462,7 +2462,7 @@ class history_visitor : public nano::block_visitor
 			// Report opens as a receive
 			tree.put ("type", "receive");
 		}
-		if (block_a.hashables.source != handler.node.ledger.constants.genesis->account ())
+		if (block_a.hashables.source != handler.node.ledger.constants.genesis->account ().as_union ())
 		{
 			bool error_or_pruned (false);
 			auto amount = handler.node.ledger.any.block_amount (transaction, hash);
diff --git a/nano/qt/qt.cpp b/nano/qt/qt.cpp
index 48466d012a..7a513e8b4a 100644
--- a/nano/qt/qt.cpp
+++ b/nano/qt/qt.cpp
@@ -555,7 +555,7 @@ class short_text_visitor : public nano::block_visitor
 	void open_block (nano::open_block const & block_a)
 	{
 		type = "Receive";
-		if (block_a.hashables.source != ledger.constants.genesis->account ())
+		if (block_a.hashables.source != ledger.constants.genesis->account ().as_union ())
 		{
 			auto account_l = ledger.any.block_account (transaction, block_a.hashables.source);
 			auto amount_l = ledger.any.block_amount (transaction, block_a.hash ());
diff --git a/nano/rpc_test/rpc.cpp b/nano/rpc_test/rpc.cpp
index 309290dc1d..206a550922 100644
--- a/nano/rpc_test/rpc.cpp
+++ b/nano/rpc_test/rpc.cpp
@@ -2628,7 +2628,7 @@ TEST (rpc, wallet_frontiers)
 		frontiers.push_back (nano::account (i->second.get<std::string> ("")));
 	}
 	ASSERT_EQ (1, frontiers.size ());
-	ASSERT_EQ (node->latest (nano::dev::genesis_key.pub), frontiers[0]);
+	ASSERT_EQ (node->latest (nano::dev::genesis_key.pub), frontiers[0].as_union ());
 }
 
 TEST (rpc, work_validate)
diff --git a/nano/secure/common.hpp b/nano/secure/common.hpp
index fd28d30b13..e1639bd265 100644
--- a/nano/secure/common.hpp
+++ b/nano/secure/common.hpp
@@ -21,61 +21,6 @@
 #include <array>
 #include <unordered_map>
 
-namespace boost
-{
-template <>
-struct hash<::nano::uint256_union>
-{
-	size_t operator() (::nano::uint256_union const & value_a) const
-	{
-		return std::hash<::nano::uint256_union> () (value_a);
-	}
-};
-
-template <>
-struct hash<::nano::block_hash>
-{
-	size_t operator() (::nano::block_hash const & value_a) const
-	{
-		return std::hash<::nano::block_hash> () (value_a);
-	}
-};
-
-template <>
-struct hash<::nano::hash_or_account>
-{
-	size_t operator() (::nano::hash_or_account const & data_a) const
-	{
-		return std::hash<::nano::hash_or_account> () (data_a);
-	}
-};
-
-template <>
-struct hash<::nano::public_key>
-{
-	size_t operator() (::nano::public_key const & value_a) const
-	{
-		return std::hash<::nano::public_key> () (value_a);
-	}
-};
-template <>
-struct hash<::nano::uint512_union>
-{
-	size_t operator() (::nano::uint512_union const & value_a) const
-	{
-		return std::hash<::nano::uint512_union> () (value_a);
-	}
-};
-template <>
-struct hash<::nano::qualified_root>
-{
-	size_t operator() (::nano::qualified_root const & value_a) const
-	{
-		return std::hash<::nano::qualified_root> () (value_a);
-	}
-};
-}
-
 namespace nano
 {
 /**
diff --git a/nano/secure/ledger.cpp b/nano/secure/ledger.cpp
index ec5aa666da..d2857974de 100644
--- a/nano/secure/ledger.cpp
+++ b/nano/secure/ledger.cpp
@@ -1093,7 +1093,7 @@ class dependent_block_visitor : public nano::block_visitor
 	}
 	void open_block (nano::open_block const & block_a) override
 	{
-		if (block_a.source_field ().value () != ledger.constants.genesis->account ())
+		if (block_a.source_field ().value () != ledger.constants.genesis->account ().as_union ())
 		{
 			result[0] = block_a.source_field ().value ();
 		}
diff --git a/nano/secure/pending_info.hpp b/nano/secure/pending_info.hpp
index 2d57df9ba2..c00e1cdb39 100644
--- a/nano/secure/pending_info.hpp
+++ b/nano/secure/pending_info.hpp
@@ -67,9 +67,9 @@ namespace std
 template <>
 struct hash<::nano::pending_key>
 {
-	size_t operator() (::nano::pending_key const & data_a) const
+	size_t operator() (::nano::pending_key const & value) const
 	{
-		return hash<::nano::uint512_union>{}({ ::nano::uint256_union{ data_a.account.number () }, data_a.hash });
+		return hash<::nano::uint512_union>{}({ ::nano::uint256_union{ value.account.number () }, value.hash });
 	}
 };
 }