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diff --git a/indices/contentIndex.21e7c1ccc27eab3a6a929ca0506a6b3d.min.json b/indices/contentIndex.21e7c1ccc27eab3a6a929ca0506a6b3d.min.json deleted file mode 100644 index 7cf8ebb69b..0000000000 --- a/indices/contentIndex.21e7c1ccc27eab3a6a929ca0506a6b3d.min.json +++ /dev/null @@ -1 +0,0 @@ -{"/":{"title":"Home","content":"\nThis site hosts various work I do openly, with the intention of creating an easily accessible, free knowledge base. Although please do keep in mind that this site is not intended to be used as an authoritative information source such as [📖 Wikipedia](https://wikipedia.org).\n\nMy biology work is not done here primarily, so it is copied up after being done in batches. This may result in significant delays or it **not being available here**.\n\nContent on this site may not all be owned or produced by me, and is hosted here under fair use. If you have the rights to any content here and wish to have it altered or removed, then please contact me to request this.\n\nThe accuracy of the information on the site cannot be fully guaranteed. I do my best but as I am learning these subjects some inaccuracies are inevitable and may not be corrected. If you notice something, please let me know or submit a correction on GitHub. I will appreciate any feedback.\n\nLots of computer science content such as code is not hosted here, but may appear on source control occasionally. If there is demand for algorithms or code to be explained here, then I may consider including it in future.\n\n\n# 🏫 Subjects\n\nYou can find all my subject work below\n\n### 💻[Computer Science](/tags/compsci)\n\n### 🦠[Biology](/tags/biology)\n\n### 💰[Business Studies](/tags/business)\n\nYou may also wish to search with [🏷️ tags](/tags)\n\nIf you notice an issue with the site or need help reach out to me on [👥 Mastodon](https://social.sethmb.xyz/@seth)\n\n\n## 📋FAQ\n\n### 🗺️ Does this website cover the whole A level spec for each subject?\n\nNo. Nor is it intended to. Chances are that by the time I have finished studying the course, it will cover *most* of the spec *for a specific exam board* per *subject*.\n\n### 🤝 Can I freely copy content from this website?\n\nAs the rights to content hosted here are not as straightforward as me being able to freely give everything away, I would strongly recommend you contact me before redistributing or modifying content.\n\n### 👨‍🎓 Can I use this to revise?\n\nYes, go for it. However, if something doesn't look right, challenge it. I would also strongly recommend combining this with other revision techniques, such as flash cards (see [🎴 Anki](https://ankiweb.net)). *I cannot guarantee the accuracy of any information provided here.*\n\n\n### ✅ Is this any good?\n\n[Yes.](http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=3067434)\n\n### 🌐 The website doesn't look like it is in sync with GitHub. Why?\n\nGitHub changes are made in real time, however we only update the live website every hour. This can lead to some temporary discrepancies between the website and the source. This prevents the webserver from becoming overloaded if there are frequent changes. Source is built continuously on GitHub Actions and dropped into the `master` branch.\n\n### 🕵 Do you track me?\n\n**TLDR;** Yes, but I take as many measures as possible to respect your privacy. For more details, see [🛡️ privacy](/privacy)\n\n### 🖥️ What operating system is recommended for this website?\n\nAny works, but I'd strongly recommend [this one](https://biebian.sourceforge.net/)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.44352151Z","tags":[]},"/Biology":{"title":"Biology","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Home](/)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.44352151Z","tags":[]},"/Business":{"title":"Business","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Home](/)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.44352151Z","tags":[]},"/ComputerScience":{"title":"Computer Science","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Home](/)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.44352151Z","tags":[]},"/privacy":{"title":"Privacy Policy","content":"\n\u003e [!info] Disclaimer\n\u003e\n\u003e This website is built as a hobby project - it is intended mainly for personal use and is provided publicly free of charge. I go out of my way to try and reduce data gathered, keeping things fairly minimal, but due to the use of third-party tools I cannot guarantee this.\n\n**What data we collect**\n\nNo client side tracking is present on this site. Some analytics are collected by the webserver and some by Cloudflare.\n\n\nWhilst the source code for the site is hosted on GitHub and the static site is built by GitHub Actions, it is not hosted by GitHub. I am privately hosting the site with [Frantech Solutions](https://frantech.ca), who are strongly committed to privacy.\n\nDNS records are created and managed via [Cloudflare](https://cloudflare.com) and we do use Cloudflare as a proxy for this service. \n\nGoogle Ads are used to cover running costs of the site. If you are against the use of ads, we are okay with the use of an adblocker. Having ads shown does help us keep the lights on though. We use a very standard configuration for Google Ads so should not track you any more than the default for GAds. *If you notice Google trying to interfere with your ad-blocker, please take a screenshot and send it to me so I can try to ensure that an ad-free experience remains an option.* If you do use an adblocker, I would like to encourage you to consider donating.\n\n{{\u003c htmlsnippet \"layouts/partials/donate.html\" \u003e}}\n\nIf I can make a sufficient amount from donations, I will be able to remove ads from this site for good.\n\n**I am open to any questions or discussions regarding this policy and any changes you might want to see.\n\n\u003e [!success] Corporate affiliation\n\u003e\n\u003e This site holds no affiliation to any corporations or organisations. It is solely administrated and managed by Seth. Any changes to this will be reflected upon this page. \n\n\n[Go home](/)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.44352151Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity":{"title":"Biodiversity","content":"\n**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.451521501Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/BiodiversityOverview":{"title":"Biodiversity Overview","content":"\n### What is biodiversity?\n\n- Variety of organisms present in an area\n- Species: a group of organisms with a very similar appearance, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and genetics. Can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.\n- Habitat: a place where an organism lives\n- Community: all the living organisms in a habitat\n\n### Levels of Biodiversity\n\n- Habitat: number of habitats in an area\n- Species: \n\t- Species Richness: number of species in an area\n\t- Species Evenness: number of each species\n- Genetic Variety: variety of genes that make up a species (alleles)\n\n### Why measure biodiversity?\n\n- Important for conservation\n- Required before a major project such as housing development\n\n| **Habitat Feature** | **Low biodiversity** | **High Biodiversity** |\n|-----------------------------------|--------------------------------|------------------------------------------|\n| Number of species | few | many |\n| Ability to adapt to environment | little | greater |\n| Type of food webs | few links, each very important | many links, each with reduced importance |\n| Effect of a change in environment | Catastrophic | Negligible |\n\n\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.451521501Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/FactorsAffectingBiodiversity":{"title":"Factors affecting biodiversity","content":"\n### Factors affecting biodiversity\n\n- Deforestation: reduces the number of trees which in turn reduces the number of animals due to habitat and food loss. Some animals are forced to migrate.\n- Agriculture: clearing land to rear/grow animals \n\t- removal of hedgerows\n\t- use of pesticides/herbicides\n\t- monoculture\n- Climate: melting of polar ice caps\n\t- rising sea levels (flooding, salt water)\n\t- higher temperatures\n\t- less rainfall\n\t- insect lifecycles, pollination\n\n### Reasons to maintain biodiversity\n\n\n| **Reason** | **Explanation** |\n|------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| Aesthetic | - encriches life - allows faster recovery - provides inspiration |\n| Economic | - deforestation can lead to soil erosion, causing desertification and loss of fertile land - non-sustainable removal leads to industry collapse - massive destruction - leads to important species going extinct before discovery - high diversity leads to increased tourism |\n| Ecological | - all organisms are interdependent upon each other - some species are invoilved in maintaining the whole ecosystem |\n\n\n\n\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.451521501Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/GeneticBiodiversity":{"title":"Genetic Biodiversity","content":"\n- alleles - different versions of the same gene \n- genetic diversity—number of different alleles that exist in a species\n- species with a greater genetic diversity will better adapt to their environment and be more resistant to to environmental change and therefore less likely to become extinct\n\n\n### Factors affecting genetic biodiversity\n\n- to increase biodiversity the number of alleles within a species **must** increase. This can happen via:\n\t- mutations\n\t- gene flow: interbreeding between different populations leads to alleles crossing between distinct groups\n- genetic diversity can also decrease, this can happen via:\n\t- selective breeding: selected characteristics are bred for\n\t- captive breeding programmes: only a small number of individuals (and therefore alleles) available for breeding. \n\t- rare breeds: difficult to maintain high numbers of individuals but also meet requirements for that rare breed\n\t- artificial cloning: eg tissue cultures or cuttings in plants\n\t- natural selection: species evolve to only have beneficial alleles so less advantageous ones are lost\n\t- genetic bottlenecks: when only a few individuals survive environmental change such as a disease meaning the gene pool is reduced\n\t- founder effect: when a small number of individuals create a new colony and are isolated from the original population\n\t- genetic drift: due to random nature of which alleles do/don't get passed on during sexual reproduction\n\n### Measuring genetic biodiversity\n\n\n- polymorphic genes: genes that have more than one allele\n- monomorphic genes: a single allele exists\n- locus/loci: position of a gene/genes on a chromosome\n\n- the proportion of genes that are polymorphic can be calculated by:\n\t- (number of polymorphic gene loci/ total number of loci) x 100\n\n- the greater the proportion of polymorphic loci, the greater the genetic diversity\n\n\n\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.451521501Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/MaintainingBiodiversity":{"title":"Maintaining Biodiversity","content":"\n\n- Conservation, preservation and management of the environment and natural resources\n- Two types:\n\t- In situ\n\t- Ex situ\n\n### In-situ\n\n- maintains genetic diversity and ability to adapt\n- preserves interdependent relationships\n- cheaper\n- eg wildlife reserves, marine conservation zones\n\n### Ex-situ\n\n- normally used in conjunction with in-situ measures\n- eg, botanical gardens, seed banks, captive breeding programs\n\n\n## Conservation Agreements\n\n\n### International Union for Conservation of Nature\n\n- Publishes conservation status of threatened animals (RED list)\n- Establishment of CITES (Convention on Internal Trade of Endangered Species)\n\t- regulates international trade of plant/animal specimens and their products\n\n### The Rio Convention\n\n- Convention of Biological Diversity—strategies for sustainable development\n- United Nations framework convention on climate change—agreement to stabilise greenhouse gases.\n- United Nations Convention to combat desertification\n\t- prevents transformation of fertile land to desert\n\t- reduce the effects of drought\n\n### Countryside Stewardship Scheme\n\n- Enhance and conserve English landscape\n\t- sustain beauty and biodiversity \n\t- improve/extend/create habitats for wildlife \n\t- restoring neglected land, conserving archaeological/historic features\n\t- improve opportunities for countryside enjoyment\n\t- now replaced by the Environment Stewardship Scheme\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.451521501Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Sampling":{"title":"Sampling","content":"\n- We use sampling to gain insight into organisms in an area. Sampling is taking measurements of a limited number of organisms present within an area.\n- Random sampling is selecting individuals by chance.\n- You can perform random sampling by:\n\t- marking a grid on the surface\n\t- using random numbers to determine x and y coordinates\n\t- taking a sample at each coordinate pair\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624124956.png]]\n\n- Non-random sampling\n\t- Opportunistic—the weakest option. Uses organisms that are conveniently available \n\t- Stratified—some populations can be divided into strata based on specific characteristics such as gender\n- Sampling can never be entirely representative because you never measure the whole population. There is sampling bias, which may be deliberate or accidental. This can be reduced by using random sampling.\n- Chance based reliability issues cannot be mitigated, as they arise from chance alone. It is simply possible more snails will be present on one day by chance.\n\n### Plant Sampling\n\n- Generally involves a quadrat\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624125401.png]]\n- Visual survey: generates quantitative data\n- Estimate abundance using ACFOR scale\n\t- A—abundant\n\t- C—common\n\t- F—frequent\n\t- O—occasional\n\t- R—rare\n\n\n- Density = mean number of individuals per unit area\n- Frequency = number or % of sampling units in which a species occurs\n- % cover: number of quadrat squares occupied by a species \n- Point frame quadrat: each plant that touches a pin is counted\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624125953.png]]\n\n| **Abiotic Factor** | **Sensor used** | **Example unit measurement** |\n|-------------------------|------------------------|------------------------------|\n| Wind speed | anemometer | m s ⁻¹ |\n| Light intensity | Light meter | lux |\n| Relative humidity | humidity sensor | mg dm⁻³ |\n| pH | pH probe | pH |\n| temperature | temperature probe | ℃ |\n| oxygen content in water | dissolved oxygen probe | mg dm⁻³ |\n\n### Sampling animals\n\n- Calculate number of animals per unit area of habitat \n- large animals - count all individuals\n- small animals - sample and capture-recapture\n\n\n#### Pooter\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624130610.png]]\n\n- A pooter is used to catch insects. By sucking a mouthpiece, insects are drawn into a holding chamber. A mouthpiece filter prevents inhalation. \n\n#### Sweep net\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624130753.png]]\n\n- Sweep nets are used to catch insects in areas of long grass\n\n#### Pitfall trap\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624130853.png]]\n\n- Pitfall traps are used to catch small, crawling vertebrates such as beetles, spiders and slugs.\n\n\n#### Tree beating\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624131029.png]]\n- Tree beating is used to take samples of the invertebrates living in a tree or bush. A large white cloth is stretched out under the tree, the tree is then shaken or beaten.\n\n\n#### Kick Sampling\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624131155.png]]\n\n- Kick sampling is used to study in organisms in river beds/banks. The river bank is kicked for a period of time and a net is used to collect samples downstream.\n\n\n### Capture—Recapture\n\n1) Capture sample and count—this is *c₁*\n2) Mark each individual\n3) Release all individuals and leave traps for a set period of time\n4) Number captured next time is *c₂* \n Number already marked is *c₃*\n Total population = (*c₁*x*c₂*)/*c₃*\n\n\n\n\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.451521501Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/SimpsonsDiversity":{"title":"Simpson's Diversity","content":"\n- Measure of diversity in a habitat\n- Accounts for species richness and eveness\n- *n* = number of individuals of each species\n- *N* = total number of individuals of all species\n\n- high value = diverse habitat \n\t- environmental change may only affect 1 or 2 species\n- low value = habitat dominated by a few species\n\t- small environmental change could affect whole habitat\n\n#### Example\n\n\n| **Species** | **n** | **n/N** | **n/N₂** |\n|-------------|-------|---------|----------|\n| woodlouse | 22 | 0.289 | 0.0838 |\n| mouse | 5 | 0.0658 | 0.004 |\n| shrew | 7 | 0.0131 | 0.0002 |\n| earthworm | 32 | 0.421 | 0.177 |\n| grasshopper | 15 | 0.197 | 0.039 |\n| owl | 1 | 0.0131 | 0.0002 |\n| **TOTAL** | N: 76 | - | 𝝨 0.304 |\n\nSimpson's Diversity = 1-0.304 = **0.696**\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.451521501Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/CellMembranesFluidMosaicModel":{"title":"Cell Membranes: The Fluid Mosaic Model","content":"A cell membrane is roughly `7nm` wide\n\n### Biological Membranes\n- separate the contents of the cell from their environment and different cell areas\n- compartmentalization is vital to maintain conditions for particular cellular reactions\n- the cell surface membrane separates the cell from the external environment and is called the plasma membrane.\n\n### Phospholipids\n\nA phospholipid has a hydrophilic head and 2 hydrophobic tails.\n\nThe hydrophilic heads are in contact with the cytoplasm or the extracellular fluids, and the hydrophilic tails stay away from water in the centre of the membrane.\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Cells/img/Pasted image 20221019115534.png]]\n\n\n## Membrane Proteins\n\n### Glycoproteins\n- embedded in the cell surface, they maintain cell cohesion. They can also be used as receptors for signals.\n- carbohydrate chain\n### Glycolipid\n- similar to glycoproteins\n- lipids with attached carbohydrate chains\n- act as cell markers or antigens\n### Cholesterol\n- hydrophilic at one end and hydrophobic at the other, like a phospholipid\n- regulates membrane fluidity\n- add stability to membranes\n- stop membranes becoming too solid\n### Channel Proteins\n- provide a hydrophilic channel that allows passive movement of polar molecules into and out of the cell through the plasma membrane.\n- the hydrophobic core is held in place by R groups\n### Carrier Proteins\n- passive \u0026 active transport\n- involves shape changing\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Cells/img/Pasted image 20221019115621.png]]\n\n## More depth on Plasma Membrane Composition\n\nPhospholipids can have slightly different tails. Their tails are made from fatty acids, but not always the same. A straight tail is made of saturated fatty acids and a tail with a kink in it (caused by a C=C double bond) is an unsaturated fatty acid.\n\nThe purpose of a kinked tail is increased membrane stability. It separates phospholipids out and prevents them from becoming too tightly packed.\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Cells/img/Pasted image 20221019120603.png]]\n\nCholesterol fits in with the phospholipids and helps to regulate the fluidity of the membrane. It does this by increasing fluidity at low temperatures by keeping the phospholipids apart and preventing a cease in motion. At higher temperatures, they have the opposite effect and reduce the fluidity of the membrane by holding the phospholipids in place and stopping them from moving too much.\n\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/CellTheory":{"title":"Cell Theory","content":"\nCell theory is the basic foundation on which our understanding of cells is built.\n\n## The discovery of cell theory over time\n\n**Robert Hooke** - 1665\n\n- cork cells\n- \"tiny boxes\"\n\n**Anton van Leeuwenhoek** - 1673\n\n- \"Animacules\", later called bacteria\n\n**Robert Brown** - 1833\n\n- Discovered the [nucleus](Organelles.md#nucleus) in plant cells\n\n**Matthias Schleiden** - 1838\n\n- Every plant is made of cells\n\n**Theodor Schwann** - 1839\n\n- Every animal is made of cells\n\n**Albrecht von Roelliker** - 1840\n\n- Sperm + Egg are cells - life comes from cells.\n\n**Carl Heinrich Braun** - 1845\n\n- Reworks theory, names cells \"the basic unit of life\"\n\n**Rudolf Virchow** - 1855\n\n- Cells come from other cells\n\n\n## Modern cell theory\n\n- The cell contains hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on from cell to cell during division.\n- All cells are basically the same in terms of chemical composition and metabolic activities.\n- All basic chemical and physiological functions are carried out inside cells. (Movement, digestion etc)\n- Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures within the cell (organelles, nucleus, plasma membrane etc etc)\n\n\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells":{"title":"Cells","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/Cytoskeleton":{"title":"Cytoskeleton","content":"\n![http://cellstructure.pbworks.com/f/big_cytoskeletoncover.jpg](http://cellstructure.pbworks.com/f/big_cytoskeletoncover.jpg)\n\n## Microfilaments\n\nSize: 7nm\nMade from: polymers of actin\nRoles: Give support and mechanical strength, keep cell shape and enable movement\n\n## Intermediate filaments\n\nSize: 10nm\nMade from: variety of proteins\nRoles: Anchor nucleus, extend between membranes\n\n## Microtubules\nSize: 18-30nm\nMade from: tubulin\nRoles: Form tracks for motor proteins (dyein and kinesin) to walk and drag organelles.\n\n\nOverview in [Organelles](Organelles.md)\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology","cells"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/LightMicroscopy":{"title":"Light Microscopy","content":"\n**Maximum resolution: 200nm**\n\nAny objects closer than 200nm will appear as one object under the best light microscope.\n\n2 objects can only be seen if light is able to pass between them.\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019103647.png]]\n\n## Sectioning\n\n- Specimens can be embedded in wax (or dehydrated)\n- Thin sections are cut out without changing the structure\n- There is a risk of material distorting when sectioned\n\nWhen studying a section, structures may be seen differently depending on how the section was taken relative to the structure. So a mitochondria may have been cut vertically whilst you are looking for one cut horizontally. It is important to account for this.\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019104036.png]]\n\n## Microscope Terminology\n\nArtifacts are damaged specimens caused by mechanical or chemical damage during slide preparation.\n\nHere are a few examples of artifacts that could be misidentified as different objects.\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019104244.png]]\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/MeiosisQuestions":{"title":"Meiosis Questions","content":"\n6) Q,S,P,N,M,R\n- pairing of chromosomes: Q\n- centromeres divide: P\n- crossing over: Q\n- bivalents align on equator: S\n- nuclear membrane reforms: R\n\n7) 2 processes that occur during meiotic interphase:\n- DNA replication\n- Organelles divide\n\n8) Division types in Fig 1.1\n- meiosis\n- mitosis\n\n9)\n- interphase\n- cytokinesis\n\n- independent assortment: metaphase (both)\n- formation of spindle apparatus: prophase\n- separation of sister chromatids: anaphase (both)\n- formation of nuclear membranes: telophase\n- chromosomes pulled to opposite poles: anaphase (both)\n\n10) Why does meiosis have twice as many stages as mitosis?\nMeiosis requires two cell divisions to occur as it needs to make modifications to genetic material, whereas mitosis produces genetically identical cells. Meiosis needs to cross over chromosome segments to produce 4 genetically **different** haploid cells that have some genetic material from each parent.\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/Organelles":{"title":"Organelles","content":"![[Pasted image 20220908112443.png]]\n\n\n\n## Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER/Rough ER)\nThis is a system of membranes containing fluid filled cavities that are connected to the nuclear membrane. The distinguishing factor between rough and smooth ER is that rough ER is coated with ribosomes.\n\nrER is the cells internal transport system and creates channels that enable the transport of substances from one section of the cell to another. The rER provides a large surface area for ribosomes to attach. The ribosomes assemble proteins from amino acids , these proteins are then absorbed through the membrane and are transported by the rER to the Golgi Apparatus for modification and packaging. \n\n## Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (sER/Smooth ER)\nLike the rER, this is a system of membrances within the cell that contain fluid-filled cavities that link to the nuclear envelope. It DOES NOT have ribosomes on its surface.\n\nsER contains enzymes that catalyse reactions involved with the metabolism of lipids. This includes: \n\n- synthesis of cholesterol\n- synthesis of lipids/phospholids needed by the cell\n- synthesis of steroid hormones\n\nIt is involved with the absorption, synthesis and transport of lipids from the gut.\n\n## Golgi Apparatus\nThis consist of a stack of membrane bound flattened sacs. Secretory vesicles bring materials to and from the Golgi. \n\nProteins are modified here. Examples include:\n\n- adding sugar molecules to make glycoproteins\n- adding lipid molecules to make lipoproteins\n- folding proteins into their 3D shape\n\nThese proteins are then packaged into vesicles that are pinched off and then:\n\n- stored in the cell\n- moved to the plasma membrane, either to be incorporated into the plasma membrane or to be exported out of the cell.\n\n## Mitochondria\n\nThese are usually spherical, rod-shaped or branched structures and are typically 2-5μm long. They are enclosed in two membranes with a fluid-filled space between them. The inner membrane is highly folded into cristae. The inner-most section of the mitochondria is a fluid-filled matrix.\n\nMitochondria are the site of ATP production during aerobic respiration. They are also self-replicating, so more can be made to meet energy denand if the cell requires it. They are abundant in cells where any form of metabolic activity takes place. This includes cells in your liver and synapses.\n\n## Vacuole\nThe vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast and contains fluid. \n\nOnly plant cells have a large permanent vacuole. They are filled with water and various solutes to maintain the stability of the cell - as when they are full they exert force on the cell wall, causes the cell to become turgid. If all the plant cells are turgid, this helps to support non-woody plants.\n\n## Lysosomes\nThese are small bags formed from the Golgi apparatus. Each is enclosed within a single membrane. They contain powerful hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes. They are abundant in immune cells such as phagocytes, neutrophils and macrophages that can ingest and digest invading bacteria. \n\nLysosomes keep the dangerous enzymes seperate from the rest of the cell, preventing damage to organelles. Lysosomes can engulf dead cell organelles and foreign matter and return digested components for reuse. \n\n## Cilia and undulipodia\nThese are protrusions from the cell and are surrounded by the cell surface membrane. Each contains microtubules (see Cytoskeleton for more details). They are formed from centrioles.\n\nThe epitheal cells lining your airways have many hundreds of cilia that beat and move the band of mucus. Nearly all cell types in the body have one cilium that acts as an antenna. It contains receptors and allows cells to detect signals about their immediate environment. The only human cell to have an undulipodium (a lot of cillium) is a spermatozoon. The unulipodium allows the spermatozoon to move.\n\n## Ribosomes\nSmall, spherical and about 20nm in diameter they are constructed from ribosomal RNA. They are made in the nucleolus from two different subunits which pass through the nucelar envelope into the cell cytoplasm and then combine. Some remain free in the cytoplasm and some attach to the rER.\n\nRibosomes bound to the exterior of the rER are mainly for synthesising proteins that will be exported out of the cell. Ribosomes that are free in the cytoplasm - either singularly or in a cluster - are primarily a site for synthesising proteins that will be used in the cell. \n\n## Centrioles\nThe centrioles consist of two bundles of microtubles at right angles to each other. The microtubules are made of tublin protein subunits, and are arranged to form a cylinder.\n\nBefore a cell divides, the spindle, made of threads of tubulin, forms from the centrioles. Chromosomes attach to the middle part of the spindle and motor proteins walk along the tubin threads, pulling the chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell. Centrioles are involved in the formation of cilia and undulipodia:\n\n- Before the cilia form, the centrioles multiply and line up beneath the cell surface membrane.\n- Microtubules then sprout outwards from each centriole, forming a cilium or undulipodium.\n\nCentrioles are usually absent from unicellular green algae.\n\n## Cytoskeleton\nA network of protein structures within the cytoplasm. It consists of:\n\n- rod-like microfilaments made of subunits of the protein actin; they are polymers of actin and each microfilament is about 7nm in diameter.\n- intermmediate filaments about 10nm in diameter.\n- straight, cylindrical microtubules, made of protein subunits called tubulin, about 18-30nm in diameter. \n- The **cytoskeletal motor proteins**, myosins, kinesins and dyeins, are molecular motors. They are also enzymes and have a site that binds to and allows hydrolysis of ATP as their energy source.\n\nThe protein microfilaments within the cytoplasm give support and mechanical strength, keep the cell's shape stable and allow cell movement. They also:\n\n- form the spindle before cell division\n- form a track for motor proteins to walk along\n- make up the cilia, undulipodia and centrioles\n\nAnd intermediate filaments:\n\n- anchor the nucleus to the cytoplasm\n- extend between cells in certain tissues, enabling cell-cell signalling.\n\n## Cellulose cell wall\nThe cell wall of plants is outside the plasma membrane and is constructed from a bundle of cellulose fibres.\n\nThe cell wall is strong and and can prevent plant cells from bursting when turgid. The cell wall:\n\n- provides strength\n- maintain cell shape\n- contribute to strength and support of the whole plant\n- are permeable and allow solutions to pass through\n\nFungi have cell walls that contain chitin, not cellulose.\n\n## Chloroplasts\nThese are large organelles, 4-10µm long. They are only present in plants and some protoctists. They are surrounded by a double membrane or envelope. The inner membrane is continuous with flattened membrane sacs called thylakoids. The fluid-filled matrix is called the stroma.\n\nChloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis\nThe first stage of photosynthesis is when light energy is trapped by chlorophyll and used to make ATP. This occurs in the grana. Water is also split to provide hydrogen ions.\nThe second stage when hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide, using energy from ATP to make carbohydrates, occurs in the stroma. \n\nChloroplasts are abundant in leaf cells, particularly the pallisade mesophyll layer.\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology","cells"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/OrganellesWorkTogether":{"title":"How organelles work together","content":"**Exocytosis** is the process of exporting materials from the cell.\n\nAn example process of how organelles in a cell would work together to produce insulin would be:\n\n1) Genes are in DNA\n2) They are transcribed to mRNA\n3) The mRNA leaves the nuclear envelope via nuclear pores\n4) Ribosomes are made in the nucleolus\n5) Ribosomes translate the mRNA into a protein, which passes through the rough endoplasmic reticulum\n6) Vesicles containing insulin pass via the Golgi Body\n7) In the Gologi, the insulin is packaged and modified to be ready for use in the body\n8) Vesicles pinched off from Golgi pass to plasma membrane.\n9) Vesicles and the plasma membrane fuse and excrete insulin into the cell's surroundings via exocytosis.\n![[Pasted image 20221019104936.png]]\n\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/PlantCells":{"title":"Plant Cells","content":"\nSee Chloroplasts, Vacuole and Cell Wall from [Organelles](Organelles.md)\n\nCells are typically viewed under [Light Microscopes](UsingALightMicroscope.md)\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology","cells"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/ProkaryoticCells":{"title":"Prokaryotic Cells","content":"![[Pasted image 20221019105229.png]]\n\n\n| **Feature** | **Prokaryotic** | **Eukaryotic** |\n|-----------------------|--------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------|\n| Nucleus | Not present | Present |\n| DNA | Circular | Nucleus (linear) |\n| DNA Organisation | Proteins fold | Chromosomes |\n| Extra chroma DNA | Plasmid | Only present in certain organelles (chloroplast, mitochondria) |\n| Organelles | Non-membrane bound | Membrane Bound |\n| Cell Wall | Present | Present in some cases |\n| Ribosomes | Smaller | Larger |\n| Cytoskeleton | Present | Present |\n| Reproduction | Binary Fission | (a)sexual |\n| Cell Type | Unicellular | Multi-cellular |\n| Cell Surface-Membrane | Present | Present |\n\n\n## Endosymbiosis\n\nEndosymbiosis is the theory that a larger cell engulfed bacteria with energy producing capabilities—eventually becoming chloroplasts and mitochondria.\n\nEvidence includes mitochondria and chloroplasts dividing like bacteria; have individual DNA; dividing independently of the cell\n\n## Gram Staining\nMicroscopy stain to help identify different bacteria.\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019110126.png]]\n\n### Gram Positive Bacteria\n- Colour: blue\n- More peptidoglycan\n\n### Gram Negative Bacteria\n- Colour: red\n- Less peptidoglycan\n\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/SpecialisedAnimalTissues":{"title":"Specialised Animal Tissues","content":"\n## Squamous Epithelium\n\nMade up of specialized squamous epithelial cells, it has a squashed appearance. It is very smooth due to the flat cells that make it up and because it is only one cell thick. It is present when rapid exchange across a surface is essential.\n\n## Ciliated Epithelium\n\nMade up of ciliated epithelial cells. The cells have “hair like” structures called cilia on one surface that move in a synchronized, rhythmic manner. Ciliated epithelium lines the bronchus and causes mucus to be swept away from the lungs.\n\nGoblet cells are also present, releasing mucus to trap any unwanted particles present in the air. This prevents bacteria from reaching the alveoli in the lungs.\n\n## Cartilage\n\nConnective tissue found in the ear, nose and at the ends of bones. It contains fibres of proteins elastin and collagen. Cartilage is a firm, flexible connective tissue composed of chondrocyte cells embedded in a extracellular matrix. Cartilage prevents the ends of bones from rubbing together and causing frictional damage.\n\nMany fish have skeletons made of cartilage, not bone.\n\n\n## Muscle\n\nA tissue that needs to contract (shorten) to move bones, which in turn move the body. \n\nSkeletal muscle fibres are attached to bones. They contain myofibrils of contractile proteins.\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology","cells"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/StemCells":{"title":"Stem Cells","content":"\n## Stem Cells\n\n- A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell that can differentiate itself\n- Undifferentiated means that it currently performs no function in the body\n- Division of stem cells can cause tumours and cancers (in rare cases)\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123101802.png]]\n\n## Stem Cell Potency\n\n- **Potency:** The number of cells it can differentiate into\n- **Totipotent:** Can differentiate into any type of cell, able to form a whole organism \u0026 a placenta.\n- **Pluripotent:** Any tissue but not a whole organism.\n- **Multipotent:** A small range of cell types within a tissue.\n\n## Differentiation\n\n- A multicellular organism is able to evolve specialised tissues to optimise efficiency.\n- Blood cells have a different shape and less organelles, to improve their oxygen carrying capacity. This makes them highly specialised to their specific role.\n\n## Replacement of Blood Cells\n\n- Red blood cells must be produced by stem cells because they have no nucleus and few organelles, making self division impossible.\n- The stem cells that produce new red blood cells are located in the bone marrow.\n- A neutrophil (type of white blood cell) can live for up to 6 hours and you can produce 1.6 billion per kg of stem cell tissue per hour.\n\n## Sources of Animal Stem Cells\n\n- Embryonic \u0026 Tissue stem cells\n- Embryonic stem cells are totipotent whereas adult tissue stem cells are pluri or multipotent\n- A sample can be extracted and grown into tissues to help someone recover from an illness of injury\n\n## Sources of Plant Stem Cells\n\n- Meristem, roots, shoots, tips\n- Pluripotent (meristem)\n- Used for tissue growth and repair\n\n## Uses of Stem Cells\n\n- Diseases that they can already provide treatments that they can already provide:\n\t- Alzheimer's\n\t- Type 1 Diabetes\n\t- Spinal injuries\n\t- Many more\n\n## Stem Cell Ethics\n\n- Playing god\n- Religious objections\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology","cells"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/TypesOfMicroscope":{"title":"Types of Microscope","content":"\n## Super Resolved Fluorescence Microscope\n\n- Uses light\n- Very high resolution (0.2nm)\n- x1500 magnification\n\n\u003e [!success] Advantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Stains that flouresce reveal different structures\n\u003e - Good for viewing DNA + molecules\n\n\n\u003e [!danger] Disadvantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Some dyes interfere with cell parts\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019111849.png]]\n\n## Laser Scanning (Confocal) Microscope\n- Uses light\n- 500nm resolution\n- x1000 magnification\n- Parts are labelled with a fluorescent dye.\n\n\u003e [!success] Advantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Non-invasive clinical diagnosis\n\u003e - 3D image overlays\n\n\u003e [!danger] Disadvantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Resolution limited by wavelength of light\n\u003e - Dyes can interfere with cell function\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019112257.png]]\n\n\n## Atomic Force Microscope\n- \"Feels\" surface of specimen\n- Uses light via a laser diode\n- 0.1nm resolution\n- x100 000 000 magnification\n\n\u003e [!success] Advantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Normal cell conditions\n\u003e - Living systems\n\u003e - Drug interactions\n\n\u003e [!danger] Disadvantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Can't see inside cells, surface only\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019114841.png]]\n\n## Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)\n- Magnification up to x2000000\n- 2D greyscale image\n- Resolution of 0.5nm\n\n\u003e [!success] Advantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Seeing ultra structure\n\n\u003e [!danger] Disadvantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Expensive\n\u003e - Large\n\u003e - Prone to artifacts\n\u003e - Samples will be killed\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019114937.png]]\n\n## Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)\n- Magnification between `x15` and `x200000`\n- Resolution between `3nm` and `10nm`\n- Sample kept in vacuum\n\n\u003e [!success] Advantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - 3D image \n\u003e - Good for organism appearance\n\n\n\u003e [!danger] Disadvantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Very large\n\u003e - Expensive\n\u003e - Samples dead\n\u003e - Salt stains are dangerous\n\u003e - Requires training\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019115017.png]]\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/UnitScales":{"title":"Unit Scales","content":"Centimeter (cm)\n\nDown: x10\nUp: /10\n\nMillimeter(mm)\n\nUp: /1000\nDown: x1000\n\nMicrometers(µm)\n\nUp: x1000\nDown: x1000\n\nNanometers (nm)\n\nUp: x1000\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/UsingALightMicroscope":{"title":"Using a Light Microscope","content":"\n**Maximum light microscope magnification possible:** x1500 (x15 eyepiece, x100 objective lens)\n\nSpecimens can be dyed/stained.\n\n![[Pasted image 20220921104632.png]]\n\n## Staining\n\n- Many biological materials are not coloured\n- Some chemicals can bind to a specimen, giving it a colour\n- It produces a contrast between sample parts\n- Some stains are specific to cell structures, enabling for easily distinguishing between different cell parts.\n\n## Graticules\nThe stage micrometer is used to calibrate the value of eyepiece divisions at different magnifications.\n\nGraticule scale is arbitrary until calibrated.\n\n1000µm in 1mm\n100µm in 0.1mm\n10µm in 0.01mm\netc etc\n\n### Calibration\n\n1) Insert the eyepiece graticule. It has 10 divisions.\n2) Place stage micrometer on stage and focus using 4x objective lens. Total magnification = x40 (x10 due to other lens)\n3) Align graticule and stage micrometer.\n4) We know the stage micrometer is 1mm, or 1000µm - the same as 40 eyepiece divisions.\n5) Therefore, each eyepiece division = 1000µm / 40 = **25µm**\n\nSo each little epu (eyepiece unit) is 25µm long. Now you are able to measure cells at a 4x magnification with accuracy. \n\nLet's do the same for the x10 objective lens:\n\nUsing the above method, but substituting the numbers to work for the x10 lens gives us the following:\n\nTotal magnification = 100 (10x10)\n\n100 eyepiece divisions is stage micrometer length.\n\nTherefore each epu = **10µm** (1000µm / 100 = 10µm)\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.467521483Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Circulatory/Circulatory":{"title":"Circulatory","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Circulatory/HeartRevisionPack":{"title":"Heart Revision Pack","content":"\n## Order of cardiac cycle\n\nEvent -\u003e Immediately followed by\n\nAtrial walls start to relax -\u003e ventricle walls start to contract\n\nSinoatrial node generates electrical signals -\u003e electrical signals transmitted down septum\n\nAtrioventricular node receives electrical signals from SA node -\u003e Ventricle walls start to contract\n\nVentricle walls start to contract -\u003e Walls of atria contract\n\nVentricle walls relax -\u003e atrioventricular valves open\n\n = CEAB\n\n## Tachycardic ECG trace\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Circulatory/img/tachycardiac.png]]\n✔\n## Effect of tachycardia on blood flow from heart\n\n- More blood will exit the heart over any specific period of time\n- Blood pressure will be elevated due to more rapid movement\n- Each pump of the heart will move slightly less blood than normal because the heart does not have sufficient time to fill.\n\n## Foramen Ovale open in fetus before birth – why?\n\nThe blood is oxygenated by the mother rather than the fetus, meaning that the heart does not need to pump blood around the lungs with the same vigour as normal. The foramen ovale allows blood to travel around the body in a more natural way despite the lungs being non-functional.\n\n## Difference and reason for difference between adult and fetal haemoglobin\n\n- Affinity for oxygen is higher in fetal haemoglobin\n- Allows for fetus to obtain blood from the mother's placenta during pregnancy\n\n## Why does tissue fluid not contain erythrocytes but neutrophils?\n\n- Erythrocytes are too large to pass through openings in the capillary walls, meaning that they remain within the circulatory system and cannot enter the tissue fluid.\n- Neutrophils can enter the tissue fluid due to their multi-lobed nucleus, which allows them to squeeze through small gaps that cells with a more rigid structure like erythrocytes could not.\n\n## Erythrocytes are full of haemoglobin. Describe the role of haemoglobin in transporting oxygen around the body.\n\nHaemoglobin is responsible for binding to oxygen and disassociating from it at appropriate points around the body. Adult haemoglobin will pick oxygen up in an area where the ppO2 (partial pressure of oxygen)is HIGH. And will disassociate from it in areas where the partial pressure is LOW.\n\n## Describe how hydrogen carbonate ions are produced in erythrocytes\n\n- The Chloride Shift\n\n- Chloride ions move **into** red blood cells when hydrogen carbonate ions form. \n- Carbon dioxide diffuses into erythrocytes\n- Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the combination reaction between CO2 and water to form carbonic acid.\n- Carbonic acid disassociates to form hydrogen carbonate ions and hydrogen ions. \n- Hydrogen carbonate ions are transported out of the cell.\n- The chloride ions with a negative charge enter the erythrocyte. \n\n## High concentrations of carbon dioxide in the blood reduce the amount of oxygen transported by haemoglobin. Name and explain this effect.\n\n- Bohr Effect\n\n- Carbon dioxide levels increasing causes more positvely charged hydrogen ions to be produced, which decreases the PH level of the blood. In lower PH, the haemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is reduced, meaning less oxygen can be transported.\n\n\n\n\n[Circulatory](sixth/Biology/Circulatory/Circulatory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","revision","homework"]},"/sixth/Biology/Circulatory/NeedForTransportSystems":{"title":"The need for transport systems","content":"\n## Substances that require transport\n- Nutrients\n\t- glucose—provide energy\n\t- protein—growth and repair\n\t- amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol\n- Water\n- Carbon Dioxide—removal post respiration\n- Lactic acid—removal of waste\n- Urea—removal of waste\n- Hormones—chemical messaging\n- Enzymes\n\n## Open circulatory system\n- Haemolymph instead of blood\n- No veins, arteries or vessels, the haemolymph moves freely around the body\n- Haemocoel—a central cavity that handles digestive and circulatory functions\n- Organisms with an open circulatory system may still have a heart, or some form of pumping mechanism\n- Low pressure\n- Eg\n\t- ant\n\t- grasshopper\n\t- stick insect\n\n## Closed circulatory system\n- Structured with veins, arteries and capillaries.\n- High pressure\n- Eg\n\t- human\n\t- frog\n\t- bird\n\n## Single circulatory system\n- Blood passes the heart ONCE per cycle.\n- Flow rate/pressure falls when blood leaves the gills or lungs.\n- Low pressure blood inefficient for kidney function.\n\n## Double circulatory system\n- Blood passes the heart TWICE per cycle.\n- Higher pressure.\n- Kidney function is optimal.\n\n### Keywords\n\n- Systemic Circulation\n\t- heart to body\n- Pulmonary Circulation\n\t- heart to lungs\n\n\nSee [Structure of Heart](StructureOfTheHeart.md) for more details on transport\n\n[Circulatory](sixth/Biology/Circulatory/Circulatory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Circulatory/StructureOfTheHeart":{"title":"Structure of the Heart","content":"\n## Diagram of Heart Structure\n\n![[Pasted image 20221111111303.png]]\n\n## Cardiac Cycle\n*AV = Atrioventricular*\n*SL = Semi-Lunar*\n\n- This is the sequence of events in one heart beat\n\n- filling phase (diastole)\n\t- atria and ventricles are relaxed\n\t- blood enters heart via pulmonary vein and vena cava\n\t- blood flows passively from atria to ventricles (AV valves open)\n\t- SL valves are closed from previous contraction\n- atrial contraction (systole)\n\t- atria contract simultaneously\n\t- forces remaining blood from atria into ventricles\n\t- AV valves close\n- ventricular contraction (systole)\n\t- AV and SL valves are closed\n\t- ventricles contract from the apex (base) upwards\n\t- blood forced out of aorta and pulmonary artery, SL valves open\n- heart sounds\n\t- \"lub\": AV valves closing as ventricles contract\n\t- \"dub\": SL valves closing as ventricles contract\n\n## Control of the Cardiac Cycle\n![[Pasted image 20221111105956.png]]\n\n- sinoatrial node (SAN)\n\t- located in the right atrium\n\t- group of cells that can initiate their own impulse (cardiac muscle is *myogenic* because of this ability)\n\n1) Electrical activity from SAN spreads through both atria—triggering a contraction of the atria.\n2) Electrical activity can't pass through the atrioventricular septum, but can pass through the atrioventricular node (AVN).\n3) A short delay before AVN conducts electrical activity down to the base of the ventricles (ensures atria finish contracting and ventricles are full of blood).\n4) Electrical activity travels to base of ventricles (ensures atria finish contracting and ventricles are full of blood).\n5) Electrical activity travels to the base of ventricles via the bundle of His.\n6) Ventricles contract from the base upwards.\n\n[Circulatory](sixth/Biology/Circulatory/Circulatory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification":{"title":"Classification","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/ComparativeAnatomy":{"title":"Comparative Anatomy","content":"\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621100618.png]]\n\n- This “homology” of structures suggests a relationship between the organisms\n- Mammalian limbs are homologous structures\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/ComparativeBiochemistry":{"title":"Comparative Biochemistry","content":"\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621101235.png]]\n\n- The study of similarities and differences in the proteins and molecules that control life processes.\n- Some important molecules are highly conserved among species, so slight changes can cause death.\n- If variations occur outside of these molecules functional region they are called neutral. \n- So their accumulation is not affected by natural selection and occur at a fairly regular rat.\n- Scientists can study the DNA base sequence or order of amino acids in a protein and estimate the time at which the 2 species last shared a common ancestor.\n\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/ConvergentDivergentEvoluton":{"title":"Convergent and Divergent Evolution","content":"\n### Convergent Evolution\n\n- 2 unrelated species in similar environments evolve similar adaptations\n- These are analogous features\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621102628.png]]\n\n### Divergent Evolution\n\n- The accumulation of differences between similar species. \n- Can lead to speciation - or the formation of different species\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621102820.png]]\n\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/DarwinsTheory":{"title":"Darwin's Theory","content":"\n- Offspring are similar to parents\n- No two individuals are identical\n- Organisms can produce large numbers of offspring\n- Populations remain stable in size\n\nDarwin concluded:\n\n- There is a struggle to survive\n- This is selection pressure\n- Better adapted individuals survive and pass on their genes \n- Over time a number of changes giving rise to a new species\n- Organisms in species show variation, differences in the genes\n- Those best adapted have increased chance of survival and successful reproduction\n- Repeated for many generations and so proportions of individuals with the adaptation increases\n- Repeated over multiple generations, this leads to evolution.\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621104959.png]]\n*Darwin's notebook*\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/EvolutionaryEmbryology":{"title":"Evolutionary Embryology","content":"\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621100941.png]]\n\n- Darwin's theory of evolution noted that all vertebrates have gill slits and tails in the early stages of embryo formation even though these features may be lost or modified in the adult-form phenotype. \n- This pattern indicates that all vertebrates stem from a common ancestor that developed that way, and everything diverged from there.\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/EvolutionaryTimeline":{"title":"Evolutionary Timeline","content":"\n**Late 1700s:** British farmers begin using selective breeding.\n\n**1798:** Thomas Malthus argued human population always increases faster than food supply.\n\n**1809:** Lamrack proposed that species change over time.\n\n**Early 1800s:** George Cuvier produced fossil bone evidence, thinking it resulted from catastrophes.\n\n**1825-1835:** Charles Lyell showed how rock and fossil evidence formed continuously. \n\n**1859:** Darwin proposed natural selection.\n\n**1860:** Wallace and Darwin thought natural selection would take a long time.\n\n**1900:** Age of Earth estimates between 3 million and 2300 million years old.\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/Hierarchies":{"title":"Hierarchies","content":"\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230619105006.png]]\n\n- The organisation of living things into groups according to their similarities\n- This is the **[phylogenetic hierarchy](sixth/Biology/Classification/Phylogeny)**\n\n### Domain (below kingdom)\n\n- Highest taxonomic rank\n- 3 domains\n\t- Archea\n\t- Eubacteria\n\t- Eukaryote\n\n### Kingdom\n\n- Generally six or four kingdoms:\n\t- Bacteria\n\t- Archaea\n\t- Protista\n\t- Plantae\n\t- Fungi\n\t- Animalia\n\n### Phyla\n\n- Such as: mollusks, arthropods\n\n- All the groups in a phylum have the same body plan\n\n### Class\n\n- Such as: birds, mammals, reptiles\n\n\n### Order\n\n- Such as: carnivora, lepidoptera, rodenta\n- Smaller groups within different classes\n\n### Family\n\n- Such as: dogs are canidae\n- Some disagreement \n\n### Genus\n\n- Animals in the same genus are very closely related. Some may appear identical.\n- Such as dogs and wolves being in the same genus\n\n### Species\n\n- Latin name is Genus + Species\n- If animals can breed and produce fertile offspring, they are the same species\n\n### Binomial System\n\n- *Genus species*\n\n\n\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/Phylogeny":{"title":"Phylogeny (evolutionary trees)","content":"\n- The study of evolutionary relationships between species. Involves studying how closely different species are related.\n- Any 2 living organisms have a common ancestor at some point in the past.\n- The more recent the common ancestor, the more closely related they are.\n\n- Natural classification places similar species in a group\n- Any two living organisms have a common ancestor\n- When species started to evolve differently there are branch points or nodes on the tree\n- More recent common ancestors mean closer relations.\n\n### Example tree\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230619110541.png]]\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/ProblemWithTheFossilRecord":{"title":"Problems with the fossil record","content":"\n- Some organisms are too soft bodied and decompose quickly\n- Certain conditions are needed for fossils to form\n- Fossils get destroyed by geological activity\n- May lie undiscovered\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/SpearmanRankCorrelation":{"title":"Spearman's Rank Correlation","content":"\n- If 2 sets of data are related, they are said to be correlated\n- There can be:\n\t- no correlation\n\t- negative correlation\n\t- positive correlation\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621103419.png]]\n\n**rₛ** = rank coefficient\n**n** = number of pairs\n**D** = difference between ranks\n\n- the result must be between -1 and 1\n- rₛ value of +1 shows a perfect positive correlation\n- -1 shows a perfect negative correlation\n- 0 shows no correlation\n\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/TypesOfAdaptation":{"title":"Types of Adaptation","content":"\n- An adaptation is a characteristic that enhances survival in a habitat\n\n- They can be divided into\n\t- Anatomical adaptations\n\t- Behavioural adaptations\n\t\t- Which can be\n\t\t\t- Innate\n\t\t\t- Learned\n\t- Physiological adaptations\n\t\t- such as poison production\n\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621101955.png]]\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/Variation":{"title":"Variation","content":"\n### Genetic Causes of Variation\n\n| **Genetic cause of variation** | **What happens?** | **Why does it cause variation?** | **Example?** |\n|--------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------|\n| Alleles | Different versions of genes | Produces different proteins and therefore different structures and effects | Blood group |\n| Mutations | Mistake in DNA | Changes in protein that are coded for | Cystic fibrosis |\n| Meiosis | Gametes form which have half the genetic material of parent cells. Crossing over and independent assortment also occur to make every gamete genetically different. | Different gametes have different mix of alleles | Variation in gametes |\n| Sexual reproduction | Inherit genes from both parents | Individual produced is genetically different from parents | Children |\n| Chance | Chance which gametes fertilise | Unique combination of genetic material for each offspring | Siblings different from each other |\n\n### Environmental Causes of Variation\n\n| **Environmental cause of variation** | **What happens?** | **Why does it cause variation?** | **Example?** |\n|--------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| Conditions for plant | Plants in different conditions grow to different sizes Plants in different pH soils can grow different coloured flowers Lack of nutrients for plant | More sunlight for photosynthesis to make glucose for respiration and growth Acidic soil makes blue flowers. Alkali makes pink flowers Proteins | Rose bush in higher light intensity grows bigger Different coloured flowers of hydrangeas Nitrates |\n| Injury/Disease | Damaged tissue | Damages cell, leaves marks on skin | Scars |\n\n### Combined Environmental and Genetic Causes of Variation\n\n| **Environmental and genetic effect of variation** | **How do genetics play a part?** | **How does environment play a part?** |\n|---------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------|------------------------------------------|\n| Height | Inherited genes from parents | Malnourishment |\n| Skin colour | Genes instruct melanin levels | Sunlight can increase melanin production |\n\n### Discrete Variation\n\n- Discontinuous/discrete variation is normally only controlled by a single gene (or very few).\n- There are no in-between values, only specific ones.\n- Normally represented through a bar chart.\n\n### Continuous variation\n\n- A characteristic that can take any value in a range (quantitative) is said to show continuous variation.\n- Characteristics that show continuous variation such as height show a normal distribution pattern\n- These characteristics are usually controlled by a number of genes (polygenic) and influenced by the environment\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/VariationStandardDeviation":{"title":"Variation \u0026 Standard Deviation","content":"\n- Standard deviation is a measure of how spread out the data is.\n- The greater the standard deviation, the greater the spread of data.\n\n- A normal distribution is usually a bell-shaped curve.\n\n\n### Characteristics of normal distribution\n\n- Mean, mode and median are equal\n- bell shaped\n- Symmetrical (50% higher than mean, 50% lower)\n- Most values are close to the mean\n- Few individuals at extremes\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621103200.png]]\n\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.487521461Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Disease/CommunicableDiseaseHwk":{"title":"Communicable Diseases Homework","content":"\n\n\na) A communicable disease is a disease that can be spread between organisms via a vector.\nb) ![[pie-chart.png]]\n\nc) 23% = 13 million\n11.5% = 6.5 million\n2.3% = 1.3 million\n\n\n13000000/23 = 565217.3913\n\n565217.3913 x 69 = 39000000.00\n\n39 million from non-communicable per year\n\nWe know that 23% is 13 million, so we can extrapolate from that to discover what 1% is and then multiply that by 69 to find out what 69% is. From here, we learn that 39 million people die of non communicable diseases. The number is only approximate because records are not entirely accurate, and some countries do not publish data at all.\n\n---\n\n1) Plants have a physical barrier between themselves and the external environment, this is always at least an epidermis, which just prevents foreign objects from entering the plants system. Many plants have more sophisticated systems as well, so if a pathogen enters the plant, tylose may be used to block up the xylem to slow or stop the spread through the plant and calose can have a similar blocking effect on the phloem. In addition, if the epidermis is damaged, then callose and tylose can be used to form a barrier between the outside and the internals. A plant may also isolate leaves, branches of sections of the plant from a water and energy supply, allowing it to die and drop off. This would result in the infected plant section die.\n2) Plants have reactions to different diseases where they produce specifically tailored chemcials to slow or kill different pathogens. These chemical responses also allow for communication with other plants, triggering them to produce toxins. The chemicals produced can also be tailored to harm or deter certain insects or animals, reducing the likelihood of something larger coming and eating the plant.\n\n[Disease](sixth/Biology/Disease/Disease)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.51552143Z","tags":["biology","homework"]},"/sixth/Biology/Disease/CommunicableDiseases":{"title":"Communicable Diseases","content":"\n- Communicable diseases are caused by one organism that infects another\n- Infective organisms are known as pathogens\n- Pathogens include: bacteria, viruses, protists and fungi.\n\n## Bacteria\n\n- The most common organism for infection\n- Not all bacteria are pathogens, most do not cause disease\n- Bacteria are typically classified using their basic shape and cell wall\n![[Pasted image 20230123094409.png]]\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123094400.png]]\n\n\n## Virus\n\n- Viruses are non-living\n- Viruses are a section of RNA surrounded by a protein.\n- Viruses infect cells by inserting its DNA into the host cell\n- The infected cell will then begin to produce viral proteins\n- All natural viruses are pathogens\n- Viruses effect all types of organisms, including bacteria, those are called bacteriophages.\n\n\n## Bacteriophages\n\n- Virus attaches to host cell\n- Inserts viral nucleic acid\n- The cell replicates viral nucleic acid\n- The cell synthesises viral proteins\n- assembly of virus particles\n- Lysis of host cell and new bacteriophages released\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123094606.png]]\n\n## Protoctista / Protista\n\n- Eukaryotic cells\n- Exist as single organisms and as colonies\n- A small percentage are pathogenic, they can affect animals and plants (ie, malaria)\n- Often protista require a vector to transfer the disease (eg, mosquitos for malaria)\n![[Pasted image 20230123094908.png]]\n\n## Fungi\n\n- Not usually a large issue for animals, but affects plants massively\n- Eukaryotes, can be unicellular or multicellular\n- Many fungi are saprophytes, meaning they feed off of decaying matter\n- When fungi infect plants, they often target the leaves, preventing photosynthesis\n- Fungi produce many millions of spores that rapidly infect other organisms\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123094817.png]]\n\n## Damage to Tissues\n\n- Viruses\n\t- Take over cellular metabolism\n\t- Viral genetic material is inserted into the genetic material of the host cell\n\t- The host cell then produces more viruses, which burst out, destroying it.\n- Protista\n\t- They take over a cell, digest the insides and use this as a medium to reproduce, before bursting out.\n- Fungi\n\t- Digest and destroy living cells.\n\n## Producing Toxins\n\n- Most pathogenic bacteria will produce a toxin, which is a poison.\n- This toxin damages the cells of the host organism, often by breaking down the plasma membrane or inactivating enzymes.\n- Some fungi also produce toxins\n\n\n\n\n[Disease](sixth/Biology/Disease/Disease)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.51552143Z","tags":["biology","disease"]},"/sixth/Biology/Disease/Disease":{"title":"Disease","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.51552143Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Disease/PlantDiseases":{"title":"Plant Diseases","content":"\n## Transmission\n\n### Direct Transmission\n\n- Direct contact between plants\n\n### Indirect Transmission\n\n- Via soil or vectors such as air\n- Pathogens may survive in soil and affect future plants (soil contamination)\n- Additional vectors include:\n\t- Wind\n\t- Water (raindrops, splashes etc)\n\t- Animals, insects and birds\n\t- Humans, hands, clothing and tools\n\n## Key Diseases\n\n### Ring Rot (Potatoes/Tomatoes)\n\n**Caused by:** Clavibacter Michiganensis\n**Pathogen:** Bacteria\n**Transmission:** Remains in soil, infects tubers and roots\n**Transmission Type:** Indirect\n**Transmission Factors:** Plants in soil, soil conditions\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123100332.png]]\n\n### Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)\n\n**Caused by:** Tobacco Mosaic Virus\n**Pathogen:** Virus\n**Transmission:** Mechanical, touch, contact.\n**Transmission Type:** Direct \u0026 Indirect\n**Transmission Factors:** Climate, contact frequency\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123100526.png]]\n\n### Potato/tomato late blight\n\n**Caused by:** Phytophthora infestans\n**Pathogen:** Protist\n**Transmission:** Wind, Water\n**Transmission Type:** Indirect\n**Transmission Factors:** Wind, rainfall\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123100411.png]]\n\n### Black Sigatoka\n\n**Caused by:** Mycosphaerella Fijensis\n**Pathogen:** Fungi\n**Transmission:** Spores, Extended Contact\n**Transmission Type:** Direct \u0026 Indirect\n**Transmission Factors:** Wind, Rain\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123100434.png]]\n\n## Global Transmission Factors\n\n- Some varieties of crops are more susceptible than others\n- Overcrowding\n- Poor mineral nutrition reduces diseases resistance\n- Damp, warm conditions increase spread of pathogens\n- Climate change\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Disease](sixth/Biology/Disease/Disease)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.51552143Z","tags":["biology","disease"]},"/sixth/Biology/Endocrinology/Endocrinology":{"title":"Endocrinology","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.531521412Z","tags":["biology","endocrinology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Endocrinology/Homeostasis":{"title":"Homeostasis","content":"\n- Living things have an internal environment \n\t- the environment changing puts stress on the organism\n\t- organisms need to maintain specific conditions\n\t- a stimulus invokes a response\n\n- Internal Environments:\n\t- If an organism is multicellular many cells are not exposed externally \n\t- protected by skin/bark and bathed in tissue fluid\n\t- Waste products diffuse from cells \n\t\t- Accumulation of waste is a stimulus\n\t\t- Cells need to respond\n\t\t- Waste needs to be removed\n\t\t- Wast enters the blood and is carried away \n\t\t- Blood concentrations must be closely monitored\n\n\n- A good communication system needs: \n\t- To cover the whole body\n\t- To allow cells to communicate\n\t- To allow specific communication\n\t- To allow rapid communication\n\t- To enable short and long term responses\n\n### Negative feedback\n\n- A change to an internal environment is detected\n- Change is signalled to other cells\n- A response is invoked to reverse the change\n\nNegative feedback requires:\n- receptors\n- communications system \n- effector cells\n- conditions fluctuate around a set point\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Endocrinology/img/Pasted image 20230626141325.png]]\n\n\n### Positive feedback\n\n- Less common\n- Increases the original change\n- Useful sometimes\n\n- Oxytocin increases uterus contractions\n\n\n#### Temperature Control\n\n##### Ectotherms\n\n- Animals that use their surroundings to warm their bodies\n\n\n| **Advantages** | **Disadvantages** |\n|--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|\n| Less energy required | Requires ideal environment |\n| Less food needed | Requires basking |\n| No thermoregulatory functions needed | May not be capable of activity over winter |\n| Can go longer without food | |\n| More energy used for growth | |\n\nTemperature regulation in ectotherms:\n- Exposed body to the sun\n\t- increases temperature\n- Increase breathing movements\n\t- reduces temperature\n- Orientate body away from sun\n\t- reduces temperature\n- Hide in burrow\n\t- reduce temperature\n- Orientate to sun\n\t- increases temperature\n- Alter body shape\n\t- increases temperature\n- Change heart rate\n\t- Increase or decrease\n\n\n[Endocrinology](sixth/Biology/Endocrinology/Endocrinology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.531521412Z","tags":["biology","endocrinology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Co-factorsCo-Enzymesandprostheticgroups":{"title":"Co-factors, co-enzymes and prosthetic groups","content":"\n### Co-factors\n\n- Non-protein components\n- Bind temporarily\n- Obtained from diet (iron ions, calcium ions etc)\n- eg, amylase requires Cl⁻ to function\n\n### Co-enzymes\n\n- An organic (carbon-based) co-factor\n- Bind temporarily\n- Many derived from vitamins\n- Carry chemicals between enzymes\n\n### Prosthetic Groups\n\n- Bind permanently\n- Eg haem in haemoglobin\n\n\n### Activation of Enzymes\n\n- many enzymes are inactive to begin with\n- need a change in 3D structure to activate\n- Some activated by co-factors, some a change in environment (pH/temperature)\n\n\n[Enzymes](sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":["biology","enzymes"]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Effectors":{"title":"Effectors","content":"\n\n### Effect of Temperature\n\n- Increasing temperature increase rate of reaction\n- Particles move faster and are therefore more likely to collide\n- Temperature coefficient, `Q10` = how much the rate of reaction increases with a 10℃ rise. (usually doubles)\n- Optimum temperature is the temperature at which the rate of reaction is fastest\n- Past optimum, the bonds holding the enzyme together vibrate, and eventually denature permanently. \n\n\n#### Thermophiles\n\n- Organisms adapted to living in very hot temperatures\n- Enzymes are more stable and shapes are more resilient to change\n- More disulphide bridges are present\n\n\n#### Cold environments\n\n- Some enzymes have more flexible structures, and are therefore less stable\n- Small temperature changes will denature them\n\n\n### Effect of pH\n\n- H⁺ ions decrease the pH\n- Optimum pH is the level at which the rate of reaction is greatest\n- H⁺ interacts with polar groups and charged R groups, causing bonds to break and substrate no longer fits into active site when pH is far from optimum\n\n\n\n### Substrate concentration and enzyme concentration\n\n\n#### Substrate\n\n- As substrate concentration increases, the number of substrate molecules/atoms/ions in an area/volume increases\n\t- The same is true for enzyme concentration\n- Increased chance of successful collisions\n\n- Vmax is the maximum rate of reaction\n\t- It occurs when all active sites are occupied by substrate particles.\n\n#### Enzyme\n\n- Increasing enzyme concentration increases the number of active sites available \n- This increases the number of enzyme-substrate complexes that can be formed, increasing the rate of reaction\n- Vmax can be increased by increasing the substrate concentration and/or temperature\n\n\n\n[Enzymes](sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":["biology","enzymes"]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/EnzymeReactions":{"title":"Enzyme Reactions","content":"\n### Intracellular/Extracellular enzymes\n\n#### Extracellular enzymes\n\n- Released from cells\n- Used to digest food\n- Required to use polymers for nutrition\n- Single-celled organisms release extracellular enzymes into their immediate environment \n\n#### Intracellular enzymes\n\n- Act within cells\n- Synthesis of polymers from monomers\n- Destroy toxins such as hydrogen peroxide\n\n\n### Digestion reactions\n\n#### Digestion of Starch\n\n- Starch polymers are broken down into maltose (disaccharide) by amylase from pancreas and salivary glands\n- Maltose broken into glucose by maltase in small intestines\n- Glucose absorbed into blood\n\n#### Digestion of Proteins\n\n- Trypsin is a form of protease\n- Catalyses proteins -\u003e smaller peptides\n\n### Main reaction types\n\n#### Anabolic Reactions\n\n- Building up reactions\n- Combining two reactants into one product\n- Protein synthesis\n\n#### Catabolic Reactions\n\n- Breaking down \n- Food digestion\n- Breaking one reactant into two products\n\n\n\n\n[Enzymes](sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":["biology","enzymes"]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes":{"title":"Enzymes","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/EnzymesOverview":{"title":"Enzymes","content":"\n### What are enzymes?\n\n- Biological catalysts\n- Inside cells\n\t- protein/lipid synthesis\n\t- intercellular \n- Outside cells\n\t- digestion\n\t- extracellular\n- Globular proteins\n- Generally soluble in water\n- Functions\n\t- Speed up a reaction\n\t\t- Help build a larger molecule\n\t\t- Help breakdown a large molecule into multiple smaller ones\n\n### Activation energy\n\n- Amount of energy which needs to be supplied for a reaction to proceed.\n- Enzymes reduce activation energy requirements (due to their specific shape)\n\n### Induced fit hypothesis\n\n- Substrate molecules collide with enzyme's active site\n- Enzyme molecule changes shape slightly. Active site fits more closely around substrate.\n- Enzyme-substrate complex (**ESC**) is formed.\n- Substrate destabilised\n- Product produced\n- Enzyme-product formed\n- Product leaves enzyme active site\n\n\n- All enzymes are globular proteins\n\t- More beta pleated sheets than alpha helix\n- Many hydrophilic R groups\n\n\n\n[Enzymes](sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":["biology","enzymes"]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Inhibitors":{"title":"Inhibtors","content":"\nInhibitors:\n- stop enzymes working\n- decrease rate of reaction\n- block active sites\n\nAn **inhibitor** is any substance that slows down the rate of an enzyme controlled reaction by affecting the enzyme molecule.\n\n\n### Competitive Inhibitors\n\n- Similar shape to substrate \n- Occupy active sites\n- Form enzyme-substrate inhibitor complexes\n- Enzyme-substrate complex decreases rate of reaction\n- Level of inhibition depends on concentration of substrate/inhibitor\n- most don't bind permanently, making the reaction reversible\n\n#### Alcohol Dehydrogenase and ethylene glycol\n\n- An ethylene glycol overdose can be fatal\n- In the liver, it is broken down into oxalic acid (very toxic) by alcohol dehydrogenase\n- By administering a large dose of ethanol, you can prevent oxalic acid production by filling all active sites with a competitive substance.\n\n### Non-competitive Inhibitors\n\n- Bind elsewhere on the enzymes\n\t- Alosteric site\n- Affects the tertiary structure leading to a change in the shape of the active site \n- Level of inhibition depends on concentration of inhibitor\n- Many bind permanently, making the reaction irreversible\n\n#### Protein Pump Inhibitors (PPIs)\n\n- Stomach acidity is determined by H⁺ ion concentration\n- Inhibiting the pumps reduces H⁺ ion production\n- Which increases the pH of stomach acid\n- Leading to lower acidity\n- A PPI binds to an **alosteric site** and changes the tertiary shape of the enzyme, preventing the complementary substrate from binding\n\n\n### End production inhibition\n\n- Product of one reaction is an inhibitor to the enzyme that produced it.\n\n### Biochemical reactions\n\n- Products of one reaction becomes substrate for the next\n- One product may inhibt the enzyme that produced it, limiting the rate of reaction and creating a **negative feedback loop**\n\n\n\n\n[Enzymes](sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":["biology","enzymes"]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/BreathingMechanism":{"title":"Mechanism of Breathing","content":"\n## Inhalation/Inspiration\n- Diaphragm contracts and becomes flatter (typically dome-shaped)\n- Digestive organs pushed down\n- (External) intercostal muscles contract\n- Ribcage rises\n- Volume of thorax increases\n- Pressure inside thorax decreases below atmospheric pressure\n- Air is **forced** into the lungs\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019122809.png]]\n\n## Exhalation/Expiration\n- Diaphragm relaxes\n- Diaphragm pushed up by displaced organs underneath\n- (External) intercostal muscles relax\n- Ribcage falls\n- Volume of thorax decreases\n- Pressure inside thorax increases above atmospheric pressure\n- Air is **forced** out of the lungs\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019123051.png]]\n\n| Feature | Inhalation | Exhalation |\n|---------------------|----------------------|------------------------------|\n| Diaphragm | Contracts + flattens | Relaxes, becomes dome shaped |\n| Digestive Organs | Pushed Down | Push Diaphragm up |\n| Intercostal Muscles | Contract | Relax |\n| Ribcage | Rises | Falls |\n| Chest Cavity | Volume increases | Volume decreases |\n| Thorax | Pressure decreases | Pressure increases |\n| Air | Forced IN | Forced OUT |\n\n\n[Exchange Surfaces](sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces":{"title":"Exchange Surfaces","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/MamillianLungs":{"title":"Mamillian Lungs","content":"\n![[Pasted image 20221019121354.png]]\nAlveoli are the sole site of gaseous exchange.\n\n## Adaptations for gaseous exchange\n\n\u003e [!abstract] Gaseous Exchange\n\u003e\n\u003e movement of gases by diffusion between an organism and its environment.\n\n- large surface area : many alveoli\n- short distance for diffusion: alveoli and capillary wall are one cell thick (squamous epithelium)\n- steep diffusion gradient: ventilation and good bloody supply\n- semi-permeable membrane: cell membranes are permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide\n\n## Alveoli\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019121914.png]]\nBlue blood is arriving to be oxygenated and red blood is leaving after being oxygenated.\n\nAlveoli have thin walls and provide large surface areas for gas exchange.\n\n## Tissue and function distribution in the human lungs\n\n### Requirements of human airways\n- flexible\n- divide many times, allow air to reach alveoli\n- high elasticity (stretch \u0026 recoil)\n- strong, to prevent collapse\n\n## Components\n\n### Trachea\n- much of the wall is cartilage\n- prevents collapse when air pressure is low\n- Contains:\n\t- elastic fibres: recoil \u0026 return\n\t- smooth muscles: constrict airway\n\t- blood vessels: supply cells with nutrients and remove waste\n- Innermost lining is epithelium (ciliated and goblet cells)\n\n### Bronchi\n- Same as trachea, just smaller\n\n### Bronchioles\n- Larger ones may have some cartilage\n- Mainly smooth muscle and elastic fibres\n\n### Alveoli\n- Squamous epithelium \n- elastic fibres: recoil after exhalation to prevent bursting\n\n\n[Exchange Surfaces](sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/MethodsOfCellTransport":{"title":"Methods of Cell Transport","content":"\n## Diffusion\n\nThe passive movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration.\n\n## Facilitated Diffusion\n\nThe passive movement of molecules along a concentration gradient, however guided by the presence of another substance—an integral protein such as a channel.\n\n## Active Transport\n\nUsing energy to move molecules from a low concentration to a high concentration.\n\n## Endocytosis\n\nActively transporting substances into the cell through engulfing them with the cell's plasma membrane. The number of molecules entering the cell by endocytosis will be equal to the number exiting the cell via exocytosis.\n\n## Exocytosis\n\n\n\nTypically used for the removal of waste molecules, exocytosis is the process of molecules being removed from the cell via vesicles. The Golgi complex produces vesicles that engulf waste molecules and bring them to the plasma membrane, where they can be expelled from the cell.\n\n\n\n\n[Exchange Surfaces](sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":["biology","homework"]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/RevisionPackExchangeSurfaces":{"title":"Revision Pack - Exchange Surfaces","content":"\ni) \n\n0 years = 2.72FEV\n5 years = 2.42FEV\n\n2.42/2.72 * 100 = 89.0%\n\nii) Fig 5.1 clearly shows that people who continued to smoke experienced a definite decline over the 5 year period, with deterioration speeding up as time passed. However, the people who stopped smoking enjoyed a slight increase in their FEV which slowly began to tip downward after 2 years, declining at a much slower rate than that of the smokers who were continuing.\n\nb)i) Cigarette smoke contains many compounds that should not enter the human body due to their detrimental effects. Some of these compounds, such as tar will bind up the cilia lining the walls of bronchioles. This cilia is responsible for wafting mucus (which will capture unwanted particles and pathogens) away from the alveoli and out of the lungs. By smoking, you will create a build up of tar in the lungs, slowly disabling the cilia and preventing them from moving the mucus. As a result, mucus and unwanted particles will build up in the lungs. As the cilia is unable to remove them, a coughing mechanism is used to shift the mucus. This leads to persistent coughing. \n\nCoughing can work for a while, however it is a violent motion which can cause damage to the sensitive membranes within the lungs. If you cough too much, you will cause significant damage to tissues within the lungs, further debilitating them. This cough will also likely prevent the repair of tissue as it will be frequent and will interrupt the reapri mechanisms.\n\nii) Asthma\nChronic Bronchitis\n\niii) The lock and key model is a more high-level view of how enzymes work, whereas the induced fit model focuses on a more accurate and low-level understanding of the process. It suggests that enzymes and ocassionally the substrate may **change shape** slightly to fit. These are conformational changes.It increases the ability of the enzyme to catalyze a reaction.\n\nThis can be applied to COPD as enzymes similar to those of certain pathogens are also present in elastin. This allows for damage to be made to tissue within the alveoli, as these enzymes will alter their shape slightly to fit into elastin and trigger a breakdown. \n\n2)a)i) Alveoli. There are many alveoli within the lungs because of the requirement of exchange surfaces to have a very high surface area. A single alveolus does not have a surface area high enough to meet the exchange requirements of the organism, so many are required to achieve this goal.\n\nii) Squamous Epithelium\n\n\niii) Elastic fibres allow the alveoli to flex with pressure changes in the lungs and also help to stop the structure from falling apart. \n\nb)i) As diffusion occurs between the air in the alveoli and the blood, the amount of oxygen in the air is continuously being decreased while the amount of carbon dioxide continually increases. If ventilation is not good, then the balance will eventually shift and oxygen will move out of the blood, with carbon dioxide moving in. This would defeat the purpose of the exchange surface, so refreshing the air regularly will both prevent this from occurring and ensure that the rate of diffusion remains high.\n\nii) Specialised cells line the border between the alveoli and the capillary that passes it, these are called \"squamous epithelial cells\" and are adapted to allow for a shorter diffusion pathway. The cells are stretched out to reduce the distance that substances have to travel between air and blood. The wall here is also only a single cell thick, further boosting the diffusion speed.\n\n[Exchange Surfaces](sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":["biology","exchange","homework"]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/TheNeedForSpecialisedExchange":{"title":"The Need for Specialised Exchange Surfaces","content":"\n## Single celled organisms\n\n- exchange gases, nutrients and waste products across outer surfaces because they have a larger SA:V (surface area to volume ratio).\n- low metabolic activity—diffusion via outer surface meets demands.\n\n## Multicellular organisms\n\n- smaller SA:V\n- higher metabolic demand\n- outer surface not large enough for diffusion to meet demands\n- substances have to travel further to reach the centre of the organism\n- require specialized exchange surfaces\n- specialized exchange surfaces: surfaces over which materials are exchanged for another material.\n\n## Features of good exchange surfaces\n\n- increased SA—overcomes small SA:V of organism\n- thin layers reduce distance for diffusion\n- good blood supply creates a steep concentration gradient\n- ventilation—maintains steep concentration gradient for movement of gases\n\n\n\n[Exchange Surfaces](sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.535521408Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Homework/CatalaseAndHaemoglobin":{"title":"Compare the role and structure of catalase and haemoglobin","content":"\nIn terms of their role, catalase is an enzyme involved in breaking hydrogen peroxide (toxic) down into water (safe, useful) and oxygen (safe, useful). Haemoglobin however takes on an entirely different role, it is used in erythrocytes to bind and release oxygen during their journey around the body. It is not an enzyme.\n\nStructurally, both molecules have many similarities, containing haem groups and being globular proteins. Haemoglobin consist of four subunits, split into 2 identical pairs. 2 of them are ɑ (alpha) groups while the other 2 are β (beta) groups. In catalase, there are also 4 subunits, however all are identical ɑ chains. \n\n\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["biology","homework"]},"/sixth/Biology/Immune/Copyup":{"title":"Copy up","content":"\n## Development and use of drugs\n\n#### Accidental discovery\nPenicillin \n\n#### How common is the use of traditional medicines?\n\nVery common.\n\n#### Describe examples of aspirin\n\n- Ibuprofen \n- Codeine\n- Hydrocodone\n\n#### Observation of wildlife\n\n- Bears and monkeys use citrus oils and insecticides\n- Birds line their nests with medicinal leaves to keep blood-sucking mites away\n\n#### Further plant research\n\n- Observing how a plant behaves or influences something that is harmful to humans\n- Isolate an active ingredient\n- Optimise a dose of the active ingredient and a delivery method to use as treatment\n\n#### Research into disease-causing mechanisms\n\n\n\n\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["biology","immune"]},"/sixth/Biology/ReadingAboutPhotosynthesis":{"title":"Reading about Photosynthesis","content":"### Part 1\n\n1) Name 3 pigments in leaves\n - Chlorophyll a\n - Chlorophyll b\n - Carotenoid\n2) What are two products of the Light dependent reaction?\n - Electrons\n - Oxygen\n3) What does an absorption spectrum show?\n Light absorption of a pigment at a range of frequencies of light wavelength\n4) Where does the light dependent reaction occur?\n Photosystem II, and partially in Photosystem I\n5) What is the role of light harvesting pigments?\n To absorb as much light energy as possible. This is achieved by using a range of pigments that can absorb different frequencies of light.\n6) What is the role of the reaction centre of a photosystem?\n To pass excited electrons down the electron transport chain\n7) What happens to electrons in the reaction centre?\n They have their energy level increased via photon energy.\n8) How is the electron from chlorophyll p680 replaced?\n A water molecule is split \n9) Which type of chlorophyll is in photosystem I?\n P700\n10) What is chemiosmosis?\n The process of producing ATP in ATP synthase\n\n### Part 2\n\n- Produce 10 short answer questions with answers\n\n1) What is the maximum depth seaweed can grow at in clear water? \n - 250 meters\n2) When do seaweeds release carbon dioxide?\n - At night or during low light levels\n3) How does seaweed protect itself from dangerous wavelengths?\n - They have specialised pigments\n4) Do macroalgae have roots or stems?\n - Neither, all the nutrients they need can be found dissolved in the seawater. \n5) What is an important limiting factor for the growth of green algae?\n - Nitrogen access\n6) Do seaweeds need differentiated cells? \n - Not always, as tissues can usually draw everything they need from the surrounding water.\n7) What makes up optimal conditions for seaweed?\n - A correct balance of substrate, nutritional elements, temperature and light\n8) Does marine algae have any interesting nutritional information?\n - It contains more iron than spinach or egg yolks\n9) How deep can you find red macroalgae?\n - Down to about 30 meters, beyond which you get brown and above which you are more likely to get green\n10) Can seaweed still perform photosynthesis when exposed to air?\n - Partially\n\n \n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["homework","biology","photosynthesis"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/AnsoffsMatrix":{"title":"Ansoff's Matrix","content":"- Factors influencing which markets to compete in and which products to offer\n- Strategic direction to include the Ansoff matrix and value of:\n- market penetration\n- market development\n- new product development\n- diversification\n\n**A marketing planning model that helps a business determine its product and market strategy**\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230915111019.png]]\n\n### Market penetration\n\n- Aim: to increase market share\n- By selling more existing products to the same target customers\n- Get existing customers to buy more\n\n\n- ***A growth strategy where a business aims to sell existing products into existing markets.**\n\n#### Evaluating market penetration\n\n- Business focuses on markets and products it knows well\n- Can exploit insights on what customers want\n- Unlikely to need significant new market research\n- But will strategy allow the business to achieve its growth objectives\n\n### Qs\n\n### Matrix for Coca-Cola\n\n#### Market Penetration\n\n- Coca-Cola Share Size 1.5l bottle\n\t- This is identical to an existing product except in terms of volume, therefore they are simply trying to extend their market dominance with this product.\n\n#### Market Development\n\n\n- Coca-Cola Vanilla\n\t- The product had already been developed and sold in America, but was being introduced into a new location\n\n#### Product Development\n\n- Diet Coke\n\t- There is already a demand for colas, and there were changing customer demands so Coke updated their existing product to provide additional consumer choice.\n- Powerade\n\t- The energy drinks market existed prior to powerade, but by entering a new product into the market Coca Cola could compete for additional market share.\n- Fanta Icy Lemon\n\t- Coke listened to consumer feedback and developed a new product to be more competitive in an existing drinks market\n#### Diversification\n\n- Winnie the Pooh Roo Juice\n\t- A new product, but it is just juice with a special brand. It is competing with other children's juices in a market that Coca-Cola hasn't entered before.\n\n\n3) A business like Coca-Cola benefits from using Ansoff's Matrix because it allows them to ensure that they are growing their business into different markets whilst also retaining dominance of their existing markets. This process means that they can reduce their dependence on a single market or product by extending their product portfolio.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/AuthorityAndOrganisationalDesign":{"title":"Authority and Organisational Design","content":"\n## Centralised\n\n- A business with a centralised structure keeps decision-making at the top of the organisation, with decisions coming from head office/ the most senior managers.\n\n### Advantages\n\n- Easier to implement across the business\n- Prevents other parts of the business from becoming too independent\n- Easier to coordinate and control from the centre\n- Economies of scale and overhead savings are easier to achieve\n- Quick decision making (usually)\n\n### Disadvantages\n\n- More bureaucratic—extra layers in hierarchy\n- Local or junior managers are likely to understand customer needs better\n- Lack of authority down hierarchy may reduce manager motivation\n- Customer service misses out on flexibility and speed that comes with local decision making.\n\n## Decentralised\n\n- In a decentralised structure, decision-making is spread out to include more junior managers in the hierarchy, as well as individual business units or trading locations.\n\n### Advantages\n\n- Decisions are made closer to the customer\n- Better able to respond to local circumstances\n- Improved level of customer service\n- Consistent with aiming for a flatter hierarchy\n- Good way of training and developing junior management\n- Should improve staff motivation\n\n### Disadvantages\n\n- Decision-making is not necessarily “strategic”\n- Harder to ensure consistent practices and policies at each location\n- May be some diseconomies of scale—role duplication etc\n- Who provides strong leadership when needed (crisises etc)\n- Harder to achieve tight financial control—risk of cost-overruns\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n4) Not an organisational structure: Customer/market\n5) Functional vs Matrix management structure:\n A functional management structure focuses on grouping people into functional groups. So the legal team will all work together as part of one team, and the engineering team will work together as a different cohesive unit. A matrix structure focuses more on projects. Whilst people belong to a specific department they also have a project assignment. The work that each individual is given is primarily coming from the project manager, although some instructions will still come from the functional department manager.\n6) Organisational design and structure is influenced by the nature of the business. If the business is dealing with pharmaceuticals, then mistakes **cannot** happen. This means that the business management will be driven towards a more authoritarian structure, with more centralised management. However, if the business offers warehouse storage as a service, then they will likely be able to operate efficiently on a very laissez-faire structure with lots of decentralisation. This is because it isn't vital that everything is done in the exact same way, and it may improve customer relations. The size of the business is also a big factor, as the larger the business gets, the harder it becomes to maintain effective centralised management. As the burden on the head office grows with every employee that the business gains, if they have thousands of people working at hundreds of sites across the globe, then they are likely to struggle to require a more hands off approach in order to achieve optimum efficiency.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/BowmansStrategicClock":{"title":"Bowman's Strategic Clock","content":"### Challenge of Business Strategy\n\n- To find a way of achieving a sustainable competitive advantage over the other competing products and firms in a market\n\n### A competitive advantage\n\n- An advantage over competitors gained by offering consumers greater value, either by means of lower prices or by providing greater benefits and service that justifies higher prices\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230922144344.png]]\n\n\n### Low price\n\n- Low profit margins\n- Companies such as Aldi\n- Very intense (price wars)\n\n### Low price and low value\n\n- Not very competitive\n- Very little value\n\n### Hybrid\n\n- Some element of low price\n- Some product differentiation\n- Some added value and a reasonable price \n\n### Differentiation\n\n- Offers the highest level of perceived added value\n- Branding plays a key role\n- Quality is very important\n\n### Focused Differentiation\n\n- Highest price levels\n- Customers buy the product because of the high perceived value\n- Luxury brand\n\n### Risky High Margins\n\n- Very high risk\n- No extra in terms of perceived value\n- Customers will usually find a better option eventually\n- Very short term strategy\n\n### Monopoly Pricing\n\n- Only one business offering the product\n- Customers have no alternative, so pricing is easy to change for the business\n- Regulated very tightly as the market position is extremely dominant\n\n### Loss of market share\n\n- Recipe for disaster\n- Middle-range or standard price for a product with a low perceived value\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessMission":{"title":"Business Mission","content":"\n### Mission Statement\n\n- Difficult to define accurately\n- A generalised statement of where you are heading from which objectives can be set\n- A more ambiguous and passionate way of expressing an aim\n\n#### The mission statement is\n\n- the overriding purpose of the business\n- the reason for its existence\n- a strategic perspective\n- supports the stated “vision” for the future\n\n#### The mission statement is not\n\n- a statement of goals or objectives\n- statement of core values\n- how the business intends to compete in the marketplace\n\nSee [Hierarchy of Objectives](sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessObjectives)\n\n#### Key audiences for a mission statement\n\n- Employees\n- Customers\n- Investors\n- Society\n\n#### Purpose, Values, Standards, Strategy\n\n- Make up core values\n- Often included in the mission statements, or longer term plans\n\n#### What makes a good mission?\n\n- A clear sense of business purpose\n- Excites, inspires, motivates, guides\n- Easy to understand and remember\n- Differentiates business from competitors\n- For all stakeholders, not just shareholders and managers\n\n\n#### Frequent criticisms of mission statements\n\n- Not always supported by actions of the business\n- Often too vague or general\n- Could just be for good PR\n\n---\n\n### Internal influences on objectives and decisions\n\n- Business ownership – profit or non-profit?\n- The relative power of stakeholders\n- Ethics - decisions made on ethical grounds might reject the most profitable options\n- Business culture – \"the way we do things around here\"\n- Resource Constraints – everyday decisions about deploying limited resources \n\n### External influences on objectives and decisions\n\n- Pressure for short-termism – businesses focus on short-term profit objectives rather than long-term performance objectives due to shareholders demand for return on investment\n- Private limited companies have an easier time focusing on long-term goals than public limited companies, because Ltds typically have closer relationships with their shareholders\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessObjectives":{"title":"Business Objectives","content":"\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20220914095046.png]]\n*The hierarchy of objectives*\n\n---\n\n\n**SMART** - acronym helps management set effective objectives\n\nS - Specific; the objective should state exactly what is to be achieved.\n\nM - Measureable; an objective should be capable of measurement - so that it is possible to determine success.\n\nA - Achieveable; the objective should be realistic given the circumstances in which it is set.\n\nR - Relevant; objectives should be relevant to the people responsible for achieving them.\n\nT - Time Bound; objectives should be set with a time-frame in mind. These deadlines should be realistic.\n\n\u003e [!success] Business should follow SMART\n\u003e\n\u003e SMART objectives focus the business on what is important, ensuring that they stay on track.\n\n## Strategic vs Tactical objectives\n\nStrategic objectives focus on the long term, and are set by the board.\n\nTactical objectives tend to be more short term, and can be set by line managers.\n\n## Business Aims \u0026 Objectives Activity Worksheet\n\n#### Explain the difference between an aim and an objective\nAn aim is an overall target or goal for the business. Whereas objectives are smaller targets to help reach the aim. A business may have several different objectives to reach a single aim.\n\n#### Why do businesses have aims and objectives?\nThis gives them a purpose and a target to work towards.\n\n#### Describe what financial aims are\nIncreasing sales, revenue or sales. Anything related to directly increasing cashflow.\n\n**Survival**: Common aim for new businesses, simply focuses on keeping things going while they get started.\n\n**Profit**: Simply looking to earn more revenue than the sum of their costs. Increasing profit would allow greater wealth to the the business.\n\n**Sales**: To aim to sell a certain amount of a product, gives employees a common goal.\n\n**Market share**: To increase market share by a set percentage over the course of a year.\n\n**Security**: The entrepreneur being able to withdraw enough to be financially stable.\n\nMany financial objectives require attention to be paid to [Pricing](sixth/Business/Units/fh/ProfitMeasurement)\n\n#### Explain non-financial aims\n\n- Not usually linked to monetary success\n- Might be a solution to a social issue\n- Frequently personal to the founder(s)\n\n**Social**: Aims committing to act ethically. \n\n**Satisfaction**: The aim of turning a passion or a hobby into a business can often be a common start-up aim. \n\n**Challenge**: The challenge of starting something from scratch. Aiming to succeed on your own \u0026 with your own terms.\n\n**Control**: Having control over decisions made, your working pattern and the business direction.\n\n#### Suggest whether you believe non-financial aims are necessary for a profit-making business.\n\nYes, when people are going to give money to a business, they are likely to choose the most ethical option if it is financially viable to them. Therefore, businesses that have non-financial aims will be more inviting to new customers.\n\n#### Do you believe Lush has benefitted from having clear non-financial aims?\nYes, people knowing that no animal testing has occured makes them feel more comfortable when buying products from Lush. Things like this become a selling point and good publicity.\n\n#### Explain the reasons why businesses aims and objectives differ\n\nDifferent markets will have different problems and audiences, looking for different things. And as a business grows, it will need to update it's aims and objectives to remain competitive. It does not make sense for LEGO to aim to reduce animal testing - because they don't test on animals. Lush however has benefitted from that.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessOrganisation":{"title":"Forms of Business Organisation","content":"\n## Worksheet\nShareholder -\u003e Someone who invests capital in exchange for a part ownership in the company\n\nMutual -\u003e A business jointly owned by all of its members and existing for the benefit of its members rather than making a profit\n\nUnincorporated -\u003e A business which is not registered with companies house.\n\nMarket Capitalization -\u003e The current value of a company calculated by share price x number of shares issued.\n\nPrivate Limited Company -\u003e A business owned by shareholders which cannot sell shares on the stock market.\n\nDividend -\u003e A share of profits allocated to shareholders\n\n- Charity\n- Unlimited\n- Public\n- Stock Exchange\n\n= CUPS\n\nIn the private sector, there are businesses owned by private individuals. These include sole traders, partnerships and private and public limited companies. Companies are incorporated meaning that they become a separate legal entity from the owners, can sue and be sued in law and the owners of shares have limited liability meaning they can only lose the amount they invested in the business. Unincorporated businesses like sole traders and partnerships have unlimited liability, which means that the owners can lose personal assets in the event of failure.\n\nAnagrams:\n\nREADER LOST -\u003e Sole Trader\nKART ME ANTIPASTO CILIA -\u003e Market Capitalisation\nI DID VEND -\u003e Dividend\nHERALD HORSE -\u003e Shareholders\n\nVirgin group may have wanted to be a private ltd when diversifying into new areas, because they would be protected from liability but not quite as vulnerable as a plc could be.\n\nInvestment into R+D can be risky, as it uses lots of company funds and comes with high risks. Reduces profit.\n\nShare prices are determined by what people think the value of the business is. So a profit warning equals reduced dividend payments and business stability - therefore lower business value.\n\n1) If you start a business without limited liability, and you make a mistake, then you have no protection against anything that happens. You could end up in debt and with your personal assets at risk. Limited liability is a simple way to separate yourself from your business and create that legal barrier between the two entities.\n3) A private limited company and a public limited company are similar in many ways. However, they start to differ at the point where a plc has shares floated on the stock market, whereas a private limited company requires shareholders to be invited. A public company has additional requirements when it comes to publishing accounts and handling additional paperwork (although a private company most definitely still has paperwork). Public limited companies are much more visible to the public, and news outlets will report on their profit filings and activities much more closely. This means that a public limited company will have to be much more careful about their activities than a private one.\n4) A private limited company does not need to publish its accounts, whereas a public limited company does. This is an advantage to setting up as a private ltd, because it means that your financial data is more secure. You will be able to protect information about your cash flow from the public, meaning that it will have a minimal impact on your business. This also enables a business to be more effective at competing with other businesses in the same market, because they will not be sharing their performance information - meaning that they have more room to outwit their competitors.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessTypes":{"title":"Business Types","content":"## Differences between\n### The mission of a business and the objectives of a business\n\n- A mission is typically higher level than an objective and viewed on a longer term by a business. An objective might be to increase profit of a certain market area by 25% over a period of time, whilst the mission might be to bring affordable clothing to everyone.\n\n### Private and public limited companies\n\n- The shares of a private limited company are not floated on the stock market\n- A public limited company requires at least £50,000 in capital to launch\n- Many companies start private and go public\n- Public companies have additional reporting requirements\n\n### Limited and Unlimited Liability\n\n- Limited liability means that shareholders are not responsible for the debts of the business\n- Whilst unlimited liability means any debts that the business has are shared between shareholders should they need to be collected\n- Limited liability is much safer from a legal viewpoint\n\n### The objectives of a sole trader and the objectives of a public limited company\n\n- A sole trader is likely looking to make a living by selling goods or services in a single location, with only several employees\n- Public limited companies have much larger and broader objectives, as they will typically try to achieve societal changes and will operate on a larger scale with a significantly larger amount of capital.\n\n### Private and public sector organisations\n\n- Public sector organisations are run by the government\n- Private sector organisations are run by individuals\n- Public sector organisations are typically run for public benefit, such as the NHS, the fire department of the education system\n- Private sector organisations are usually run for profit (typically the case of private \u0026 public limited companies) although not always as many charities and NGOs are not run for profit but are also not considered public sector.\n\n### Ordinary share capital and market capitalisation\n\n- Ordinary share capital is money raised through selling shares\n- Market capitalisation is the total value of all of the shares for a business\n\n\n## Benefits and Drawbacks\n\n### Sole Trader\n\n- Easy to setup\n- Cheap\n- Little paperwork\n- Full control \n\n- Unlimited liability\n\n\n### Private Limited Company\n\n- Fairly easy to setup\n- Limited liability\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyBT":{"title":"Case Study: BT's key non-financial measures of performance","content":"*WIP*\n\n1) d,b\n2) Explain one strength and one weakness of using quantitive data to measure a company's planet and people performances.\n \n A numerical value is absolute and fact. By measuring planet and people performances with figures, they can be certain of the actual impact that they are having on the planet.\n\n\n**Work on paper!**\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyBlackFriday":{"title":"Case Study: Black Friday","content":"\n## Andy Graham, MD at John Lewis, needs to decide whether the business will continue to participate in Black Friday and has requested a SWOT analysis is drawn up. Analyse the benefits of conducting a SWOT analysis to help him with this decision? (12 marks)\n\nA SWOT analysis is a highly efficient way of identifying potential problems and advantages of participating in Black Friday for John Lewis. Because of its simple 4 point structure, it is possible to very clearly plot the results of a decision, and it also helps managers making decisions to ensure that they have considered all the likely outcomes before they do anything definitive. \n\nFor a business like John Lewis, it is important for them to maintain their appearance as a luxury business providing high quality, high value goods. Participating in Black Friday could degrade the value of their products and lead to them making less sales outside of Black Friday. However, if they don't participate, they could risk losing sales over the Black Friday weekend, which would amount to a significant cash injection for the business, and would allow John Lewis to quickly move stock. In a SWOT analysis, they could have a look at possible strengths and weaknesses in their brand image, and consider what impact this would have on John Lewis in the long run. Using this information, they could make a more scientific decision, which would reduce the risk to the business.\n\nHowever, there are risks associated with using a SWOT analysis, because whilst the tool is very powerful, it requires clear and well-thought through data to be inputted, otherwise it could mislead a decision maker. If John Lewis put the wrong or non-relevant information into their analysis, then they could make a badly informed decision which would have negative repercussions on the business as a whole.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyEducsupplies":{"title":"Case Study: Eudcsupplies","content":"\n## Explain two methods of employee representation introduced at Educsupplies (6 marks)\n\nEducsupplies introduced a suggestion scheme, allowing employees to provide feedback about the running of the business and their views. The “you said – we did” initiative allowed employees to view the impact of their feedback and gain a sense of importance. \n\nEqually, the director's walkabout enabled direct and instant communication between employees and directors, meaning that the day-to-day issues of an employee could be quickly and clearly communicated to someone from the board. This will lead to many issues being raised with the highest level of management before they have time to develop into something that will lead to dissatisfaction and possible grievances. \n\n\n## Most employees at Educsupplies belong to the recognised trade union. Explain two possible benefits to employees of belonging to a trade union. (6 marks)\n\nBy being a member of a union, employees will benefit from improved negotiations over the likes of pay and working conditions thanks to the collective bargaining that a union can perform. This has already lead to improvements in the mentioned areas for employees, which will help to keep them satisfied with their jobs, leading to lower labour turnover and greater productivity. The union also provides employees with an additional layer of protection or a safety net of sorts, allowing them to feel more comfortable and protected whilst at work. Because of this, employees will have a less stressful working experience, because should something bad happen, they will have a strong organisation to fall back on.\n\n\n## What does the case study suggest are the benefits of employee representation to:\n\n### the employees of Educsupplies (6 marks):\n\nEmployees are free to share their feedback on any element of the business, and know that it will be listened to by management, giving them an increased chance of making changes for the betterment of the workforce. This will enable employees to enjoy greater power in their roles and take up a more integral position within the business. \n\nWhen employees have an issue with their position, they have a direct channel to communicate their problems with the management which will give them the opportunity to resolve any potential disputes quickly and before they become cause for industrial action.\n\n\n### the owners and managers of Educsupplies (6 marks):\n\nEducsupplies has experienced a range of issues recently, and proper employee representation will let them remedy a lot of these problems. Whilst action could be taken autonomously from upper management, it would likely be too broad to address the specific requests of the employees. By incorporating the employees into the decision making processes and taking their suggestions as inputs, these fine point issues can be properly addressed, and the business can cooperate with employees to try and ensure that all issues are resolved in a timely manner with an amicable attitude on both sides. This is much preferable to industrial action, or low employee satisfaction.\n\n\n## The quality of communication is an influence on employer-employee relations. Based on Educsupplies, or any other businesses with which you are familiar, to what extent do you believe the quality of communication is the most important influence on good employer-employee relations? (16 marks)\n\nCommunication is the key to the prevention *and* resolution of issues. Whilst it definitely isn't the only factor to good employer-employee relations, good communication definitely is one of the major ones. Before Educsupplies made changes to their business, they had poor communication between various employer and employee bodies, which lead to a plethora of issues within the organisation. The vast majority of changes that they made to the business were centered around communication, which lead to very favourable results. This suggests that the business was lacking in communication, but it also shows that good communication is important to keeping everything running smoothly.\n\nTherefore, I would argue that the quality of communication **is** the most important factor for good employer-employee relations. All interactions and agreements between employers and employees are a result of communication, if both parties are able to engage in this effectively, clearly and respectfully constantly, then issues that could grow into problematic disputes could be dealt with before they risk causing a scene and general sentiment could be kept favourable between all involved parties. This is very beneficial for the business, becuase it means that internal issues won't be dividing employees and causing struggles - leading to greater labour productivity, lower labour turnover and greater product quality. \n\nSo high quality communication impacts every area of the business, and is an essential cornerstone for any organisation to achieve a high degree of efficiency and unity.\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyFrozenWorld":{"title":"Case Study: Frozen World","content":"\n### Analyse the strategic position of Frozen World through either the model of Porter's generic strategies or Bowman's strategic clock (12 marks)\n\nFrozen World have positioned themselves with very low prices to ensure that they can attract customers on price alone. By using Cost Leadership, they sacrifice higher end market sales and focus on volume of goods sold. In order to make this work, they focus on economies of scale to allow bulk purchases to be made and low unit costs to be achieved. Frozen World also benefits from the declining UK economy, as more people are struggling to afford essentials such as food, which makes Frozen World more attractive to potential customers. They further reduce their costs by selling unbranded goods, because known brand names automatically inflate costs. In the case of Frozen World, they don't care particularly about brands or quality as they have put their entire focus into price.\n\nThey have placed themselves at position 1 on Bowman's Strategic Clock, providing low prices with low added value. They don't add any value particularly, but their USP is having the lowest prices, which is enough to generate sales. When they made the decision to position themselves here, they sacrificed a lot of potential customers who would look for higher quality products, more socially impactful businesses, in favour of being the cheapest. \n\n### To what extent is a low-cost strategy the best strategic position for Frozen World to adopt? (20 marks)\n\n#### Plan\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20231004095859.png]]\nContext hooks: Frozen World \nEvaluation hooks: low-cost strategy, best strategic position\n\n##### P1\n\n- In the current UK economic climate, many people have decreasing wealth\n- Therefore, the main deciding factor in whether or not people can/will buy a good is price\n- This suggests that position 1 on Bowman's Strategic clock *is* an effective position to hold\n\n##### P2\n\n- Low-cost is associated with low-quality\n- Even if people have decreasing wealth, they will still want to eat good quality food\n- If Frozen World develops a reputation for being poor quality, people will not buy from them *regardless* of their pricing\n- Therefore, it is apparent that Frozen World's market position may be poor in the long run, as they are working so hard on minimising costs that they will not be able to sustain a decent level of quality.\n- And with 37% of the population purchasing from discount stores at the moment, Frozen World is likely to have some hard competition.\n\n##### AJIM\n\n(Answer, Justify, It depends on, Most Important)\n\n- It is a decent position for Frozen World to adopt, as low price is not only a sure way of generating sales but it also doubles up as a good marketing strategy.\n- This is especially effective because people are not particularly affluent at the moment.\n- The most important factor for them will be to ensure a consistent level of quality to avoid developing a bad name for their brand.\n\n\n#### Answer\n\nIn the UK, the average person does not have much disposable income. This means that many people are looking to save money wherever they can, and food shopping is a frequent expense that cannot be avoided. However, Frozen World are offering the food people need at extremely low prices, giving them a niche in the market. For many people, price is the only thing that matters when purchasing, so Frozen World's exceptionally low pricing of £1 or less allows them to almost definitely attract many customers. Because of this, we can assume that their placement at position 1 on Bowman's Strategic Clock is effective.\n\nUnfortunately, low cost is associated with low quality, so Frozen World is unlikely to be able to make much in the way of sales to people who are not struggling financially. Additionally, even people who are struggling will still want quality food if they can manage it, so a competitor to Frozen World offering better food at only a slightly higher price could easily acquire Frozen World's market share. If Frozen World develops a poor reputation for quality, then they will lose sales and customers regardless of how low their pricing is, because people will view their products as unusable. This suggests that their market positioning may not hold up in the long run, and that the Frozen World business might only be a short-term success. As resources are placed on lowering costs, how will they effectively regulate quality?\n\nTheir current position, in the current economic climate is reasonable, Frozen World are capable of making sales and are capable of growing. Low price is a double win as it not only guarantees them sales but acts as a great marketing point. As there is a dwindling number of people who are currently affluent or well off, budget supermarkets are going to be increasingly popular as people look for ways to cut costs to the bone. Frozen World's most important factor is going to be trying to maintain a consistent level of quality whilst not raising their prices. It will only take 1 or 2 slip ups for their reputation to be irreparably damaged, and this will significantly harm their ability to do business.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyLush":{"title":"Case Study: Lush Cosmetics","content":"\n## What is meant by the term \"target market\"? (2m)\n\nThe target market is the selection of people that the business wishes to sell their products to. They try to tailor their offerings to that demographic.\n\n## State two examples of behavioural segmentation included in the article (2m)\n\n- Celebrity purchases are noted on the website, so people who like to follow celebrities will be more likely to buy from Lush.\n- They also focus heavily on freshness and authenticity of their products, meaning that people who look for quality will be more attracted to their store.\n\n## Analyse two reasons why Lush introduces new products every three months. (9m)\n\nCustomers come to Lush because their products are *fresh*, if they offered the same products constantly then the range would become stale. This would psychologically impact the customers, making them feel that Lush wasn't being fully fresh. By using fresh ingredients and changing their range up frequently, they can counter this.\n\nAlso, fresh ingredients means that products have a short shelf life otherwise they would risk damaging their reputation. This would result in them having to have a short production chain and a quick product turnover in their stores. Therefore, changing their actual products helps to keep things fresh without having much of an impact on their production.\n\n## Analyse two reasons why Lush might have decided to open its own shops when it re-launched the business in 1994? (9m)\n\nLush is “iconic”, their stores are unlike any others. You can smell their stores from a distance, which makes them noticeable. If Lush sold their products in other company's stores, such as a supermarket, they would not be able to utilize such a marketing method. Also, people tend to consider the ethics of the store they are in more that the ethics of the company producing the product that they are buying. By running their own stores, Lush can take their core values such as freshness and reinforce them by designing their stores around their business.\n\nAlso, running their own shops would provide them with greater control over every aspect of their business. When they were selling through The Body shop, they were completely dependent on The Body Shop for all sales. If The Body Shop decided to stop stocking their products, they wouldn't have anywhere to turn. However, if running their own stores they would have greater control. Nobody would be able to cut them out of their own business.\n\n\n---\n## Lush uses market segmentation in its planning.  Evaluate the usefulness of market segmentation in segmentation in enabling Lush to make large profits. (16 marks)\n\nLush utilizes market segmentation to help them focus their product development efforts on the correct target audience. By splitting the market in which they operate into segments, they can identify the people who are most likely to buy their products and ensure that they are meeting all the requirements of these customers. In this sense, the use of market segmentation is a good thing for Lush. However, when they focus solely on certain market segments they may alienate some of their customers. \n\nHowever, the risk that some customers will be excluded may be a worthwhile risk for Lush as they will be able to ensure that they stay focused on their core audience, which will allow them to retain their main customer base and provide a higher quality service to their consumers.\n\nLush achieves high profits through their market segmentation planning by finding quality selling points, such as fresh and natural ingredients, which they then use to make their high markup a reasonable purchase for their target market, which consists of people who are willing to spend more to get a product that ticks these boxes. Because Lush is operating in a fairly niche market, they don't have a huge amount of competition either, which allows for them to take more risks when it comes to new products, and allows them to continue growing their market share.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyMichellesStressfulJob":{"title":"Case Study: Michelle's Stressful Job","content":"\n\u003e [!failure] Piped content missing\n\u003e\n\u003e Content upload error during build process.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyMiyagiMotors":{"title":"Case Study: Miyagi Motors","content":"## Prep\n### Demographic\n- 45 year old\n- £65000\n- Environmentally conscious\n- meet consumer needs\n- target advertising\n\n## Analyse the reasons why Miyagi Motors need to find out the main consumer demographic for the Loris electric car (9 marks)\n\nKnowing the consumer demographic allows a company like Miyagi Motors to know who is buying their existing products, and therefore how they can ensure that upcoming products meet the requirements and wants of their market. If they produce a car that does not meet the needs of their customers, then they will not sell many and will suffer bad PR as well. However, if they do correctly factor in the main demographic for their products then they will be able to increase sales and gain good publicity—a win-win for the business and its clients.\n\nSomething that would be vital to consider when reviewing the main consumer demographic is the financial situation of the individuals. So as the average income of their consumers is around £65,000/annum they will be able to spend more money than the average person, however they are still unlikely to have the target price of £24,000 lying around. This would be a cost that could be offset when the customer considers the reduction in fuel costs after the purchase, and any other features Miyagi includes to improve the perceived value of the vehicle.\n\n## To what extent is consumer income the main external factor affecting demand for the Loris electric car? (16 marks)\n\nWhilst the income of the consumer is a large factor impacting whether they would look to buy a Loris, there are other factors that could have a greater influence. An example of this would be savings—as if someone had a very large sum of money in savings, but a low salary, they may still buy the Loris.\n\nIt is worth considering wider, more general economic factors as well, such as interest rates. Many people will not buy something that costs £24,000 out of pocket, so they will need to borrow money from a bank. High interest rates will increase the long-term cost of borrowing money, and will reduce the probability of someone spending their money on a non-essential item like a nice car. Even if somebody does have a high enough income to afford a new car—they may not wish to do so if they have concerns over the security of their job or the future of the economy.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyNewFrontiersTravel":{"title":"Case Study: New Frontiers Travel launch new pick n mix service aimed at rejuvenating the package holiday market","content":"\n1) New Frontiers Travel have not made any changes to their offerings for a while, however the market in which the exist has evolved significantly. With the rise of the internet new businesses have opened up to provide customers with more convenience and flexibility than what New Frontiers can offer. With increased internet access and usage potential customers have been increasingly looking for more competitive options or booking their holidays themselves, because the people offering travel and accommodation have also moved onto the internet. For a company like New Frontiers, this means that their business model is not going to hold up as it is, and they need to make modifications to their strategy to adapt to this new business landscape. \nThe introduction of their website, NewFrontiers.com, means that they can offer their new, refocused packages to customers in a format that people will be more likely to engage with. Also, the new CEO is recognising that people are decreasingly using physical stores, so the decision to close 199/1069 stores that they have in the UK will likely save the company a fair bit of money. Without these changes, the company will continue to lose revenue and relevance in the market and will face bankruptcy. Their old model worked, but as times are changing, the company needs to move with them.\n\n\n2) Extension strategies are an important method for bolstering the profits of New Frontiers, however they will not be the sole factor required to keep the company in business.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyRyanair":{"title":"Case Study: Ryanair","content":"\n2) The physical environment that Ryanair provides are cut right back to reduce the costs on Ryanair. Whilst this does offer customers very competitive prices. Many customers will expect additional service to be provided, however Ryanair either does not provide these at all or uses them as an opportunity to charge an additional fee.\n\n3) Digital marketing is any marketing that takes place digitally, typically online. This could be anything from social media advertising campaigns to viral videos. It allows for very rapid, certain marketing. Online people can find and share content much more quickly leading to greatly improved marketing performance. And if an advertising campaign is purchased via a technology company they can typically gaurantee so much reach and interactions. \n\n4) Ryanair achieves penetration pricing partly via their dynamic pricing model, where they will sell the first tickets on a flight at very low prices, and gradually increase the price as more seats fill up. They also provide seasonal offers, where even lower prices are offered (and advertised) allowing for them to appeal to the market as **the** choice for cheap air travel. The impact of penetration pricing is typically stiffling competition and increasing units sold.\n\n5) After Ryanair has sold the first 70% of seats on a flight, they switch from their lower pricing strategy to a price skimming strategy. Ryanair knows that if you have not booked in the first 70%, then you are likely to be somewhat desperate to get a flight, meaning that you will be more likely to pay a higher price, because you just need a flight and don't have the flexibility to choose another flight. Therefore, Ryanair has successfully implemented price skimming across the final 30% of ticket sales for each flight, allowing them to make more money from these customers whilst still typically managing to fill the flight - and give most customers the impression of great prices.\n\n6) Ryanair became established and successful fairly quickly in Europe, and already had a fairly large market share. There is not enough room for two businesses to exist in the very low end flight market. So if SouthWest Airlines moved into Europe, they would have a very high risk, low chance of success battle to beat Ryanair in the market. This is not something that their low cost model would work well with, as it would likely lead to increasing prices in the main American branch. Therefore, it would not make financial sense for SouthWest to try and enter the European market, however if there are other regions of the world, such as Asia or Oceania where this is a demand for cheap flights, and no business is currently competing in the market then it may be a much better idea for SouthWest to enter that region instead.\n7) Ryanair is looking to increase the quality of the service that they provide to appeal to a greater range of people, specifically the business class. To do this, one of their focuses is on people. By ensuring that their staff provide a high quality, reliable and friendly experience to passengers, Ryanair will be able to improve the customer satisfaction that they have, giving them the ability to compete with other airlines in different areas other than price. If they can do this successfully, without having to increase their costs or pricing by much, then it could lead to Ryanair becoming a choice for people looking for something more premium as well.\n8) Price elasticity of demand on flights is something that changes. If you are booking a flight 6 months in advance, you are not under pressure to book there and then, so in order to secure a sale, a company such as Ryanair can do this best by offering a lower price to you. However, if you are looking to book a ticket the same week or even same day, then you are just looking for a flight that will take you to the correct place. Ryanair knows this, and is aware that in these cases people will be much more likely to pay a higher price for a ticket than the people who book early, meaning that they can easily push prices up and increase their margin for the final 30% of tickets sold. In other words, Ryanair goes from being one option among many for the early birds, to the only option for people booking late - therefore it is much easier for Ryanair to sell a ticket to the late person than it is for them to sell a ticket to the early one. \n9) Digital marketing is a new strategy that allows for guaranteed reach and much quicker more reactive marketing. If used correctly, it can funnel traffic from major social networks onto the Ryanair website, and it can be used to specifically target individuals who are looking for flights to certain areas. Because of this degree of accuracy that digital marketing offers, Ryanair will be able to get much better value for money on marketing campaigns. Moving to a more technologically based market.\n\n---\n## Hwk: Evaluate the potential difficulties faced by Ryanair in trying to change its marketing mix in order to widen its appeal.\n\nRyanair is trying to shift their focus to more points in the marketing mix because they have now cornered the budget market, using price penetration and skimming to maximise their revenue for each flight whilst ensuring that they get run at a near maximum capacity. So, price is already very well optimised, and they have chosen to only operate between popular destination meaning that their place is fairly wll constructed so far. \n\nHowever, one area where Ryanair has not yet directed their focus is people. Customers looking for a more premium experience will not choose Ryanair because the service that they offer is not premium. One of the main ways that Ryanair could bolster this would be through increasing both the staffing levels on flights and the training of their staff. If there are more staff, then the load on each individual staff member will be reduced and the quality of service that can be provided to each individual customer will increase. With additional training, this will only improve further. \n\nThe physical environment on a Ryanair flight is not something that could particularly be described as luxurious either. As a primarily budget airline, Ryanair has packed their planes with as many seats as possible. This means that leg room, comfort, and other amenities have been significantly restricted. If Ryanair wants to successfully attract a more premium clientelle, then they will have to find a way of offering these services at a slight premium. Likely the best way that they could offer this would be by converting a certain section of the seats on the flight to \"Premium seats\", which would enable customers willing to pay a bit more for the upgrade to enjoy an experience that matches more high end airlines. \n\nIn addition, the process that Ryanair puts customers through is not intended to be luxurious or premium. It is intended to convert as many people to paying customers as possible, and it applies time pressures with their cheaper prices for the first customers and seasonal deals. This means that Ryanair is less attractive than many competitors where you don't have to worry about whether or not you'll get a seat. Because of this, Ryanair may need t ofocus on some form of premium membership, whereby people who pay some form of annual fee will get priority access to their booking system. Allowing them to book seats before they are made avaliable to everyone, and possibly even providing additional services to these customers, such as included meals or discounts on flights. It would be possible to structure this in such a way where Ryanair would continue to make a profit from these customers, whilst also improving the quality to a level where they would be attracting higher tier customers onto their flights.\n\nTherefore, it makes a lot of sense for Ryanair to look at expanding their marketing mix. The process allows Ryanair to significantly bolster their range of offerings, meaning that more people will be attracted to their service. However, it is also important for Ryanair to not loose sight of their core customer base, because these are the people who generate most of the company's revenue, and if Ryanair makes their customers on lower priced tiers feel discriminated against or like second-class customers, then they will risk loosing both positive public relations and customers. So - Ryanair need to expand their marketing mix to improve the experience people offer, the process through which bookings are made and the physical environment provided on their flights, but they do also need to do this in a way that allows them to increases profit, without scaring away existing customers and opening a gap in the market to allow a competitor to enter.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyStayingPrivate":{"title":"Case Study: Staying Private","content":"\n1) Timpson is a successful business with assets worth a lot of money. This makes them vulnerable to the impacts of having unlimited liability, as William Timpson and any other shareholders could be liable for any damages or debts that the company becomes involved in. Because of this, it makes logical sense for the business to move towards something with limited liability. This basic change in business form, whilst it would come with a few negative side effects, immediately protects the owners from a lot of risk. A private limited company would enable the company to fairly seamlessly transition without having to make too many adjustments to the functional structure of the organisation. Another option that might be viable for a company such as Timpson is a public limited company. This business form would bring increased scrutiny over the company, and would allow anybody to buy into the business—good for cashflow, not so great for control. \n\tSo whilst a sole trader isn't a completely unviable business form, it is definitely not a great idea. A private limited company is probably the best match for the business, as William Timpson said that he “would hate … having shareholders telling me what to do”, and a private limited company brings protection without letting anybody become a shareholder.\n\tA sole trader would have been a good place to start, as it is easy to set up, there is a low level of complexity and the assets at risk are fairly unlikely to be lost if it is a small business. Absolute control is given to the business owner.\n\n2) Factors impacting a plc's share price:\n- performance of similar businesses\n- overall economic status\n- profit warnings\n- accounts\n- recent business decisions\n- rumours (ie, layoffs)\n- whether or not the business will become obsolete in future\n- sustainability\n- public opinion\n\n3) When deciding whether or not to remain a private company, Timpson would have considered a wide range of different factors. These would have included the likes of financial stability, as a private company would be much more responsible for financing itself, whereas a public company would have the freedom to raise finance via the sale of shares. Because Timpson wants the company to remain private to give him more freedom over the decision-making aspect, he would have to find a way to justify the financial side of this move, as anybody who wanted to transition to a public company would likely use the financial difference as an argument point. Another important factor in this decision would be the risk of a hostile takeover. As a public company, the business would be very vulnerable as a low share price could leave them open to be bought out by another organisation. This would likely conflict with the interests of Timpson, because he likes retaining control over the business. A loss of control may end up being a worthwhile sacrifice, though, as a public company comes with advantages too. These include the obvious, like being able to sell shares easily, but also less clear benefits like greater public presence. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyThatsEntertainment":{"title":"Case Study: That's Entertainment","content":"\n\n## Assess the value of the market research carried out by James (9 marks)\n\nJames carried out several forms of market research, which is good because it distributes the sources and helps to verify the authenticity of the data that he gathers. He performed secondary research using a UK-based website. This is good because the data is easily accessible and can be accessed in large quantities. He found that the average cost of a child's entertainer would be about £135—across the UK.\n\nThis information is useful for approximations, however it should not be taken as hard facts. Because of the nature of a website, the data may be outdated, leading to false expectations, and it is also very possible that it doesn't reflect the demographic of James's local area. For instance, because his local area had “high unemployment”, people may be looking to reduce costs by cutting out unessential spending, such as a child's entertainer.\n\nLuckily, he decided to reinforce his findings with primary research, in the form of a questionnaire that he handed out to parents at the local school. With this, he managed to discover that—based on 20 returned surveys—56% of parents had an interest in a child's entertainer, and he found that they were prioritizing quality over price. This suggests that there are good grounds for James to enter the market, especially as only 1 of the local entertainers offers a children's magic show.\n\n\n## To what extent do you agree that the market research James carried out will ensure the success of his new business? (16 marks)\n\nMarket research is unable to ensure anything, it should never be treated as a hard-set market setup, because it is based on samples of sections of a market—it doesn't represent everyone. James got 20 questionnaire responses, and has extrapolated to a larger population from this data. This is an assumption, not a guarantee. It is therefore possible that the people who returned surveys are a minority and that James's business might not get enough traction to to become profitable.\n\nHis secondary market research can act as a reinforcement of the primary research he performed, as parallels can be drawn between the results. For instance, it is possible to see that opinions found on Netmums can be related to those shared by local parents. This can be used to make the educated suggestion that approximately 50% of parents would consider paying for a children's entertainer.\n\nHe has not taken factors such as population size into account. Because if he is only planning on operating in a small region, then the existing entertainers in the region may already saturate the market, and their experience and loyalty may be able to allow them to outcompete James. If this is the case then it may be true that customers have a demand, but the supply would already be provided. He could have improved his research by asking customers whether they had found a child entertainer, and whether that child entertainer had provided everything that they wanted. This would have enabled James to identify gaps in the market and increase his probability of success in a situation where the market is already competitive. \n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CompetitiveEnvironmentFiveForces":{"title":"Competitive Environment - Five Forces","content":"### Porter's Five Forces\n\n- Devised by Michael Porter\n- A framework for analysing the nature of competition within an industry\n\n### Summary for industry profits\n\n\n#### High industry profits associated with\n\n- Weak suppliers\n- Weak customers (buyers)\n- High entry barriers\n- Few opportunities for substitutes\n- Little rivalry\n\n#### Low industry profits associated with\n\n- Strong suppliers\n- Strong customers (buyers)\n- Low entry barriers\n- Many opportunities for substitutes\n\n### The five forces\n\n- Threat of new entrants to a market\n- Bargaining power of suppliers\n- Threats of Substitute Products\n- Bargaining power of buyers (customers)\n- Intensity of rivalry within the industry\n\n#### Threat of new entrants\n\n- If new entrants move into an industry they will gain market share and rivalry will intensify\n- The position of existing firms is stronger if there are barriers to entering the market\n- If barriers to entry are low then the threat of new entrants will be high, and vice versa.\n\n#### Barriers to entry\n\n- Investment cost\n- Economies of scale available to existing firms\n- Regulatory or legal restrictions\n- Existing products with a strong brand of USP\n- Access to suppliers and distribution channels\n- Retaliation by established products (price war)\n\n#### Bargaining power of suppliers\n\n- If a firm's suppliers have bargaining power they will:\n\t- Exercise that power\n\t- Sell their products at a higher price\n\t- Squeeze industry profits\n- If the supplier forces up the price paid for inputs, profits will be reduced\n- The more power the customer (buyer) the lower the price\n\n##### Determinants of supplier power\n\n- Uniqueness of the input supplied\n\t- If the resource is essential to the buying firm and no close substitutes are available, suppliers are in a powerful position\n- Number and size of firms supplying the resources\n\t- A few large suppliers can exert more power over market prices than many smaller suppliers each with a small market share\n- Competition for the input from other industries\n\t- If there is great competition, the supplier will be in a stronger position\n- Cost of switching to alternative sources\n\n\n\u003e Omission\n\n\n### Worksheet\n\n1) Analyse why overcrowding in the industry might mean smaller firms may be forced out.\n \n When there are too many businesses operating in the industry, consumers will be offered a lot more choice, both in terms of products and in price. As larger businesses have more financial clout, they will be able to easily outcompete many smaller competitors on price, likely gaining more market share as a result. Smaller businesses won't have the same level of pricing flexibility, so cannot afford to be involved in a price war. However, as the jewellery market is based on luxuries, people are often willing to pay a premium, allowing some smaller firms to outcompete their larger counterparts in terms of quality. \n \n Regardless, some small firms will have to go. Overcrowding means that the supply is higher than the demand, and as smaller firms have a smaller piece of the pie, they cannot afford to lose anywhere near as much market share as larger firms, meaning that they will likely collapse first.\n\n2) Evaluate the market conditions for the jewellery and watch industry using Porter's five forces model.\n \n As the market is overcrowded, there are many competing businesses, which leads to consumers having much higher bargaining power. If they don't like a product or a price, they can just go to another jewellery shop and buy something else. If there were fewer jewellery shops, then this would be much less of a problem for businesses, as consumers would be more limited. \n \n Premium jewellery will be made using expensive, precious materials, which will cost a lot and have fewer suppliers. This will lead to high supplier bargaining power and very elastic costs. Cheaper jewellery producers will use much cheaper materials that can be procured much more easily, from far more suppliers at a much lower cost. While, the lower quality materials will deter some higher end customers, or people looking to buy things like wedding rings, many people will be attracted by the lower prices . This means that the suppliers able to produce products cheaply will be more likely to succeed, especially during economic hardships where individuals have less money to spend. This means that manufacturers using cheaper materials are a potential threat to premium manufacturers. \n \n Larger companies typically have a stronger brand than smaller independent manufacturers, which means when someone mentions a piece of jewellery—the larger firm comes to mind. This gives them a massive advantage in terms of selling goods as marketing is less of a problem. However, they do also have a much larger budget which allows much greater marketing spending should they want to do a campaign for a new product launch or to rekindle their brand image.\n\n\n \n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CoreCompetencies":{"title":"Core Comepetencies","content":"\n**A core competence is something unique that a business has, or can do, strategically well.**\n\nThe concept was developed by Prahalad \u0026 Hamel\n\n\"The key to competing in the future is building, deploying, protecting and defending core competencies...\"\n\nWhen linked to [SWOT Analysis](sixth/Business/Units/fh/SWOTAnalysis), core competencies are a strength\n\n### The Three Key Conditions\n\nIf a quality meets all three conditions, then it is a core competency.\n\n- Does it provide consumer benefits?\n- Is it easy for competitors to imitate? (NO)\n- Can it be leveraged widely to many products and markets?\n\n### Prahalad \u0026 Hamel's suggest\n\n- Outsource areas that you don't specialise in \n- Focus on the core competencies\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/DifferentFormsOfBusiness":{"title":"Understanding Different Business Forms","content":"\nBusiness forms typically depend upon some of the following factors:\n\n- Business Objectives\n- Stakeholders\n- Shares \u0026 Shareholders\n- Organisational structure\n\n## Business Form Mapping\nThe private sector is any business that is owned by partners, owners or shareholders.\n\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20220915094507.png]]\n\n**Incorporated:** Private Limited Companies and Public Limited Companies\n\n**Unincorporated:** Sole Trader and Partnership\n\n## Business Research: Public Limited Companies\n\nA plc tends to be a fairly established business, as it costs £50,000 to set up (at least) and therefore it is usually a reformed private limited company. Like a private limited company, plcs are owned by shareholders. However, there is a fundamental difference - as the shares of a public company are traded on the stock exchange and can be bought by anyone. This enables the raising of stock capital.\n\nThere are also more high level requirements placed on the business, as more documents must be published - including public accounts.\n\nThis means that anyone can own part of the business if they purchase shares. However, the effective owner of the business is the majority shareholder - if there is one. \n\nDecisions will be made by the executive employees (such as the CEO) and the board (made up of major shareholders). This only covers major decisions, as more minor decisions will still be covered by lower levels of management.\n\nHostile takeovers are a higher risk for public limited companies as anybody is capable of purchasing shares. The setup cost is high, and shareholders will all expect a cut of the profits.\n\nThe shareholders all have limited liability.\n\nA plc is usually a lot bigger than a standard ltd company.\n\nShareholders have ultimate control over the business - however the majority shareholder, if one exists, has complete control. (Anyone with more than 50% of shares.)\n\nHere are some Plcs:\n\n- Admiral Group Plc\n- Aviva Plc\n- BP Plc\n- British American Tobacco plc\n- National Grid\n- Pheonix Group Holdings plc\n- Shell plc\n- Tesco plc\n\n## Business Research: Private Limited Companies\n\nPrivate limited companies can be really small all the way up to a large business. It is the simplest way to form a limited liability company and it has fairly low costs and requirements.\n\nIt only costs £25 to register the company and needs shares to be assigned (if that method is used - persons of signifcant control can also be assigned). A ltd company is typically owned by one (or few) people who set it up. Shares are typically only owned by people directly involved with the company - and share capital is not usually a main source of finance.\n\nWithin a private limited company, the decision making is usually more central than with the typically larger plc. This is because in a private limited company, management is typically much smaller, possibly consisting of a single person. Therefore, a ltd is going to run more like a dictatorship, as one person *could* definitely have complete control over everything.\n\n### Advantages:\n\n- owners have limited liability\n- individuals have the opportunity to become their own boss\n- new shareholders must be invited, preventing hostile takeover and divergence of interests.\n- shares can still be sold to raise money\n\n### Disadvantages:\n\n- there is frequently a lot of paperwork\n- sometimes financial information may end up being public\n- setup can be time consuming\n- the business may require professional help to manage finances\n\nControl is very central, as the owner of the business may choose to keep the whole organisation under their sole control, or delegate it as they choose.\n\nCorporation tax needs to be paid based on profits - meaning that the company may struggle to keep a positive balance.\n\nThe business is incorporated, and liability is limited - so the owners are protected from having their personal assets lost if something goes wrong with the business.\n\nPrivate limited companies tend to be smaller businesses, however there is no limit to the size of a ltd company - so some of them are very big. \n\n### Examples:\n\n- Contract West Limited\n- The Mill at Harvington Limited\n- Arrowtrack Limited\n- B Car Service Limited\n- Jacana Produce Limited\n- INEOS\n- Home Bargains\n- Thames Water\n- Radius Payment Solutions Ltd\n- Bet365\n\nBusinesses considering changing their form, may need to consider some points covered [here.](sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyStayingPrivate)\n\n## Business Research: Partnership\n\nA partnership is usually a smaller business, owned by a group of partners who usually all have specialisations in an area.\n\nWe frequently see partnerships operating as a firms such as solicitors, lawyers, dentists etc. The business is professional, but geared up to run at a relatively small scale.\n\n### Advantages:\n\n- deed of partnership can specify what profits each partner gets\n- they are quick and easy to setup\n- the owners have shared decision making\n- debt responsibility is split between owners\n\n### Disadvantages:\n- they can involve very long hours\n- conflict among owners can occur\n- there is the risk of unlimited liability\n- one partner may let the rest down if they don't uphold the standards of the business\n\nAll partners have shared control.\n\nFinance is provided by the partners, and profit is split between them. The \"deed of partnership\" denotes the specifics of this.\n\nThe business has unlimited liability - putting the partners at high risk.\n\nTypically, partnerships are small and do not grow much.\n\n### Examples:\n\n- JBW law\n- High Street dental practice\n- Merstow Green Medical Practice \n\n## Business Research: Sole Trader\nA sole trader is a common form of business where the owner of the business is the same legal entity as the business. They have unlimited liability, and fairly little legal protection. \n\nA sole trader is owned by a single person who runs the business.\n\nAll of the decision making is made by the singular owner.\n\n### Advantages\n- absolute control to the owner\n- still a legal business, can hire employees etc\n- lower turnover may remove VAT requirements\n\n### Disadvantages\n- unlimited liability\n- personal assets at risk\n\n---\n\nShareholders in **plc** and **ltd** companies can appoint a **Board of Directors** to make the decisions when it comes to running the business. The board appoints management staff of the business.\n\nEvery year, an annual general meeting (AGM) happens for any business. During this time, all shareholders may attend and vote to appoint the board of directors. Shareholder's influence over the vote is dictated by the percentage of shares that they own in the company.\n\nThe board typically aims to get a return on the shareholder's investments into the business.\n\nIn many smaller **ltd** companies, the same people will be shareholders, board members and senior managers in the organisation.\n\n---\n\n## Unincorporated vs Incorporated\n\n### Unincorporated\n- the owner **is** the business - no legal differences\n- owner has unlimited liability for business actions (including debt)\n- most unincorporated businesses operate as sole traders\n\n### Incorporated\n- legal difference between the business and the owners\n- owners/shareholders have limited liability\n- most incorporated businesses operate as private limited companies\n\n### Setting up a plc\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20220920140004.png]]\n### Setting up a ltd\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20220920140040.png]]\n\n---\nLimited companies have significantly more paperwork than unlimited companies. Accounts will be made public and avaliable for anyone who wants to access them, in a plc. Ltds will not have to have their accounts published.\n\nInvestors look for a return on their investment when they buy shares in a business. They would earn money back from dividends - or shares of the company profits.\n\nDividends can be paid annually or as interim dividends.\n\nThere are also [Public Sector](sixth/Business/Units/fh/PublicSector.md) businesses.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/Distribution":{"title":"Distribution (Place)","content":"\nDistribution is the process of getting a product from the producer to the consumer.\n\n\u003e [!tip] Main objective of distribution\n\u003e\n\u003e To make products avaliable in the right place at the right time in the right quantities.\n\n\n## Distribution Channels\n\nA distribution channel moves a product through the stages from production to final consumption.\n\nEach party in a distribution channel is called an *intermediary*.\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Consumer-Channel-Structure-4015857755.jpg]]\n\n### Wholesalers\n\n- Break bulk\n- Buy large volumes of products at a low price and resell smaller quantities at a slightly higher (but still cheaper than the market) price\n- Retailers can order smaller amounts of product from wholesalers.\n- A wholesaler makes money by buying at a lower price from the producer and adding their profit margin onto the price paid by the retailer.\n\n### Agents\n\n- Specialist type of distributor\n- Does not hold stock\n- Tend to operate in the tertiary sector (services)\n\t- Travel\n\t- Insurance\n\t- Publishing\n- Earn a commission based on sales achieved\n\n### Direct vs Indirect Distribution channels\n\n- Direct Distribution\n\t- Channel where a producer and consumer deal directly with each other without the involvement of an intermediary\n- Indirect Distribution\n\t- Involves the use of intermediaries between the producer and consumer\n\n### Factors to consider\n\n- Nature of the product\n\t- Perishable/fragile\n\t- Technical/complex\n\t- Type of product \n\t- Desired image for the product\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/EconomicGrowth":{"title":"Economic Growth","content":"\n## Market Conditions: Two Key Indicators\n\n**Economic Growth (GDP):** The level of demand in most markets is influenced by the rate of economic growth. Economies vary in terms of their “normal” long-term growth rate. A mature economy like the UK has a long-term growth rate around 2-3%. It shouldn't be too high, or too low. GDP growth will vary depending on the state of the economic cycle.\n\nGDP = Gross Domestic Product\n\nThe value of goods and services produced by an economy over a specific period.\n\nGDP:\n\n- measure of the value of activity of economy\n- value used to assess changes in economic growth\n\nDemand:\n\n- how much of a good or service a consumer wants—and is able to pay for \n- for a business, demand turns into revenues (sales)\n\nGDP is measured in quarters, so 4 sections per year of 3 month units. 2 consecutive quarters of negative growth is a recession.\n\nInterest Rates—An interest rate is the **reward for saving** and the **cost of borrowing** expressed as a percentage of the money saved or borrowed.\n\nSo, when interest rates are high, saving is more attractive and taking out loans or mortgages are less so.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/EconomicGrowthAndBusinessCycle":{"title":"Economic Growth And The Business Cycle","content":"\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230525094811.png]]\n\n- Economic activity and economic growth are measured by GDP (Gross Domestic Product)\n\t- The market value of all goods and services produced within a country.\n\n### Key Factors Affecting Short-term Economic Growth\n\n- Interest rates set by the central bank\n- Fiscal policy – government spending and taxation\n- Commodity prices such as oil, gas and foodstuffs\n- Exchange rates\n- Trading conditions in other countries\n- Confidence of businesses and households\n\n### Economic and Social Costs of Growth\n\n\n- High rates of GDP growth can bring about undesirable economic and social costs - much depends on the nature of growth\n\n- Risks of higher inflation and higher interest rates\n\t- Fast-growing demand can lead to demand-pull and cost-push inflation - this leads to a conflict between macro objectives\n\t- The central bank may decide to raise interest rates to control inflation\n- Environmental effects\n\t- More negative externalities such as pollution \u0026 waste\n\t- Risk of unsustainable extraction of finite resources - ie, fast growing countries may cause a long-run depletion of natural resources\n- Inequalities of income and wealth\n\t- Rapid increases in real national income can lead to a higher level of inequality and social divisions\n\t- Many of the gains from growth may go to only a few people\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ElkingtonsTripleBottomLine":{"title":"Elkington's Triple Bottom Line (Profit, People, Planet)","content":"\n**A way of assessing business performance based on three important measures: people, profit and planet.**\n\n### The Traditional Bottom Line\n\n- Businesses assumed to be profit-maximisers\n- Traditional measure of business success\n- Closely linked with business value (eg, share price)\n- Often the basis for financial incentives like bonuses\n\n### The Triple Bottom Line\n\n- It aims to measure the financial, social and environmental performance of a business over a period of time\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230612110839.png]]\n\n- Profit\n\t- Familiar to managers\n\t- Identified from income statement\n\t- Audited—reliable figure\n- Planet\n\t- Measures impact of business on environment\n\t- More tangible, eg emissions, use of sustainable inputs\n- People\n\t- Measures extent to which business is socially responsible \n\t- Hard to calculate \u0026 report reliably \u0026 consistently\n\n### Mini case study: Novo Nordisk\n\n- Profit\n\t- Novo Nordisk is already highly profitable so does not need to work heavily in this area\n\t- Primary objective is to develop and market treatments\n- People\n\t- Novo Nordisk Foundation has the majority of the voting power in their shareholder structure\n\t- Develop/provide life saving medications\n- Planet\n\t- Commit to 100% renewable production sites\n\t- Investing in research\n\t- Zero environmental impact by 2030\n\n---\n\n### Benefits \u0026 Value of the triple bottom line\n\n- Encourages businesses to think beyond narrow measure of performance (profit)\n- Encourages CSR reporting\n- Supports the measurement of environmental impact and the extent of sustainability \n\n### Drawbacks \u0026 Criticisms of the triple bottom line\n\n- Not very useful as an overall measure of business performance\n- Hard to reliably and consistently measure people \u0026 planet bottom-lines\n- No legal requirement to report it so take-up has been poor\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/EmergingMarketsAndBusiness":{"title":"Emerging Markets and Business","content":"\nEmerging market is used to describe an economy in the process of rapid growth and industrialisation.\n\n### Common Features of Emerging Markets\n\n- Economies making a transition\n- Rapid industrialisation\n- Have potential to become developed economies\n- Faster long-term economic growth than most developed countries\n- Many inhabitants still in poverty, though economic growth is taking many out of poverty\n- Businesses struggle to access global markets (ie, trade barriers)\n\n### The Four Classic Original Emerging Markets (BRIC)\n\n- Brazil\n- Russia\n- India\n- China\n\n#### What happened to the BRICs\n\n- China is now one of the world's largest economies\n- Russia has suffered heavy sanctions after invading Ukraine and has lost a lot of market power\n- India continues to grow, now having the largest population of any country\n- Brazil has not accelerated ahead or changed course massively, but still represents a potential economic power of the future\n\n### Perceived Business Threats from Emerging Markets\n\n- Increasingly large pool of skilled, but low-cost labour\n- Undervalued currencies make their exports cheaper\n- Inadequate protection of brand and other intellectual property\n- State subsidy of industries to make them more competitive globally\n\n### Key risks and threat of emerging markets\n\n- Political instability\n- Cultural differences / sensitivities\n- Variable approaches to financial and legal dealings\n- Corruption and bureaucracy still an issue\n- Emerging markets becoming major exporters\n- Low-cost production makes developed economies uncompetitive in some markets\n\n---\n\n### Case Study (Plan): Myface and Emerging Markets\n\n- Emerging markets have different dynamics to the developed markets that Myface is used to operating in, meaning that their current strategies may prove ineffective. However, there are many people in these markets who could be added to Myspace's user base quite smoothly if they can correctly attract users.\n- An emerging market is very volatile and could leave a business like Myface in a difficult situation if they do not adapt quickly to the changing market conditions\n- If there are weaker copyright/IP laws, then Myface may have to consider the problem of dealing with clones and other blatant copies, as well as the impact these sites may have on their business.\n- Different countries will have different data protection regulations, so it may be required that Myface invest in local infrastructure to run their operations in the country, this could lead to much higher costs and therefore risks associated with entering a developing economy. \n- Neglecting to deal with their problems in the west won't make those go away, so they cannot only focus on growth into new markets, they must also work on improving their performance within existing markets or they may end up in a situation where their core market is at risk.\n- Myface may benefit from buying out potential competitors such as Instagram (cough cough) to secure the younger market and a future for their company even if their main platform is lost.\n- Getting into these markets earlier may give them a first mover advantage.\n- If the market already has companies operating in it, then they may be looking at saturation and the issues with being yet another solution to a problem that no longer exists.\n- If the country has poor internet infrastructure, then there may not be many people who can actually use Myface, meaning that the investment may be poor if they don't also invest in internet connectivity for the country.\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/EmployerEmployeeRelations":{"title":"Employer-Employee Relations","content":"\n- Employees want\n\t- to feel\n\t\t- valued\n\t\t- listened to\n\t\t- appreciated\n\t- to have\n\t\t- good relationships with managers\n\n- Poor relations may result in\n\t- Increased absence\n\t- Dissatisfaction\n\t- Higher turnover\n\t- Industrial action (strikes)\n\t- Reduced productivity\n\n## Employee Representation\n\n\u003e Arises when employees are part of a formal structure that involves them in the decision-making process of a business.\n\n### Legal requirements to consult with employees\n\n- Proposed redundancy programmes\n- When employees are transferred from one employer to another\n- On changes to pension arrangements\n- Proposed changes to working time arrangements\n\n### Benefits\n\n- Increased empowerment and motivation of the workforce\n- Employees become more committed to the objectives and strategy of the business\n- Better decision-making because employee experience and insights are taken into account\n- Lower risk of industrial disputes\n\n### Drawbacks\n\n- Time-consuming and potentially slows decision-making\n- Conflicts between employer and employee interests may be a block to essential change\n- Managers may feel their authority is being undermined\n\n## Trade Unions\n\n### Main Role\n\n- Protect and improve the real incomes of their members\n- Provide or improve job security\n- Protect workers against unfair dismissal and other issues relating to employment legislation\n- Lobby for better working conditions\n- Offer a range of work-related services including support for people claiming compensation for injuries sustained in a job\n\n### Two main functions of a trade union\n\n#### Represent\n\n- To represent and protect the interest of the employees\n\n#### Negotiate\n\n- Negotiate on behalf of employees with employer\n\n### Advantages for an employer having a good relationship with a trade union\n\n- Negotiating with trade unions saves time and cost rather than dealing with all employees individually\n- Unions are part of the communication process between the business and employees\n- Employee morale and motivation may be improved if they know that their interests are being protected by a union\n- The trade union can be a supportive partner in helping a business undergo significant change\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/EmployerEmployeeRelationsCnt":{"title":"Employer-Employee Relations Continued","content":"\n## Good reasons for a formal system of employee representation\n\n- Make employee views known to management\n- Help strengthen both management's and employee's understanding of workplace issues and other matters affecting the business\n- Help create an atmosphere of mutual trust between employees and management and therefore improve workplace relations\n\n## Main role of trade unions\n\n- Support with equal pay\n- Fair pay/ living wage\n- Legal support\n- Job security\n- Improved pensions\n- Maternity leave\n- General rights protection\n\n- Protect and improve the real incomes of their members\n- Provide or improve job security\n- Protect workers against unfair dismissal and other issues relating to employment legislation\n- Lobby for better working conditions\n- Offer a range of other work-related services including support for people claiming compensation for injuries sustained in a job.\n\n### Represent\n\n- Represent and protect interests of employees\n\n### Negotiate\n\n- Negotiate on behalf of the employees with the employer\n\n## Advantages for an Employer of a Good Relationship with a Trade Union\n\n- Negotiating with trade unions (ideally a single union) saves time and cost rather than dealing with all employees individually\n- Unions are part of the communication process between the business and employees\n- Employee morale and motivation may be improved if they know that their interests are being protected by a union.\n- The trade union can be a supportive partner in helping a business undergo significant change.\n\n## Reasons for declining union membership\n\n- Decline in employment in manufacturing (where union membership is traditionally high)\n- Increased employment in the service sector (e.g., retail) where unions are less well established\n- Growth in the number of small firms which do not to recognise or need trade unions\n- Significant growth in flexible working (part-time, temporary seasonal)—where employees see less need for union protection\n- Improved employee involvement in the workplace—so less perceived need for collective bargaining\n\n## Why are employees from Starbucks and Google trying to unionise? \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExtendedMarketingMix":{"title":"Extended Marketing Mix","content":"\nThe 4 Ps:\n- Price\n- Product\n- Place\n- Promotion\n\nThe new 3 Ps:\n\n- Process\n- People\n- Physical Environment\n\n\u003e And then there were 7\n\n## People\n\n- This element focuses on the people within a business who come into contact with customers.\n- For a physical product, these are likely to be the people involved in the initial selling process and those providing after sales service.\n- For a service the people is even more important due to their increased impact on customer satisfaction.\n\n- Recruit the correct people\n- Train them properly\n- Motivate your staff\n- Share with employees the importance of good customer service.\n\n\n## Process\n\n\n- Do you have to wait long?\n- Easy to navigate?\n- Order online?\n- Quick delivery\n- Can you make it easier?\n\n\t- Enhancing the experience of queuing where necessary, theme park rides may provide some entertainment whilst queuing.\n\n## Physical Environment\n\n- The physical premises of a business\n- When you first walk in you get an impression.\n\t- the design\n\t- the decor\n\t- signage\n\t- staff uniforms and appearance\n\t- brochures, stationery\n\t- website\n\n- If the physical environment gives a positive impression about the business, then the customer is more likely to use their service. An unattractive reception area, low quality brochure and non-user-friendly website are likely to put customers off.\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n**Physical:** The appearance of a physical store, ideally something that reflects the mood of the brand and sets customer expectations of the business.\n\n**Process:** The interactions and involvement with the customer as they move through the store experience. Somewhere like IKEA is going to have a very different process to a place like McDonalds. IKEA expects you to spend a long time in the store and walk right round the whole place, likely spending a large amount of money. Mcdonalds however focuses on a short, easy experience.\n\n**People:** The staff that you interact with whilst at the shop and how they reflect the brand image.\n\n\nApple and Poundland differ largely in the area of image. Poundland has a very wide range of products and looks to cram as much in as they can and try to get people to buy a larger amount of products so that Poundland can keep their prices low. \n\nApple looks for a much cleaner experience where the customer looks at possibly getting a single product. However Apple provides experts who can guide you through the whole process. Apple doesn't need to sell you a product either, as their margins are very high and prices are in the hundreds of pounds. \n\nMost important 3 Ps:\n\n- Price -\u003e People always want to save money\n- Promotion -\u003e Good promotion keeps the brand in people's minds\n- People -\u003e Friendly staff will greatly increases the chance of a sale\n\nMcDonald's:\n\nThe price is fairly low compared to many other restaurants.\nThe place is usually near a high footfall area where there are lots of people present. The promotion is strong, with memorable tunes and branding \n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalEnvironment":{"title":"External Environment","content":"\nThe environment in which businesses operate. Most businesses have little or no control over this environment. The environment needs to be monitored constantly in order to react to any changes that occur.\n\nA more competitive business will anticipate changes instead of just reacting to it.\n\n\nPESTLE Analysis:\n\nPolitical\nEconomic\nSocial\nTechnological\nLegal\nEthical/Environmental\n\nPESTLE analysis is a good list to work through when analysing the external environment.\n\n**Political:**\n- Competition Policy\n- Industry regulation\n- Government spending \u0026 tax policies\n- Business policy \u0026 incentives\n\n**Economic:**\n- Interest rates\n- Consumer spending \u0026 income\n- Exchange rates\n- Economic growth (GDP)\n\n**Social:**\n- Demographic change\n- Impact of pressure groups\n- Consumer tastes \u0026 fashions\n- Changing lifestyles\n\n**Technology:**\n- Disruptive technologies\n- Adoption of mobile tech\n- New production processes\n- Big data and dynamic pricing\n\n**Legal:**\n- Employment Law\n- Minimum/ Living Wage\n- Health \u0026 Safety Laws\n- Environmental legislation\n\n**Ethical and Environmental:**\n- Sustainability \n- Tax practices\n- Ethical sourcing (supply chain)\n- Pollution \u0026 Carbon Emissions\n---\n\n## PESTLE Analysis Activity\n\nPolitics may impact the future of Amazon because governments may become concerned about the influence of Amazon. Therefore, to regulate competition, the government may choose to prevent a monopoly by taking action against Amazon.\n\nEconomic factors influencing business strategy:\n\n- Interest Rates\n- Unemployment\n- Inflation\n- Recession\n\nA recession will directly impact the amount of revenue Amazon generates, meaning that Amazon may have to restructure their business model to survive.\n\nIf Amazon does not keep in the loop with social changes, then they will be seen as out of touch and will lose customers.\n\nLegal factors are typically enforced by laws, forcing the company to follow specific regulations.\n\nAmazon has frequently been seen to package items inefficiently, wasting excess plastics and polluting the environment. This means that Amazon has to change in order to retain customers.\n\n[Task](sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalVsInternal)\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalEnvironmentExchangeRates":{"title":"Exchange Rates","content":"\nAn exchange rate is the price of one currency expressed in terms of another currency. The exchange rate determines how much of one currency has to be given up in order to buy a specific amount of another currency.\n\n### Ways that exchange rates can impact business activity\n\n- Price of exports in international markets\n- Cost of goods bought from overseas\n- Revenues and profits earned overseas\n- Converting cash receipts from customers overseas\n\n### SPICED\n\n**S**trong\n**P**ound\n**I**mports\n**C**heaper\n**E**xports\n**D**earer\n\n### What might cause an increase in the exchange rate?\n\n- Increasing demand for exports results in higher demand for currency\n- Lower demand for imports results in lower demand for currency\n- Speculation - traders may bet that the exchange rate will rise\n- An increase in interest rates - making it more attractive to hold the currency\n- Foreign direct investment into the country leads to higher demand fro currency\n\n\n---\n\n### Practice exercise 4\n\n#### What is an exchange rate?\n\n- The amount of one currency that can be purchased for another currency.\n\n\n#### Explain how free exchange rates are determined.\n\n- If the demand for payments in one currency increases, then the value of that currency would increase, whilst the opposite is also true.\n\n#### State and explain three reasons why a currency might increase in value\n\n- Higher demand for exports\n\t- If one country has highly desired export demands then their currency is likely to increase in value\n- Trader speculation\n\t- If traders believe that the value will increase, then they will buy the currency up and that will lead to an increase in value\n- Foreign investment\n\t- Foreign investments into the country leads to greater demand\n\n#### Select one of the following statements to complete the sentence...\n\n- If the value of the pound against the dollar rises, then prices of exports to America rise and prices of imports from America fall.\n- if the value of the pound against the dollar falls, then prices of export to America fall and prices of imports from America rise.\n\n#### When the exchange rate rises\n\n##### How might a firm ensure that its prices abroad do not rise?\n\n- They could use local suppliers as much as possible, reducing the impact as much as they can on tariffs and exchange rate fluctuations. \n\n##### Why might a firm not always choose to take the above action?\n- It might not be viable for a firm to get a certain material locally, as it may either be much cheaper to import from an external supplier or it may be a natural resource that can only be extracted in certain regions, outside of the country.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalEnvironmentInflation":{"title":"External Environment: Inflation","content":"\n**Inflation** is a sustained increase in the average price level of an economy.\n\n- the rate of inflation is measured by the annual percentage change in the level of prices as measured by the consumer price index\n- a sustained fall in the general price level is called deflation—in this situation the rate of inflation becomes negative\n\n### Consumer Price Index (CPI)\n\n\n- the consumer price index is the mean measure of inflation for the UK\n- the government has set the Bank of England a target for inflation (using the CPI) of 2%\n- the aim of this target is to achieve a sustained period of low and stable inflation\n- low inflation is also known as price stability\n\n\n### Two main causes of inflation\n\n#### Demand pull\n\n- when there is excess demand\n\n#### Cost push\n\n- when costs rise\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230626105441.png]]\n\n\n\nInflationary case study: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-12196322\n\n### Main causes of demand pull inflation\n\n- Very fast growth of demand for credit/borrowing\n- High levels of consumer spending\n\n### Deflation\n\n- A period when general price levels fall\n- Normally associated with a significant reduction in economic activity (depression/slump)\n- Can also occur if the economy is rapidly building its productive potential\n\n#### Economic \u0026 Business costs of deflation\n\n- Consumers postpone spending if they believe prices will go lower\n- The real value of debt increases and makes it harder to pay debt off\n- Falling asset prices (such as housing)\n- Business profit margins fall due to lower selling prices\n\n**Some inflation is good for business**\n\n### Effect of inflation on revenue\n\n- The price elasticity of demand is an important factor in how inflation will impact revenue\n- If the product is price elastic, then revenue is likely to fall during inflation\n- If the product is price inelastic, then revenue will not change much during inflation\n- Price elasticity of demand refers to the responsiveness of demand to changes in price\n\n### Inflation and business costs\n\n- A rise in general inflation:\n\t- Sales revenue should rise\n\t- But workers are more likely to demand higher pay to compensate for consumer price inflation\n\t- Labour intensive industries at more risk\n- Input cost inflation\n\t- Cost-push inflation will vary from industry to industry\n\t- Firms that need to buy significant commodity raw materials may find profit margins squeezed if they cannot pass on increased costs to customers\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalEnvironmentInterestRates":{"title":"Interest Rates","content":"\nAn interest rate is the cost of borrowing money or the return for investing money.\n\n### Interest payments and receipts\n\n#### Interest Paid\n\n- Paid to bank when overdrawn\n- Paid to bank on a loan\n- Paid to credit card or leasing companies\n\n\n#### Interest Received\n\n- Paid by bank on cash balances held\n- Paid by customers if they are late settling invoices\n\n\n### Who sets the interest rates?\n\n- The base rate is set by the Bank of England in the UK. \n- Each month, the Monetary Policy Committee of the Bank of England meet to decide what the base rate should be\n\n### If an interest rate rise is a problem...\n\n- Price discounts to stimulate demand\n- Cost cutting to maintain margins and conserve cash\n- Reduce capacity - eg, short time work, redundancies\n- Improve management of working capital (eg, destocking)\n- Reduce the debt burden\n- Cut back on investment plans\n\n### Interest rates \u0026 exchange rates\n\n- High interest rates in the UK (compared to other countries) will cause an inflow of capital into the UK\n- This increases the demand for sterling and reduces the supply\n- As a result the exchange rate goes up\n- A stronger currency will make the exports more expensive and imports cheaper.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalVsInternal":{"title":"External vs Internal","content":"*Low glucose: Task impacted.*\n\n## Gillygate Pub\n\n### Problems\n- Energy prices (ECONOMIC)\n\t- Forced to call in administrators after £2,500/mo energy bills\n- Rent rise (ECONOMIC)\n- More competition (ECONOMIC)\n- Brexit (ECONOMIC, POLITICAL)\n\n## Tempt\n\n### Problems\n- Rising energy bills (ECONOMIC)\n\n## Emma Mellor's Handmade Rugs\n- High delivery charges (ECONOMIC)\n- Reduced spending as bills rise (ECONOMIC)\n- Reduced passing trade (ECONOMIC)\n\n## Mark Snowden of Jax Barbers\n- 300% energy bill increase (ECONOMIC)\n- \"40 years in business, and this one is the hardest by far\"\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/FiscalAndMonetaryPolicy":{"title":"Fiscal And Monetary Policy","content":"\n### Fiscal Policy\n\n- The use of government spending, taxation and borrowing to achieve relevant economic objectives\n\n#### Main taxes\n\n- Income tax\n- Corporation tax\n- VAT\n\n#### Main tax expenditures\n\n- Health\n- Education\n- Social Security\n\n#### What happens if government spending is greater than taxes?\n\n- Budget deficit\n\n### Monetary Policy\n\n- The use of interest rates and changes to the money supply to achieve relevant economic objectives\n\n#### Who manages monetary policy?\n\n- The Bank of England (Monetary Policy Committee)\n- Their main aim is to try and keep inflation around 2%\n- Look to support stability and economic growth\n\n## Open Trade and Protectionism\n\n- The opposite of free/open trade\n- The main aim is to protect domestic businesses and industries from any overseas competition and prevent the outcome resulting solely from open trade\n\n#### Tariffs\n\n- A tariff or tax/duty that raises the price of imported products\n- An attempt to reduce the domestic demand for the specific imported products \n- Intended to allow domestic suppliers to scale up\n\n#### Quotas\n\n- Limits on the quantity of imports allowed or a limit to the value of imports permitted into a country over a specific time frame\n\n#### Non-tariff barriers\n\n- Other regulations such as labelling requirements or quality standards\n- They are administrative, technical and regulatory obstacles to trade\n\n#### Export subsidies\n\n- Payments to encourage domestic production by lowering their costs\n\n#### Domestic subsidies\n\n- Domestic subsidies involve government help or state aid for domestic businesses facing financial problems\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/HRFlow":{"title":"Human Resources Flow","content":"\n\n## Human Resource Flow ##\n\nthe flow of employees through an organisation \nincluding:\n- the inflow—when they are recruited\n- the internal flow—what happens to them within the organisation\n- the outflow—when they eventually leave the organisation\n\n### The Inflow\n\nInvolves decisions about recruitment, selection and induction of new employees\n\n### The Internal Flow\n\nInvolves decisions about transfers, redeployment, promotions and demotions, training and development, evaluating employees' performance and rewarding them.\nThe internal flow must be managed to ensure employees' skills and competencies are developed to meet organisational needs, while at the same time satisfying \nemployees' own career aspirations.\n\n### The Outflow\n\nInvolves decisions about when and how employees leave an organisation, including retirement, redundancy and dismissal.\n\n# Human Resource Plan #\n\nThe 3 key elements of the human resource plan are:\n- forecasting labour demand\n- analysing present labour supply\n- balancing projected labour demand and supply\n\n### Stages in HRP\n\n1) assessing the current workforce\n2) assessing the workforce needed in the future\n3) identifying the gaps or areas of oversupply\n4) developing strategies to fill gaps or reduce the oversupply\n5) right people, right place, right time\n- This is cyclical so restarts at 1 after 5\n\n\n## NHS Case Study ##\n\n- increase wages\n- improve working conditions\n- lower tuition fees for dentistry school\n\n\n---\n\n### Recap\n\n- Human Resource Flows\n\t- Inflow—recruitment, induction\n\t- Internal flow—promotions, training, transfers, redeployment, demotions, reward appraisal\n\t- Outflow—resignation, retirement, redundancy, dismissal\n- Human Resource Plan\n\t- TODAY\n\n### Reasons to recruit staff\n\n- Business expansion\n- Existing employees leave and need replacing\n- Business needs new employees with new skills\n- Business is relocating\n\n### Changes in employment patterns\n\n- More people working from home\n- More people working flexible hours\n- More part-time workers\n- Greater number of women looking to work\n- Ageing population\n- People rarely remain in the same job for life\n- Technology is enabling “teleworking”.\n- More jobs exist in the tertiary sector now\n\n### Workforce Planning\n\n- The workforce plan establishes what vacancies exist\n- Managers produce a job description and job specification for each post\n- Job description\n\t- Detailed explanation of the roles and responsibilities of the post advertised\n\t- Most applicants will ask for this before applying for the job\n\t- Refers to the post available rather than the person\n\n### The Recruitment Process\n\n- Define requirements\n\t- Job description\n\t\t- Job title\n\t\t- Reporting responsibilities\n\t\t- Subordinates\n\t\t- Main purpose\n\t\t- Main tasks\n\t\t- Employment conditions\n\t- Job specification\n- Attract potential employees\n\t- Job advertising\n- Select the right people\n\t- Job Interview\n\t- Ability/Aptitude tests\n\n\n### Recruitment Methods\n\n- Internal recruitment\n\t- Jobs given to staff already employed by business\n\t- Involves promotion and reorganisation\n\t- Advantages\n\t\t- Cheaper\n\t\t- Quicker\n\t\t- People who know the business\n\t\t- Motivates existing employees\n\t- Disadvantages\n\t\t- Business already knows strengths and weaknesses of candidates\n\t\t- Limits number of potential applicants\n\t\t- No new ideas from outside\n\t\t- May cause resentment amongst candidates not appointed\n\t\t- Creates another vacancy which needs to be filled\n- External recruitment\n\t- Job centres\n\t- Job advertisements\n\t- Recruitment agencies\n\t- Headhunting\n\t- Personal recommendation\n\t- Advantages\n\t\t- Outside people bring in new ideas\n\t\t- Larger pool of workers from which to find best candidate\n\t\t- People have a wider range of experience\n\t- Disadvantages\n\t\t- Longer process\n\t\t- More expensive process due to advertisements and interviews required\n\t\t- Selection process may not be effective enough to reveal best candidate\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/HumanResourceManagement":{"title":"Human Resource Management","content":"\n## Setting Human Resources (HR) Objectives\n\n**Human Resource Management**: The design, implementation and maintenance of strategies to manage people for optimum business performance. \n\u003e CIPD\n\nA **HR objective** is a specific goal or target of relating to the management and performance of human resources in a business.\n\n\n## Importance of HRM\n\n- Services are more common now, people are the critical resource to deliver quality and customer service\n- Competitiveness requires a business to be efficiet and productive - requires a motivated workforce.\n\n## Aspects of HRM\n\n- Workforce planning\n- Recruitment and selection\n- Training\n- Talent development\n- Employee engagement and involvement\n- Managing diversity\n- Developing corporate culture\n\n\n**Think PESTLE.**\n\n## Hard HRM\n\n- Employees are viewed as another resource that does not add significant value to the business.\n- Employees are directed and controlled closely\n- Work is often highly competitive\n- Little opportunity for creativity\n\n### Benefits\n\n- Quick staff replacement\n- Training costs are minimal\n- Fewer errors due to tighter control\n\n### Drawbacks\n\n- High staff turnover\n- Low level of motivation\n- Appraisal systems are judgemental\n\n\n## Soft HRM\n\n- Employees are seen as a highly valuable asset\n- Empowerment and training\n- Appraisals are developmental and aimd to supporting employees\n- Manager acts as a facilitator to help an employee to do their job properly\n\n\n### Benefits\n\n- Competitive advantage\n- Reduced labour turnover\n- Increased staff loyalty\n\n### Drawbacks\n\n- Reliance upon consultation and discussion\n- Opportunity cost\n- Assumption that all employees actually wish to become involved in the business\n\n---\n\n## Common HR Objectives\n\n- Employee Engagement\n\t- Engaged employees will identify with your goals\n\t- Will stay loyal\n\t- Excited to take on new challenges\n\t- Disengaged staff will simply work the hours that they are contracted to work\n\t- Maintaining good employee/employer relations\n- Talent Development\n\t- Identification and development of potential future business leaders\n\t- Speeding up the career progression of people with high potential\n\t- Graduate fast-tracks\n\t- 360 degree appraisal programmes\n- Training\n\t- Improve knowledge \u0026 skills of employees\n\t- Improves engagement \u0026 performance\n\t- Expensive\n\t- Time consuming\n- Diversity\n\t- Widen variety of skills, ideas and experiences\n\t- Diversity needs to exist at each and every level of the business\n\t- Positions should always be filled based on ability\n\t- Senior management positions are particularly poorly represented by employees from minority groups\n\t- Change in corporate culture may be nescessary\n\t- Better understanding of target market\n\t- More attractive employer\n- Alignment of Values\n\t- A firm's core values outline the way a business behaves and influences the decisions that they make. It becomes a central point of reference for everyone within the organisation.\n\t- However, if the views of employees run contrary to that of the business, there is likely to be conflict and a firm's corporate objectives are unlikely to be achieved.\n\t- It is important for training and communication to be developed to promote the core values of the firm and for all deccision making to reinforce this ideal so that the business builds up a clear identity of what it stands for amongst all of their stakeholders.\n- Skills, Numbers and Locations\n\t- Ensuring that the number of employees with the correct skills, in the right location is correct is integral to smooth business operation. \n\t- HR will need to adapt with any changes to the business, such as expansion or new technology to ensure that this goal is always as close to being met as possible.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/HwkPestleAnalysis":{"title":"Homework: Pestle Analysis","content":"\n**PESTLE**:\n\nPolitical\nEconomic\nSocial\nTechnological\nLegal\nEnvironmental/Ethical\n\nChosen company for analysis: Valve Corporation\n\nPolitical—Valve is very politically neutral—with very little political involvement. They operate everywhere—only excluding North Korea. They do not sanction or treat different regions differently, which is seen as both good and bad. For instance, when lots of companies were pulling out of Russia—Valve made no comment or change. However, they do also persist in harder regions - as they have continued all operations in Ukraine.\n\nEconomic - Valve is largely unimpaired by the wider economy as they have created their own internalised Steam economic system. They are definitely still connected to the global economy though - and it does play a big role in their business. However, as they make billions in profit each year, they can afford to loose some of their money and tend not to make a change based on the economic climate.\n\nTechnological - Valve is a high tech organisation, their main product is Steam - a digital game, software and media distribution platform. They also produce games and hardware. This means that Valve tends to be at the cutting edge of technology. They have recently filed patents for BCIs (Brain Computer Interfaces), Nerve Manipulating Systems (allowing for the human nervous system to be manipulated to experience different sensations) and for technologies allowing for a false reality to be displayed to a user as a reality. \n\nLegal - Valve is largely unregulated, as many of their business models are yet to be monitored by the law. They do comply with laws, however do also have some business models that are potential risky - such as their microtransaction/gambling models that are used in some of their games. Largely, Valve is an ethical company, paying employees well and providing partners with a good range of services at a very reasonable price. But they are not perfect in this regard.\n\nEnvironmental/Ethical - Valve does not have a written ethical code, however they do react ethically in many situations. When underage gambling sites have existed around their products, they have forced these sites to close down as soon as they became aware of their existence. \n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/IncomeElasticityOfDemand":{"title":"Income Elasticity of Demand","content":"\n**% change in demand divided by the % change in income**\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/InternalVsExternalRecruitment":{"title":"Internal vs External Recruitment","content":"\n## Worksheet\n\n### Compare the process of recruiting internally and externally.\n\nInternal recruitment is beneficial due to the fact that the business has more data about the candidates and can therefore make more informed judgements about who would be a better fit for the business. However, when recruiting internally, it is very likely to create conflict or resentment between employees. This would reduce the efficiency of the business and could break teams apart. External recruitment on the other hand is much more costly and time-consuming, although it does enable the recruitment of someone who specialises in the role that they are applying for, rather than someone who is simply promoting from another role. This means that the role could be filled with somebody more specialised.\n\n\n### Through research and from what already has been covered, evaluate why McDonald's may focus a lot of their recruitment efforts internally.\n\nMcDonald's has a high staff turnover rate, meaning that many employees do not remain in the company for long. However, by making all the roles above crew member something that a crew member can be promoted into means that motivation is boosted for employees and that people in management positions have a better understanding of what employees lower down the chain are experiencing. By recruiting externally, they would lose a lot of these benefits and would possibly reduce the overall efficiency of the business. As a company, McDonald's also likes to create the image that they train up new managers, bringing value to the individuals in their future career and future employers. By doing this, McDonald's can use their internal recruitment strategies to bolster their public relations and gain additional credibility with others.\n\nExternal recruitment would lead to new people appearing higher up in the store's hierarchy, which may make more senior crew members feel cheated out of a promotion.\n\n\n\n## Role of a recruitment agency\n\n- A recruitment agency provides a link between the employer and the employee\n\t- Potential employees register with the agency and provide personal details\n\t- Employers approach the agency for shortlists of potential candidates\n- Recruitment agencies charge a fee for the service\n\t- Main fee is to the employer\n\t- Usually a percentage of employee's wages and salary in the first 6–12 months\n\t- Often an expensive option\n- Some agencies specialise in particular employment areas\n\n\n## What to consider when advertising\n\n- Type of job\n\t- Senior management jobs merit adverts in the national newspapers and/or specialist management magazines\n\t- Many semi-skilled jobs need only be advertised locally to get sufficient candidates\n- Cost of advertising\n\t- National newspapers and television cost significantly more than local newspapers\n- Readership and circulation\n\t- How many relevant people does the publication reach?\n\n## The Shortlist\n\n- Long list =\u003e Total pool of applicants\n- Shortlist =\u003e Small number of suitable applications that meet the job criteria\n- Should be drawn up by 2 people working independently\n- Import not to only include \"perfect\" or \"ideal\" candidates\n\n### Selection Tests\n\n- Formats\n\t- Aptitude tests\n\t- Intelligence tests\n\t- Personality tests\n- Why\n\t- Basic interview can be unreliable as applicants can perform well at interview but not have qualities or skills needed for the job\n\n## References\n\n- Written character statements from people who know the applicant well\n- An important safety check\n- A chance to learn more about the strengths and weaknesses of an applicant\n- Final check that all information given by candidate is correct\n- Good honest reference from an independent source can also reveal good or bad incidences from candidate's past or particular traits that may have been missed.\n\n---\n\n**Motivation** → The will or desire to do something\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/InterprettingMarketData":{"title":"Interpretting Market Data","content":"\n## Extrapolation\n\nUses trends from historical data to forecast the future.\n\n## Moving averages\n\nA moving average takes a data series and \"smoothes\" the fluctuations in data to show an average. The aim is to take out the extremes of data from period to period.\n\n\nExtrapolation is not just drawing a straight line and assuming that conditions will all remain stable or equivalent to historial data. It requires attention to be paid to the various different internal and exterenal factors.\n\nFactors include:\n\n- product life cycle\n- pace of technological innovation\n- market saturation\n- etc\n\n## Pros and Cons of Extrapolation\n\n### Pros\n- A simple method\n- Not much data required\n- Quick and cheap\n\n### Cons\n- Unrealiable \n- Assumes the continuation of past trends\n- Ignores many qualitative factors (changes in fashion or taste for instance)\n\n## Correlation\n\nCorrelation is the strength of the relationship between two variables.\n\n### Independent Variable\n\nThe factor that causes the dependent variable to change.\n\nX axis\n\n### Dependent Variable\n\nThe variable that is influenced by the indepedent variable.\nY axis\n\n### Types of correlation\n\n#### Positive correlation\n\nA positive relatioshiop, when the independent increases so does the dependent.\n\n#### Negative correlation\n\nA negative relationship, when the independent decreases so does the dependent.\n\n#### No correlation\n\nThere is no obvious relationship between the two variables.\n\n\nStrong correlations are very definite, whereas a weak correlation means the data is quite spread.\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/JobDesign":{"title":"Job Design","content":"\n- Job design is all about the tasks and responsibilities that are grouped into a specific job.\n- Job design can have a significant influence on labour productivity through the link with motivation.\n- Boring, repetitive jobs can often lead to poor quality and low productivity.\n\n- Job design aims to improve motivation and job satisfaction and a sense of personal achievement by reducing mechanistic or repetitive tasks.\n- Through job design or redesign an organisation aims to reduce labour costs (eg through absenteeism, labour turnover) and improve labour productivity without offering additional monetary reward.\n\n## Job Enrichment and Job Enlargement\n\n- Job Enrichment\n\t- Giving workers more interesting and challenging tasks\n\t- Seen as more motivating as it gives workers a chance to further themselves\n\t- Herzberg in particular recommended this approach\n- Job Enlargement\n\t- Giving workers more tasks to do of a similar nature or complexity\n\t- Job rotation is a part of this\n\n## Influences on Job Design\n\n- Productivity\n- Maintaining/improving quality\n- Motivated staff\n- Retention of staff\n- Absenteeism\n\n## Hackman and Oldham—Job Characteristics Model\n\n- Employees will work much harder and better when they are rewarded for the work they do and when that work provides them with satisfaction. They will perform even better when they can see the relevance of the tasks.\n\n\n- Based on the belief that the **task itself is key** to motivation.\n\t- Skill variety ⇾ The more variation in tasks and their required skills, the more engagement will be gained from employees\n\t- Task Identity ⇾ A clear beginning and end to the task, with a clear overall description of the ask.\n\t- Task Significance ⇾ Whether the job or task has a significant impact-either to the individual, the business, or society overall. If the job is important, then it has meaning, so it is more engaging to the employee.\n\t- Autonomy ⇾ How much freedom is given to an individual to accomplish their tasks. What freedoms are they given over how they complete the task, when they complete the task and what decisions they can make.\n\t- Job Feedback ⇾ Employees are kept in the loop when it comes to their performance. They are told whether they are doing their job well, and if they are not, they are given constructive criticism on how they can improve.\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n### Q1\n\nHackman and Oldham's job characteristics model describes how employees can get greater satisfaction from their work through changes to how their job functions as per job content.\n\n\n### Q2\n\n#### 5 Core job characteristics\n\n- Skill variety\n- Task Identity \n- Task Significance\n- Autonomy\n- Job Feedback\n\n#### 3 Psychological States\n\n- Experience meaningfulness\n- Experience responsibility\n- Experience results\n\n#### 4 Individual and Organisational Outcomes\n\n- Lower labour turnover\n- Greater labour productivity\n- Greater feeling of achievement for employees\n- Increased employee motivation\n\n\n### Q3\n\ni) Facebook and the constant innovation generated from the 'Hacker' culture evident.\n\nInfluence: Technology, latest and greatest\n\n\nii) BP rebuilding reputation under new leadership\n\nInfluence: Proving to the masses that the company has changed\n\n### Q4\n\n#### True/False/It Depends\n\n- False\n- True\n- It depends\n\n\n---\n\nThe task itself is key to the task.\n\nCore characteristics:\n\n- Skill variety ⇾ Job more engaging ⇾ More motivation \n- Task identity ⇾ Clear goals ⇾ better output\n- Task Significance ⇾ Job feels important ⇾ greater engagement\n- Autonomy ⇾ More freedom and responsibility ⇾ Higher sense of authority and achievement\n- Job Feedback ⇾ Feedback on what is going well or areas to improve ⇾ Progressively better performance from long term targets.\n\n\n---\n\n## Case Study: Michelle's Stressful Job\n\n\n1) Job design is majorly influenced by the amount of work, and type of work, that needs doing. If a company such as Michelle's decides it needs someone in the reception area and that they need to complete a certain workload, then they will look for the most efficient way to achieve this. In this case, they have assigned a single person to this job, however Michelle is finding it stressful, so it is likely that regardless of how skilled an individual is, the company will need multiple people to be operating the role. Another major factor in job design is the quality of which a task needs completing. For a role like Michelle's, there are many tasks that need to be completed, however for a large amount of them the task only needs completing, it does not need completing to a high quality. Therefore, it is more economically intelligent for her employer to only have 1 person in reception at a time, despite the fact that they may be aware that the worker will be stressed and overwhelmed by the workload. An area of job design that the employer has completely overlooked here is task identity, they have loaded so many different jobs onto the role of the receptionist, that they have blurred the lines between the importance of each individual responsibility.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/KaplanAndNortonsBalancedScorecardModel":{"title":"Kaplan and Norton's Balanced Scorecard Model","content":"\nA widely used framework for assessment achievement of financial **and** non-financial objectives.\n\n\nRobert Kaplan and David Norton developed the concept of a balanced scorecard.\n\nAim of the scorecard: To align business activities to the vision and strategy of the business, improve internal and external communications, and monitor business performance against strategic goals.\n\n\n### Key features of the balanced scorecard\n\n- Top-down approach\n- Starts with the mission and vision of the business\n- Identifies key performance indicators from four different perspectives\n- Emphasises importance of non-financial measures\n\n### Four perspectives of the balanced scorecard\n\nVision \u0026 strategy:\n- Financial\n- Customer\n- Internal Processes\n- Organisational capacity\n\n**KPI** - Key Performance Indicator\n\n### Advantages of the Balanced Scorecard\n\n- Broader view of business performance\n- Links performance measurement to long-term mission and vision\n- Involves everyone in the business (not just financial stakeholders)\n- Highly flexible - KPIs chosen by the business\n\n### Drawbacks of the Balanced Scorecard\n\n- Danger of too many KPIs\n- Need to have balance between the four perspectives - not easy\n- Senior management may still be too concerned with financial performance\n- Needs to be updated regularly to be useful\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MarketMapping":{"title":"Market Mapping","content":"\nA market map is a diagrammatic technique that enables businesses to display the perceptions of customers.\n\nCompares different variables regarding products and consumers.\n\nAllows us to understand how a product or brand is perceived relative to a competitors brand.\n- More ethical?\n- More reliable?\n- More high class?\n\n- It can be used to identify what segment of the market is underprovided for and look at producing a product to fill that gap\n- Typically, products or brands are compared between all competitors within a market\n- Gives a business insight into the competition within the same market as its own product\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20221118104836.png]]\n\n---\n\n1) Market mapping is the process through which the competitors within a market can be compared on several factors. It is useful for finding gaps for a new business to open within.\n2) a) Car market maps could use “horsepower” and “price”\n\tb) Horsepower is a major selling point for a car, because performance is a major pro of a car\n\tPrice is another point because cars are very expensive, so pricing is a big pain point for customers.\n\n3) Everybody wants to be very fashionable, and many are willing to pay high prices for it. The demand for this quadrant is much more diverse than the demand for other quadrants, so there is room for more businesses in the top right quadrant.\n4) An advantage of setting up a business in the middle pricing levels with functional clothing would be the fairly unrivalled marketplace. There are no other businesses in this market, meaning that there is room for them to pull customers from the nearest competitors. Assuming that demand does exist for a business in this market segment, the business would likely have an easy time entering the market. \n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MarketingBranding":{"title":"Marketing Branding","content":"\n**Boston Matrix**\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/th-445456743.jpg]]\n\nThe Boston Matrix is a product/business portfolio.\n\n## Branding\n\n### Exercise \n\n1) Audi\n2) Starbucks\n3) Adidas\n4) Quicksilver\n5) Pizza Hut\n7) Kellogs\n8) Amazon\n9) Shell\n10) Subway\n11) Redbull\n12) BMW\n13) Levi's\n14) Nike\n15) Lamborghini\n16) Skype\n\n**Branding is the process of differentiating a product from its competitors**\n\nA name, sign or symbol design or slogan linked to a particular product or service.\n\n### Worksheet \n\n1) Branding is deliberate actions that you take to influence people's perception of your product or service, and it is the driving factor in why they keep using your business time and time again.\n2) Strong brands mean that your business will be at the forefront of people's minds and will encourage people to trust the product and become loyal to the business. \n3) Loyal customers are important, because loyal customers will choose the company that they are loyal to even if it means paying extra.\n4) Nike believes that it is worth them paying for sponsorships if it affiliates their brand with winners. By linking themselves to successful sports people, they will in turn attract fans of these people and people with aspirations to be good at sports too.\n5) Bentley can charge premium prices for their cars because they are perceived as an ultra high end brand, meaning that people will be perceived differently in a Bentley. They are very dedicated to quality and reliability, making their brand be viewed as the king of quality in the market.\n6) Tesco Finest is a luxury sub brand that Tesco has produced to try and attract customers who would previously have gone to stores such as M\u0026S or Waitrose. Tesco Finest has set itself out as a luxury brand by having unique packaging, premium prices, and higher quality than standard products.\n7) Reduced PED is a benefit for strong branding because it means that a business with a strong brand is free to increase prices without too much concern for loss of customers. because they have developed a loyal audience and a brand image that people want to affiliate themselves with, the price won't make a significant difference. \n8) Strong branding brings in more customers, increases the likelihood of customers to return all while building an increasing number of loyal customers who care less about the price than they do about being involved with the product.\n\n\n\nBrand Recognition\n\n1) Transport for London\n2) Virgin Media\n3) Tesla\n4) Amnesty International\n5) Just Stop Oil\n6) Greenpeace \n7) Tango\n8) Cadbury's\n9) Samsung\n10) Nintendo\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MarketingObjectives":{"title":"Marketing Objectives","content":"\nMarketing is **the process of identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer needs profitably.**\n\nObjectives are **statements of specific outcomes that are to be achieved**.\n\nMarketing objectives must be consistent with corporate objectives. \n\nFor example, if the corporate objective is to reach a market share of 10%, the marketing objectives may be to reach sales of £100 per customer.\n\nWhen you set an objective, it provides a focus and a purpose to the people involved.\n\n## Marketing Maths\n\nKey measures:\n- Market Size\n- Market Growth\n- Market Share\n\n### Market Size\n\nThe total size of the market, the number of sales in the specific industry (ie, how many smartphones are sold).\n\nUsually measured in either **volume** or **sales (revenue)**.\n\nNot usually a marketing objective, as you can't easily influence in the size of a market.\n\nMarket segments can also be measured.\n\n| Year | Market Size (£) | Index Number (2014 = 100) |\n|------|-----------------|---------------------------|\n| 2014 | 5000000 | 100 |\n| 2015 | 5250000 | 105 |\n| 2016 | 5600000 | 112 |\n| 2017 | 6250000 | 125 |\n\n\n### Market Growth\n\n- A key indicator for existing and potential market entrants\n- Growth rate can be calculated using either value (eg market sales) or volume (units sold)\n\n| Year | Units Sold [A] | Change (Units) [B] | Growth Rate (%) [B/A (from prev yr] x 100 |\n|------|----------------|--------------------|-------------------------------------------|\n| 2014 | 1000000 | - | - |\n| 2015 | 1100000 | 100000 | 10.0 |\n| 2016 | 1350000 | 250000 | 22.7 |\n| 2017 | 1475000 | 125000 | 9.3 |\n\n\n### Market Share\n\n- Explains how the overall market is split between the existing competitors\n- Tends to be calculated based on market value, but volume can also be used\n- Good indicator of competitive advantage\n- Key is to look for significant increases or decreases in this value\n\n| Business | Sales in 2018 (£) | Cumulative Market Sales (£) | Market Share (%) in 2018 |\n|----------|-------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------------|\n| A | 250000 | 250000 | 12.5 |\n| B | 400000 | 650000 | 20 |\n| C | 900000 | 1550000 | 45 |\n| D | 175000 | 1725000 | 8.75 |\n| E | 275000 | 2000000 | 13.75 |\n\n## Problems with setting market objectives\n\n- Fast-changing external environment\n\t- new competitors or legislature\n- Potential conflict between marketing objectives\n\t- trying to increase market share by cutting prices may damage brand perception\n- Easy to be too ambitious with marketing objectives\n\t- growing market share without putting necessary resources in place to achieve it\n\n### Example of marketing objectives\n\n**Maintaining or increasing market share** (corporate objective) =\u003e Achieve revenue growth of 20% per year for the next four years. Increase our market share in the UK by 5% by 2017. Add 1,000 new customer accounts generating at least £100,000 per account within four years. (marketing objective)\n\n\n### Internal influences on marketing objectives\n\n- Employees\n- Skills\n- Finance\n- Motivated workforce\n- No conflict with corporate objectives\n\n### External influences on marketing objectives\n\n- Legislation\n- Competition\n- The market\n- Economic changes\n- Social changes\n\n**PESTLE** is important here (or whenever looking at external influences/factors).\n\n## Worksheet\n\n1) Percentage change in market size.\nYear 1: £22,000 Year 2: £25,300\n15% change\n\n2) £35,700 + 30 % = £46410\n25 + 20% = 30\n\n---\n1) Greater brand loyalty will result in more returning customers and word of mouth publicity, leading to higher sales and customer numbers.\n2) Higher interest rates will impact the amount people are willing to borrow, so for a high value product such as a car, higher interest rates may require more affordable finance options to be made available or lower prices overall.\n3) Lower profitability means that the business needs to take action to increase the amount of profit that it is making to prevent it from becoming unprofitable and to appease shareholders and increase stability of jobs. \n---\n3 internal influences:\n- employees\n- finances\n- target market\n\n3 external influences:\n- market changes\n- government legislature\n- social changes\n---\nc\n\n---\n\n## Sampling\n\nSampling involves the gathering of data from a sample of respondents, the results of which should be representative of the population (eg, target market) as a whole.\n\n### Sampling Techniques\n- Simple Random Samples\n\t- a sample is elected for study from a population where everyone is chosen entirely by chance and has an equal chance of being selected, such as the electoral register.\n- Quota sample\n\t- the population is first segmented into subgroups (strata) before a judgement is made in selecting respondents that are representative of that subgroup. (male or female, income, education)\n\t\t- Example: 60% of people who shop at a shopping centre are female. Sample size is 400, so 240 females and 160 males.\n\t\t- Women are aged 30-40\n- Stratified Sample\n\t- Stratified sampling is used to select a sample that is representative of different groups. If the groups are of different sizes, the number of items selected from each group will be proportional to the number of items in that group. People are selected randomly.\n\n\n\n**Highly geared—thee business is financed by loans\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MarketingResearch":{"title":"Marketing Research","content":"\nMarket research is important because customers differ in terms of:\n\n- the benefits they want\n- amount they are able to or willing to pay\n- media (television, newspapers, websites and magazines) they see/use\n- quantities they buy\n- time and place that they buy\n\nInsights provided by effective market research:\n- dimensions of the market (Size, structure, growth, trends)\n- competitor strategies\n- needs, wants and expectations of customers\n- market segments \n\n## Research Types\n\n### Primary Research\nData collected first-hand for a specific reason or purpose\n\n#### Examples\n\n- Online surveys\n- Questionnaire\n- Interviews\n- Testing \u0026 Observation\n- Focus Groups\n- Staged launches/releases\n- Postal surveys\n- Experiments\n\n#### Advantages\n\n- Targeted data—what you need exactly\n- Verifiable accuracy\n- Fresh data\n- Kept private\n- More detailed\n\n#### Disadvantages\n- Time consuming\n- Requires engagement with individuals/marketing\n- Needs analysis (secondary research may come with completed graphs etc)\n- Specialist reports can be expensive\n- Risk of survey bias\n- Sampling may not be representative\n\n### Secondary Research\nData that already exists and which has been collected for a different purpose\n\n#### Examples\n\n- Government and Census data (ONS etc)\n- Internet\n- Books \u0026 Newspapers\n- Income statements\n- Competitor Websites\n- Marketing Research Reports (£££)\n- Trade Associations\n\n#### Advantages\n- Quick and easy to access\n- Likely to be free\n- Large datasets are available \n- Good source of market insights\n\n#### Disadvantages\n- Can contain bias\n- Might be old\n- Not specific to what you need\n\n\n### Quantitative Research\n- Focuses on numerical data \n- Collected through surveys and questionnaires\n- Helps companies to see what % of people think what\n- - Eg, 35% of people enjoy football\n\n### Qualitative Research\n- Focuses on opinions and attitudes\n- Collected through interviews, focus groups, in-depth discussions\n- Helps companies to see what people really think\n- Eg, students at the local school like watching football but not playing it.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MeasuringHRPerformance":{"title":"Measuring Human Resources Performance","content":"\n## Measurements\n\n- Labour productivity\n- Output per employee\n- Staff Turnover\n\n### Employee retention\n\n- All businesses loose staff\n\t- Natural causes (illness, death)\n- Changes in strategy\n\t- Closing a branch\n- Bad management or conditions\n\t- If people are unhappy with the conditions of the job they are more likely to leave\n\n### Absenteeism\n\nAn employee's intentional or habitual absence from work.\n\n- A significant business cost\n\t- Sickness costs around £600 for each worker per year\n\n#### Formula\n\nNumber of staff absent during period \n/\nNumber employed during period\n\nx 100\n\n#### Alternative Formula\n\nNumber days taken off for unauthorised absence(during period)\n/\nTotal days worked by workforce over the period\n\nx 100\n\n#### Worked example\n\nWorking days : 4000\nUnauthorised Absence: 560\n\n560/4000 x 100 = 14%\n∴ Absenteeism = 14%\n\n---\n## Practice Exercise 1 \n\n1) Rate of inflation\n4) 190 workers, 178 employed by EOY and 24 workers left. \n24/190 * 100 = 12.6%\n5) 6300 workers per year, 2700 for 1+ years. Retention.\n42.8% retention.\n6) Labour productivity indicates how much output is produced for the size of the workforce. If a business has a very high labour productivity, then it means that each employee, on average, will produce a relatively high volume of goods over a specific time period. Labour cost per unit, on the other hand, indicates how much labour costs to produce a single unit. If labour productivity is high, then the labour cost per unit will decrease, as each person will be producing more over a time period. \n7) By providing workers with more benefits, they can ensure that motivation levels are increased, meaning that people will work harder, decreasing the labour cost per unit and thereby increasing labour productivity.\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.543521399Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MotivationTheory":{"title":"Motivation Theory","content":"\n- What is it?\n\t- Motivation is the will to work\n\t- Comes from enjoyment of the work itself and/or desire to achieve certain goals\n- Methods available to motivate employees\n\t- Financial methods\n\t\t- Bonuses\n\t- Non-financial methods\n\t\t- Responsibility\n\t\t- Praise\n\n## Reasons why people go to work\n\n- To earn money\n- Job satisfaction\n- To belong to a group\n- A sense of security\n- Obtain a feeling of self-worth\n\n## Advantages of a well motivated workforce\n\n- Increase productivity\n- High staff retention\n- Flexible workforce\n- Produce higher quality goods/services\n- Better customer service\n- Desire to learn new skills\n- Employees want business to succeed\n- Lower levels of absenteeism\n- Company gets a better reputation\n- Lower training and recruitment costs\n\n## Main financial incentives at work\n\n- Wages\n\t- Paid per hour worked\n- Salaries\n\t- Annual salary paid monthly\n- Bonuses\n\t- Paid when certain targets have been achieved\n- Commission\n\t- Staff paid according to the number or value of products they sell\n- Fringe benefits\n\t- Often known as perks, additional benefits to working at the business.\n\t\t- Free meals\n\t\t- Company car\n\t\t- Private health insurance\n\t\t- etc\n\n## Main non-financial incentives to support motivation\n\n- Empowerment\n\t- Delegating responsibility to employees\n- Praise\n\t- Recognition for good work\n- Promotion\n\t- Promoting staff to a position of higher responsibility\n- Job Enrichment\n\t- Giving staff more challenging and interesting tasks\n- Job Enlargement\n\t- Giving employees more tasks of similar levels of complexity\n- Working environment\n\t- Providing a safe, clean, comfortable environment to work in\n- Team working\n\t- Provide opportunities to work in teams\n\n## Motivational Theorists\n\n### Taylor\n\n- Scientific management\n- Everybody is motivated by money\n\n### Mayo\n\n- Human relations management\n- Hawthorne effect\n\n### Maslow\n\n- Hierarchy of needs\n\n### Herzberg\n\n- Two-factor theory\n- Motivators\n- Hygiene or maintenance factors\n\n### McGregor\n\n- McGregor's theories X and Y\n\n### Drucker\n\n- Importance of objectives\n\n### Peters\n\n- Involving employees\n- Recognising champions\n\n## Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs\n\n- Five levels of human needs which employees need to have fulfilled at work\n- Only once a lower level of need has been fully met, a worker would be motivated by the opportunity of having the next need up in the hierarchy satisfied\n- A business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfil each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230317104534.png]]\n\n### Physiological\n\n- Food\n- Rest/sleep\n\n### Safety\n\n- Safe working environment \n- Warmth\n- Job Security\n- Praise\n- Training\n\n### Love/Belonging\n\n- Teamwork\n- Friendship\n\n### Self Esteem\n\n- Empowerment\n- Respect By Others\n- Recognition\n\n### Self-actualization\n\n- Advancement\n- Empowerment+\n\n## Taylor's Scientific Management Activity Worksheet\n\n- Frederick Winslow Taylor \n- Taylorism\n- Motivated by pay\n- Science can be used to increase efficiency\n- Workers given one task to master\n- “In the past, the man has been first. In the future, the system must be first.”\n- “One best way” to do a task\n- Managers maintain close control and supervision\n\n\n### Key concepts of scientific management theory\n\n- Standardised approach to optimising work for a more efficient workforce\n- Time and motion study analysing tasks \u0026 finding the quickest way of completing tasks\n- Workers did not have to be skilled just highly productive at one job\n- After finding the “one best way” employees then need to be motivated to work in that way\n- This could be done by increased pay for productive workers \u0026 firing ineffective workers → Piece rate pay\n\n\n## Taylor's Approach to Management\n\n### Work Study\n\n- Identify the most efficient methods of production\n\n### Identify\n\n- Spot the most efficient worker and identify why they are so good\n\n### Train\n\n- Train the remaining workers to work like the best\n\n### Reward\n\n- Pay workers based on productivity (ie, piece rate)\n\n## Taylor in the modern world\n\n- Amazon was heavily criticised for their piece rate approach in their warehouses.\n- They have made some improvements, but are still not regarded as a good employer.\n\n\n## Herzberg's Theory of Motivation\n\n- Believed in a two-factor theory\n\n### Worksheet\n\n#### Summary of the Two Factor theory of motivation\n\n- Hygiene Factors\n\t- Won't make employees work harder\n\t- Causes dissatisfaction is not present\n\t- Examples\n\t\t- Job Security\n\t\t- Status\n\t\t- Relationships\n\t\t- Salary\n\t\t- Conditions\n\t\t- Policies\n- Motivation Factors\n\t- Make employees work harder if present\n\t- Increases satisfaction\n\t- Examples\n\t\t- Growth\n\t\t- Advancement\n\t\t- Varied work\n\t\t- Recognition\n\n\nHygiene factors should be met before motivational factors.\n\n#### Hygiene or Motivational Factor\n\n| | Hygiene Factor | Motivational Factor | Explain |\n|--------------------|----------------|---------------------|------------------------------------------------|\n| Fair pay | 🗸 | | Needed to ensure people feel respected |\n| Growth | | 🗸 | Helps people to feel like they are progressing |\n| Career Advancement | | 🗸 | Feel like they are moving up in the hierarchy |\n| Relationships | 🗸 | | Create connections between people |\n| Policies | 🗸 | | Fair policies to keep things in order |\n| Meaningful Work | 🗸 | | Making an impact |\n| Recognition |🗸 | | Being seen to make a difference |\n\n#### Assessment of the importance of hygiene factors in terms of employee satisfaction\n\n- Without hygiene factors, employees cannot be properly satisfied at work because they are looking to meet minimum expectations of the job\n- With hygiene factors, employees will feel like the job is at least meeting the bare minimum\n\n#### Suggest whether hygiene factors are more important than the motivational factors\n\nMotivational factors have the largest observable difference, however hygiene factors are required for the employees to feel like their basic requirements are being met. It is no good employees having loads of benefits if they are still isolated from each other in grey cubicles all day, because they will never have the relationship aspect of hygiene.\n\n#### Argument as to whether Herzberg's two theory motivational factor works\n\n...\n\n---\n\n## Mayo's Human Relations School\n\n### Mayo's Theory of motivation\n\n- Motivation was much more complex than being solely influenced than money\n- Initially believes physical factors made an impact on employee motivation\n\n- Performed the Hawthorne Experiment\n\n### What made him change this mind?\n\n- Hawthorne Experiment\n\t- Seperated workers into two teams\n\t- Altered working conditions of both teams\n\t\t- Increased a physical factor such as light in one team, reduced in another\n\t\t- Analysed results\n\t- Found that employee motivation improved or stayed the same in worse physical environments.\n\n- Conclusion\n\t- Social factors made an impact on motivation much more than physical factors\n\t- Participants productivity increased when they felt valued and appreciated\n\t- Positive relationships betwene managers and employees were found to be key\n\n- Hawthorne's social factors lead to the creation of Human Resources. \n- Term \"Hawthorne Effect\" used to describe how relations with managers increases result in productivity increases\n\t- Some dispute the size of the impact\n\n\n### 3 pros and 3 cons of the human relations theory of motivation\n\n\n- Pros\n\t- Encourages positive workplace relationships\n\t- Individual needs of employees are noticed\n\t- Social factors help to increase the morale, retention, motivation and productivity of employees\n- Cons\n\t- Unscientific approach and original findings lack sufficient supportive evidence\n\t- Ignores the potential impact of conflict\n\t- Oversimplifies human behaviour\n\t\t- Assumes a satisfied worker will automatically be a productive worker\n\n\n### Do you agree with this theory of motivation? \n\nMayo's social factors are definitely an important piece in the puzzle of motivation theory. Alone, they would not be enough to motivate employees, but I believe that if they are combined with several other approaches such as Herzberg's hygiene and motivation factors and Taylorism. The combination of these different theories would enable the spread of benefits to the employees to cover a wide enough range of needs that everyone should be sufficiently motivated to work at what is *at least* an acceptable level. \n\n### Personally, do you prefer Taylorism or Mayo's social factors?\n\nTaylorism focuses mainly on the financial side of things and ensures that employees are paid competitively. However, Taylorism treats employees more mechanically like a machine whereas Mayo's social factors focus more heavily on the human aspect and allow employees to establish more meaningful links between each other. Therefore, I would personally prefer Mayo's social factors, but I would understand why others may choose Taylorism.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/NicheAndMassMarketing":{"title":"Niche and Mass Marketing","content":"\n**Niche Marketing:** Where a business targets a smaller segment of a larger market, where customers have specific needs and wants.\n\n**Mass Marketing:** Where a business sells into the largest part of the market, where there are many similar products offered by competitors.\n\n## Niche Marketing\n\n| Pros? | Why? | Cons | Why? |\n|---------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| Profit margins often higher | Lower sales required to cover costs | Lack of economies of scale | Demand will be relatively low, so manufacturing will have to happen in smaller batches |\n| Clear focus | Because they are targeting a niche market, they know exactly what customers want. | If successful likely to attract competition | Other businesses will be interested to expand their market share, because it would lead to greater income. |\n| Less competition | A smaller market segment means less businesses will be competing for the custom. | Vulnerable to market change | Because the targeted market is so small, any small change could severely impact the revenue of the company. |\n| Customers tend to be more loyal | Because you are tailoring your product or service to them specifically, customers will feel a closer bond. | Risk of overdependence on a single market | Targeting a niche market means that a very small group of people will be customers, so the company will be a lot more dependant on a few individuals. |\n\n## Mass Marketing\n\n| Pros? | Why? | Cons | Why? |\n|--------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| Higher sales | Larger market, more people looking to buy, more sales | Can be difficult to meet all customer demands | You're targeting a large market segment, meaning that you're making a one size fits all solution. |\n| Higher brand awareness | More people are interested in the product, so more people will be aware of it | Higher advertising costs | More people need to see the advert because the market is larger, which means more money will need to be spent |\n| More potential customers | A larger than niche market, so more people might want to buy the product. | More competition | The market is bigger, and as there is more money to be made there will be more people trying to make money in the market. |\n| Cost efficient | Economies of scale can be used so unit costs can be reduced. | Less attractive to consumers | Not focused on their needs specifically, so niche markets will be more likely to capture their interest if they exist for that customer. |\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/NonFinancialIndicators":{"title":"Non-Financial Performance Data","content":"\n### Limitations of financial data in assessing business performance\n\n- Financial ratios tend to be historic\n- Financial ratios focus on measures that are more important to shareholders than business managers\n- Financial data is not the best way of understanding how the business is performing in terms of key competitive performance\n\n### Key non-financial measures of performance\n\n#### Operations\n- Efficiency (unit costs)\n- Labour productivity\n- Capacity utilisation\n- Break-even output\n- Quality (reject rate)\n- Quality (lead time)\n\n#### HRM\n- Labour turnover\n- Labour productivity\n- Unit labour costs\n- Absenteeism rate\n- Revenue per employee\n- Staff retention rate\n- Job satisfaction\n\n#### Marketing\n- Market share\n- Sales per employee\n- Sales growth (volume)\n- Customer retention rate\n- Brand reputation and awareness\n\n### Other relevant non-financial measures\n\n- Environmental performance\n- Compliance regulation\n- Health \u0026 safety record\n- Social media reach\n\n### Making connections between financial and non-financial measures\n\n- Financial measures and non-financial measures are closely linked. \n\t- If you want to improve your operating profit margins, taking non-financial measures to improve employee satisfaction could aid in achieving this goal\n\t- Improved product quality may cost no extra money, but could allow the goods to be sold at a higher price and more quickly.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/OngoingIndustrialDisputes":{"title":"Ongoing Industrial Disputes","content":"\n## Main methods of Industrial Action\n\n- Strikes (last resort, refusing to work at all)\n- Go slow (employees deliberately slow down to damage productivity)\n- Work To Rule (works at the minimum level set out by contract)\n- Overtime ban (Can have a significant effect on production capacity during peak periods, as nobody will work any extra hours)\n\n## Who suffers from industrial action?\n\n### Business\n\n- Loss of sales\n- Damage to customer satisfaction\n- An internal distraction for management\n\n### Employees\n\n- Lost pay\n- Potential loss of jobs\n- Possible loss of customer and public support\n- Risk that illegal action will result in legal proceedings\n\n\n## Industrial Disputes\n\n### Amazon workers in Coventry\n\n#### Why are they striking?\n\n- Amazon are ignoring the employees\n- Poor conditions \u0026 pay\n- Loss of benefits (ie, shares)\n- An algorithm measures a secret performance metric which workers are held to\n\n#### Who is striking?\n\n- Workers in fulfilment centers\n\n#### Which union is facilitating the strike?\n\n- GMB\n\n#### What is the goal of the strike?\n\n- Get Amazon to listen and make meaningful changes\n\t- Improve working conditions\n\t- Improve pay\n\t- Ensure better communications between employees and Amazon\n\n## Case Study: Striking\n\n### Junior Doctors\n\n#### Union\n\nBMA\n\n#### Why?\n\n- Pay cut of 26% since 2008, with inflation taken into account\n\n#### Offer from government?\n\n- No, the government describes their demands as unreasonable.\n\n#### What are the union members looking for?\n\n- Pay security\n\n#### Who is affected?\n\n- Patients, doctors, NHS, government\n\n#### How would I solve the dispute?\n\n- Open proper negotiations with the union\n- Negotiate a pay deal that is acceptable to the union members and affordable to the government (without trying to manipulate the situation)\n\n\n### Teachers\n\n#### Union\n\nNEU, NAHT, and others\n\n#### Why are they striking?\n\n- Real pay decreases across austerity\n\n#### Government offer\n\n- Yes, £1000 one off payment and a 4.3% rise for next year for most staff\n- Unions rejected\n\n#### What are union members looking for?\n\n- Fair pay rises\n- Pay security\n- Pay recovery to pre-austerity levels\n\n#### Who is impacted?\n\n- Students\n- Teachers\n- Schools\n- Government\n- Parents\n\n#### How would I solve the dispute?\n\n- Open negotiations between the government and the various teaching unions with the intention of coming to a viable compromise\n- Offer a long-term plan to increase pay and guarantee pay rises, on a level that will gradually recover the pay of teachers\n\n\n### Rail workers\n\n#### Union\n\n- RMT\n\n#### Why are they striking?\n\n- Pay, job cuts and changes to terms and conditions\n\n#### Have they received an offer?\n\n- RMT and National Rail accepted a revised offer \n\n#### What are the union members looking for?\n\n- Further change, better pay across the board.\n\n#### Who is impacted?\n\n- Passengers\n- Tourists\n- Workers\n- Government\n\n#### How would I resolve the dispute?\n\n- Get all involved parties together and set out exactly what it is that each party wants\n- Have a discussion between the various parties about what a viable solution would be to try and compromise on the presented issues.\n\n### Passport Office Staff\n\n#### Union\n\n- PCS\n\n#### Why are they striking?\n\n- Pay rise demand\n- Improved redundancy terms\n- Better pensions\n- Job security assurances\n\n#### Have they been given an offer?\n\n- Government has offered a 4.5-5% pay increase\n\n#### Who is affected?\n\n- Businesses sending post to customers\n- People sending post to other people\n- Employees\n- Government\n\n#### How would I solve the dispute?\n\n- Look at actual pay changes\n- Negotiate a deal with precise terms to try and satisfy both parties\n\n---\n\n## Avoiding Industrial Disputes\n\n- Regular consultations with trade unions\n\t- Pick up problems before they escalate\n- A staff forum or joint working group to pass on information and collect ideas from workers and consult with workers\n- An employee consultative body to discuss major issues as they arise\n- Team and group meetings and feedback sessions\n\n- Regular communication and honest discussion is important\n\n### Works Councils\n\n- A group of people from management and the workforce that meet to discuss company-wide issues.\n- Complementary to the role of trade unions, not a replacement\n- Struggles to perform tasks such as bargaining over wages\n\n## Settling disputes using ACAS\n\n- Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service\n\t- Conciliation\n\t- Mediation\n\t- Arbitration\n\n### Mediation\n\n- Two or more individuals or groups reach a solution that's acceptable to everyone\n- Involves an independent/impartial party\n\n### Conciliation\n\n- Used when an employee is making or could make a specific complaint against their employer to an employment tribunal\n- Conciliator has no authority \n- Both parties work together to try and prevent the need to go to an employment tribunal\n\n### Arbitration\n\n- An alternative to a court of law\n- Held in private rather than in public\n- An impartial outsider being asked to make a decision on a dispute\n- Arbitrator makes a firm decision on a case based on the evidence presented by both sides\n- Arbitration is voluntary, so both sides must agree that they will attend it, and that they will respect the decision of the arbitrator\n\n---\n\n## Improving employer-employee relations worksheet\n\n1) Good employer-employee relations aims to reduce **conflict** through improved **communication** and employees **views** being listened to and taken into account when decisions are being made. Employer-employee relations focuses on these two groups working **together** to achieve the same **objectives**. This is, of course, easier said than done and its success will often depend on the business's **culture**.\n2) Good employer-employee relations lead to:\n LESS staff turnover\n MORE Labour productivity\n MORE motivation\n LESS industrial action\n MORE ideas from employees\n MORE mutual trust\n LESS absenteeism\n MORE employee retention\n \n \n3) Trade Unions - A group which represent the views of their members. Usually organised by profession/industry. - Through collective bargaining they will represent their member's views and negotiate with employers on issues such as working conditions, pay, redundancies and unfair dismissal. They may carry out industrial action eg, calling a strike.\n \n Works councils - Committees including employees (who have been elected by their co-workers) and management who discuss issues which affect the business as a whole. - This provides a forum for employees to communicate with management. \n \n ACAS - A publicly funded organisation which offers free and impartial advice to both employees and employers - Aims to resolve disputes between employees and employers and support good relationships through methods such as mediation, conciliation and arbitration.\n\n4) Benefits and drawbacks to employee involvement in decision making\n \n Benefits:\n \n - Greater employee satisfaction leads to greater support from employees\n - Employees will raise issues that affect them before they lead to external parties being required\n\nDrawbacks:\n- Employees may hinder the decision making efficacy of the business\n- Managers may be overwhelmed with requests\n\n\n5) To what extent do you agree/disagree with...\n - Employee involvement in decision making is a good thing\n\t - Agree\n\t\t - By involving employees, decisions that affect them can be discussed with them before being finalised, giving them a feeling of control over their situation.\n- Trade unions are something that management should fear.\n\t- Slightly agree\n\t\t- Trade unions shouldn't be an employers best friend, they are there to support the employees above all else. An employer should not be scared of them to the extent that they won't cooperate with them, but employers should try to keep unions on a good standing with themselves.\n- Employee representation is the most important thing a business can do to motivate its employees\n\t- Slightly agree\n\t\t- Individual employees will be motivated by different offerings, some may wish to be excluded from the decision making process entirely. However, by providing the option for employees to become involved, motivation can be boosted for a sizeable portion of the workforce. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/OrganisationalStructures":{"title":"Organisational Structures","content":"\n## Key Words\n\n### Chain of Command\n\n- The \"chain\" of people from an individual moving up the hierarchy. An example might be **Crew member** -\u003e **Shift Manager** -\u003e **General Manager** -\u003e **CEO** \n\n### Subordinates\n\n- A subordinate is someone who is below someone else in a chain of command. You are a subordinate of your manager.\n\n### Span of control\n\n- How many people are under direct management of a single person. If there are few people under the command of an individual, then there is a narrow span of control, but if a manager has large numbers of people under direct control then the span of control is wider.\n\n## Hierarchical Structure\n\n- A hierarchical structure has a very tall organisational structure with many managers. The organisation is highly tiered and there are long chains of command.\n\n### Pros and Cons \n\n- Many layers of management slows communication\n- But plenty of opportunity for career progression\n- Works well for large organisations with many employees\n- If one person is underperforming then the impact could affect many people\n- Long chain of command means instructions may be obfuscated\n\n## Flat organisational structures\n\n- A flat organisational structure has a wider span of control because there are fewer tiers in the organisational structure and each manager has fairly loose control, meaning that they can have many subordinates.\n\n## Flat structure for large businesses\n\nWhilst a flat structure does come with many benefits, such as greater autonomy for staff, it does require that each individual is fairly highly skilled and has strong motivation. This is because there aren't enough managers to closely control each employee, so every employee has to be trusted to know what they're doing and - for the most part - just get on with it. The issue is if a business has many employees then there are likely some lower skilled employees, and there is a serious chance of managers becoming overloaded, especially if the business is distributed between multiple locations.\n\n## Matrix Structures\n\nA matrix structure is a structure where each individual is a subordinate of two managers. A team will be created to manage a project, where the project has a manager and each memeber of the team is part of a department such as marketing, finance or operations. Employees are under the team manager and department manager. This leads to some dual control.\n\n\n## Delayering\n\n- Taking layers of management out of the organisational structure to flatten the structure.\n\n### Pros and Cons\n\n- Reduced layers in hierarchy\n- Lower labour costs\n- Increased employee motivation\n- Faster decision making\n- shorter communication pathways\n- wider spans of control\n- greater emphasis on teamwork and empowerment\n\n## Delegation\n\n- Offloading the assignment of authority to subordinates for particular functions.\n\n### Pros and Cons\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Reduces management stress and workload\n\t- Allows senior management to focus on key tasks\n\t- Subordinates are empowered and motivated\n\t- Better decisions or use of resources (potentially)\n\t- Good method of on-the-job training\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Cannot/ should not delegate responsibility\n\t- Depends on quality / experience of subordinates\n\t- Harder in a smaller firm\n\t- May increase workload and stress of subordinates\n\n\n## Empowerment\n\n- Concept closely linked to motivation and customer service\n- Employees need to feel that their actions count\n- Empowerment is a catch-all term that covers:\n\t- Giving authority to make decisions to front-line staff\n\t- Encouraging employee feedback\n\t- Shows more trust in employees\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PEDQuestion":{"title":"PED Question","content":"### A business decides to increase the price of a product in order to improve its profit. Analyse how the success of this decision is affected by the product's price elasticity of demand.\n\nWhether a price increase will increase profit depends almost exclusively on price elasticity of demand. If the price of the product is inelastic, then changing the price within the boundaries of the inelasticity will not impact the demand. If this is the case, then increasing the price by the maximum allowed value by PED, the only impact would be an increased profit.\n\nHowever, in most scenarios it is not this simple. Most businesses face competitors who are able to closely compete on price. In cases like these, say where the business sells apples, there are many places where a consumer can get apples, so the price **must** be competitive otherwise a business will not attract sales. Here, the price elasticity of demand would be elastic, because any changes in price will impact the demand.\n\nHaving a competitive price is only part of the image however, as costs are typically something a business cannot easily negotiate. Therefore, they need to consider what their minimum possible price is and then decide how much more than this they can reasonably charge in order to maximise revenue. Price elasticity of demand is always a useful tool to review when making pricing related decisions as it provides valuable insight into whether a pricing change would increase actual earnings and it reduces the risk. \n\n\u003e Include a specific example.\n\u003e Include more specific values.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PeCAn-PiE":{"title":"Pecan Pie","content":"\n\n- Pe: Point explained\n\t- Always use words of the question\n\t- Short statement of the point\n- CAn: Contextualised Analysis\n\t- Logical chain of reasoning\n\t- Relevant range of business theory\n- PiE: Point included evaluation\n\t- Not the conclusion\n\t- Develop an “it depends” or “however”\n\t- Is it always the case?\n\nEvaluation hooks: i.e., “essential”. A word that indicates what the evaluation should sway on.\n\nContext hooks: Vital contextual information: i.e., “lowest cost”, “competitive”, “mass market”.\n\n\n---\n## Example\n\n### To what extent do you think using Taylor's theory would be a good way for all businesses to motivate their employees? (16m)\n\n\nEvaluation hook: all businesses\nContext hooks: motivation, managers, employees\n\n“To what extent”\n\n\n2x PeCAn PiE paragraphs:\n\n- Point explained: Taylor would be a good way to motivate many employees in a decent range of businesses. If you are running a factory and have a production line, then everyone (managers and employees) could benefit from a piece rate pay as it would increase output and reward the hardest working employees.\n- Context Evidence: Nari is a mobile phone manufacturer, and specialises in fast turnarounds. They offer a “48 hour lead time” to their customers, meaning that increased output allows them to meet more demands quickly. \n\t- Ongoing evaluation: This leads to them retaining their reputation as a fast mobile phone supplier, meaning that customers will be more likely to buy from them in future. In addition, employees get the benefit of being paid extra for hard work, rather than a standard rate regardless.\n- Point included evaluation: Taylorism focuses on people being motivated by money, and allows for a company like Nari to focus more heavily upon meeting numerical targets. It enables the production of [...]\n\n**Focus:** Continuous evaluation\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business","revision"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PortersFiveForcesCaseStudy":{"title":"M\u0026S - Porter's Five Forces Study","content":"### To what extent do you believe that the recent announcement by Marks and Spencer is a good strategy to achieve this aim? Refer to Porter's Five Forces in your answer. (20 marks)\n\nM\u0026S have clearly identified that their clothing and homeware stores are not as profitable as they hoped, if they are even turning a profit at all. Similarly, M\u0026S are aware that food stores are more profitable and are likely a more sustainable long-term business option. \n\nThe clothing that M\u0026S sell is typically towards the higher end, with a luxury focus. This means they will be using more expensive materials and therefore charging a higher price to consumers. Whilst historically this may have worked well for them, the current economic climate in the UK means that fewer consumers have sufficient disposable income to warrant purchasing luxury clothing items. Because of this, M\u0026S are likely suffering a down tick in sales for clothing which means that they have taken the time to review their options. It is important that they consider there options quickly as if they leave it too long they risk failing to retain a competitive edge. \n\nM\u0026S have made the realisation that many people are now shopping for clothes online, whilst food sales are still primarily in-store. So M\u0026S are transitioning their clothing business to a cheaper online model, which will also likely attract additional customers. In parallel, they are converting their old clothing stores into food ones, as they are confident that people will still buy their food in store, and that it will be more sustainable for the business to sell food directly.\n\nMost of the competitors that have appeared to rival the food business M\u0026S have are at the very least offering their customers the option to buy online. This is an expectation and gives new entrants into the market an advantage over any older businesses that sell exclusively in physical stores.\n\nHowever, it is important for M\u0026S to realise that by transitioning to an online model for their clothing brand, they are going to face much fiercer competition. It is a lot more work for a customer to walk to a different clothing store than it is for them to go to a different clothing website. This increased intensity of rivalry might force M\u0026S to compromise in areas that they have historically never had to compromise on. Most online stores offer discounts fairly regularly, and provide robust returns policies. If M\u0026S fail to meet these customer expectations, then they may struggle to build themselves a niche in the online clothing market, leading to their clothing brand loosing relevance. This is a major threat to their business, and means that they have to get this transition right. \n\nOverall, I feel that M\u0026S have recognised the importance of adapting their business to the modern age where everyone expects online shopping, however I am concerned that if they do not prepare themselves for the challenges that come with e-commerce they may face being left in the dust. The conversion of their old clothing and homeware shops to food stores does however sound like a good idea, as the M\u0026S food brand is strong and will be able to attract sales easily, so this will almost certainly increase their dominance in the food market. By using online stores for their clothing brand, they will likely be able to reduce costs as fewer staff members will be needed and they will only needed warehouses, rather than stores and warehouses. A cost reduction and a restructure of how they sell should give them a boost that, if handled properly, could accelerate their clothing business into the future. \n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PortersGenericStrategies":{"title":"Porter's Generic Strategies","content":"- Porter suggested two overall business strategies that could be followed in order to gain competitive advantage\n- Porter argued that differentiation and low cost are effective strategies for firms to gain a competitive advantage\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230925150345.png]]\n\n\n### Stuck in the Middle\n\n- Low cost and differentiation\n\n### Differences between Bowman and Porter\n\n- Bowman focuses on price to customer rather than cost to business\n- Highlights a full range of options open to a business whereas Porter only looks at a few distinct choices in terms of positioning\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/Price":{"title":"Price","content":"\n### Pricing considerations\n\n- Cost of production\n- Competitor's pricing\n- Target Market\n- Markup Target\n- Overhead costs\n- Brand\n- Quality (mainly perception of quality)\n- Image\n- Stage in lifecycle\n\n### Pricing links with\n\n- Adding value\n- Gross Profit Margin\n- [Product Life Cycle](sixth/Business/Units/fh/ProductLifecycle)\n- Unit Costs\n- Sales Forecasting- [similar](sixth/Business/Units/nd/CashFlowForecasting)\n- [Elasticity of Demand](sixth/Business/Units/fh/PriceAndIncomeElasticityofDemand)\n\n\n## Methods, strategies, and tactics\n\n**Pricing method**: The method used to calculate the actual price set\n\n**Pricing strategies**: Adopted over the medium to long term to achieve marketing objectives. Have a significant impact on the marketing strategy.\n\n**Pricing tactics**: Adopted in the short run to suit particular situations. Limited impact beyond the product itself.\n\n\u003e [!note] Competitors significantly influence pricing\n\u003e\n\u003e Price leaders set the pricing for a market - these tend to be the big businesses. Whilst smaller businesses tend to be price followers, who simply follow prices set by the leaders.\n\n**Price takers:** Have no option but to charge the ruling market price\n**Price makers:** Able to fix their own price\n**Price leaders:** Market leaders whose price changes are followed by rivals\n**Price followers:** Follow the price-changing lead of the market leader\n\n\u003e [!quote] Mark up \n\u003e\n\u003e Widely used in retail, the amount that you add to the price on top of your production costs.\n\n**Loss Leaders:** A product or service sold at a loss to encourage people to enter the ecosystem of a product or service.\n\n## Benefits and drawbacks to using cost to influence price\n\n### Benefits\n\n- Easy to calculate\n- Price increases can be justified when costs rise\n- Managers can be confident each product is being sold at profit\n\n### Drawbacks\n\n- Ignores price elasticity of demand\n- May not take account of competition\n- Profit is lost if price is set below the cost of production\n\n## Price Skimming\n\n- Setting a high price to maximize profit\n- Works well for products that create excitement amongst “early adopters”\n- Frequently used in the technology industry\n- Product is sold to different market segments at different times, allowing for high initial profits\n\t- Will maximize profit per unit to achieve a quick recovery of development costs\n\n## Price Penetration\n\n- Setting a low introductory price\n- Opposite of price skimming\n- Aim is to\n\t- Gain market share quickly\n\t- Build customer usage and loyalty\n\t- Build sales of high-priced related items (“hook and bait” approach)\n- Price can be increased once a target market share is reached\n\n**Hook \u0026 Bait pricing**: Selling a product for a very low price, but it requires another product to work. For example, a printer requires ink—so a company may sell a printer for a low price but then sell ink at a high price to recoup their money through people having to buy new ink.\n\n\u003e [!question] Dynamic Pricing \n\u003e\n\u003e Dynamic pricing is a pricing strategy in which businesses set flexible prices for products or services based on current market demands.\n\n\nAmazon utilizes dynamic pricing, changing their prices on average every *10 minutes*.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PriceAndIncomeElasticityofDemand":{"title":"Price and Income Elasticity of Demand","content":"\n**Elasticity** measures the responsiveness of demand to a change in a relevant variable—such as price or income.\n\n**Price elasticity of demand**—measures the extent to which the quantity of a product demanded is affected by a change in price.\n\nPrice Elasticity of demand (PED) is calculated using:\n\n**% change in quantity demanded / % change in price**\n\n\nPrice elastic=\u003e PED is greater than 1 =\u003e Change in demand is more than the change in price\n\nPrice inelastic =\u003e PED is less than 1 =\u003e Change in demand is less than the change in price\n\nUnitary price elasticity =\u003e PED is exactly 1 =\u003e Change in demand = change in price.\n\nIf PED greater than 1, a change in price will cause a larger change in demand, so overall revenues would increase with a price cut, but drop with a price increase.\n\n### Factors influencing PED\n\n- Price of complementary goods\n- Brand strength\n- Habit\n- Availability of substitutes\n- Time\n\n**Income elasticity of demand**-measures the extent to which the quantity of a product demanded is altered by a change in income.\n\nCalculating income elasticity of demand (YED) is done using the formula:\n\n**% change in Quantity Demanded / % change in income**\n\nTypically:\n- a rise in income will result in a rise in demand\n- a fall in income will result in a fall in demand\nTo the extent:\n- this depends on the type of product (necessity vs luxury)\n\nFor inferior goods, demand falls as income rises, but increases as income declines.\n \nPED: A(-1.5), B(-0.2)\nIED: A(0.5), B(-1.9)\n*Negatives can be ignored here*\n\nPED: A is elastic, B is inelastic\nY/IED: B is luxury(elastic), A is necessary (inelastic)\n\n\n**Limitations of calculating and using elasticities**\n\n- Can be difficult to get reliable data\n- Other factors affect demand \n- Many markets subject to rapid technological change\n- Competitors will react\n\n**Key evaluation points**\n- Elasticities provide useful insights for management in decision-making\n- Firms tend to like to have products with inelastic demand\n- Building strong brans and product USPs is a good strategy for making demand more price inelastic\n---\n\nElastic products are more vulnerable to a decrease in demand if they increase their price. A price inelastic product will not notice much impact on demand if they increase prices.\n\nPetrol's elasticity depends on factors such as the number of nearby petrol stations, the need of customers to get petrol and various other factors. This means that petrol in a city would be fairly elastic, but fairly inelastic in the middle of nowhere.\n\nPrice elasticity = % change in demand / % change in price\n\nExample of a product raising prices by 20%:\n\n- Server costs\n\t- May prompt to look for another provider\n\t- Current provider has several USPs, meaning that migration would likely be too much of a hassle\n\n---\nPrice elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of demand to a change in the price. We normally assume that a rise in price results in a fall in demand. The level of elasticity depends upon several factors including: the number of substitutes in the market which make it possible for customers to switch, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury and brand loyalty.\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PriceElasticityOfDemand":{"title":"Price Elasticity of Demand","content":"**Elastic demand:** Above 1 is elastic\n**Inelastic demand:** Below 1 is inelastic\n\n**S**ubstitute -\u003e Many substitutes increase elasticity\n**P**ercentage of Income\n**L**uxury or necessity -\u003e Elastic for luxury, inelastic for necessity. \n**I**dentity/brand -\u003e If brand loyalty is low then the product will be elastic\n**T**ime\n\n### Calculating PED\n\n\n\u003e [!info] Formula \n\u003e\n\u003e Percentage change in quantity demanded / Percentage change in price\n\n\nNOO - New Figure - Old Figure / Old Figure x 100\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PricingConsolidation":{"title":"Pricing Consolidation","content":"## Practice Exercise 1\n\n1) Goods that are purchased and consumed regularly by a lot of customers and tend to be sold at low prices are: convenience goods.\n\n4) In the Boston Matrix, the difference between a cash cow and a dog is that a cash cow produces a large amount of profit and is likely in the mature stage of the product lifecycle. Whereas a dog is likely in the decline stage of the product lifecycle and is becoming a cost for the business with little future potential.\n5) Some products are called cash cows because they produce lots of profit and require minimal work from the business. A cash cow has likely gone through several other stages already, and it is now established in the market, being a leader in the industry.\n6) A product's USP might be its price, if it has the lowest price in the market, then it has an advantage over every other product in that market. A more reliable long-term USP for a product such as a microwave might be some additional functionality. Maybe it can detect the food put inside it and then automatically set itself up to cook the food.\n10) Introduction, Growth, Maturity, Decline\n11) Typically, the most profitable stage of the product lifecycle will be the maturity stage. By this point in time, marketing costs will be reduced, existing loyal customers will exist, and the brand will be well-known. This means that the business has lower costs for the product than it did in earlier stages, whilst it likely has a larger market share—leading to this being the most profitable stage.\n13) Extension strategies can keep a product on the market longer, delaying its decline. Extension strategies might include rebranding (changing the name and packaging of the product to make it seem like something new), dropping the price to improve the value for money of the product or a more extensive approach would be to update the product, giving it a more modern design and possibly even new features.\n\nAn example of a real life extension strategy would be NVIDIA releasing new drivers for an existing GPU, providing their existing products with additional functionality, therefore adding value and increasing sales.\n\n\n## Practice Exercise 2\n\n1) Psychological pricing is pricing that is intended to disguise the price of a product. For instance, if you charge £100 for a product, it sounds like more than £99.99, even though there is basically no difference. Therefore, when a business uses psychological pricing, they can typically increase sales.\n2) a) 50p + 60p + 70p = £1.80 + 100% = £3.60\nb) 55p + 60p + 70p = £1.85 + 80% = £3.33\n\n3) A company may use price skimming if they are producing a new product that is perceived to be desirable or luxury when they first introduce it into the market. Price skimming involves adding a very large markup to the cost of the product during the first stage of its product lifecycle. During this phase, the sales of the product will be lower than in future however the profit per sale will be at its highest. Apple uses this strategy with new iPhones as do companies like NVIDIA with new hardware releases.\n4) Penetration pricing significantly undercuts competitors, meaning that your product will stand out as the cheapest by far. If it can come close to the quality of the competition, then it will rapidly gain market share and a positive customer reputation – forcing competitors to lower prices or compete in another area.\n5) A price leader is a product that can set the market price. A company like Apple can choose what they charge for products because they know that people will pay for their latest product because some people associate themselves with Apple and their ideologies, meaning that they are willing to pay an unreasonable amount of money for an Apple product—even though a similar product is provided by another company at a much lower price. A price taker is a company that has no option but to follow the price leader's pricing in order to stay in business.\n6) A loss-leader is a product that is sold at a loss in order to get customers to enter the product's ecosystem. By doing this, the company can lock you in to making future purchases with them, and they can charge an additional markup on these purchases to recoup the costs of the loss-leader.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ProductLifecycle":{"title":"Product Lifecycle","content":"\n1) convenience goods\n2) speciality goods\n3) 70% of new products fail within 3 years because entering the market is the most difficult part of a product lifecycle. In order to enter the market, the product needs successful marketing and to meet the needs or wants of the consumers in order to gain enough recurring sales for the product to be deemed profitable. If the product cannot break through this initial barrier, then it will end up being a drag for the businesses revenue and will have to be discontinued. Also, there are some products that may not be intended to last more than 3 years. Many craze products such as Loom Bands and Fidget Spinners didn't need to last 3 years to make the companies producing them a huge amount of money. So it isn't vital for some products to last 3 years, whilst some more expensive products may need to last for a long time to be seen as successful, such as a watch. If the company stops selling them after 6 months then they seem like a low value product.\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20221212110441.png]]\n4) A star has a very rapid growth rate and a high market share—this makes it the top of the market and suggests it is a desirable/popular product. Whereas a dog is a much slower growing product which is likely to be focused on a much more niche market segment or a less succesful product.\n5) \n\n\n---\n\n**A theoretical model which describes the stages a product goes through over its life.**\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20221215095730.png]]\n\n**Development:** Absorbs significant resources. May not be successful.\n\n**Introduction:** New product launches. Low level of sales. Usually a negative cash flow. Heavy promotion needed.\n\n**Growth:** Fast growing sales. Cash flow may become positive. Market grows, competition enters. Unit costs begin to fall with economies of scale.\n\n**Maturity:** Slower sales. Intense competition. Fight for market share. Cash flow very high, positive. Weaker competitors leave the market.\n\n**Decline:** Falling sales, market saturation. More competitors leave. Decline in profits and overall weaker cash flow. \n\n**Extension:** Lower price, change the packaging. \n\n\n---\n\nConsumer and industrial products\n\n\nOver the stages of the product lifecycle, we measure sales over time.\n\nStages are as follows:\n- Introduction\n- Growth \n- Maturity\n- Decline\n\n\n## Product Portfolio Analysis\n\nProduct portfolio analysis assesses the position of each product or brand in a firm's portfolio to help determine the right marketing strategy for each.\n\n\n- Boston Consulting Group developed this as a tool of portfolio analysis\n- It can be applied to the portfolio of products produced by a firm or the portfolio of businesses owned by a firm. \n- Portfolio is a collection of businesses or products that make up a business.\n\nFirms should analyse their portfolio of products, categorised as:\n\n- Question Marks\n- Stars\n- Cash cows\n- Dogs\n\n- The ideal would be a balanced portfolio, likley with products in every category.\n\nThe Product Lifecycle\n- is concerned with individual products\n\nThe Boston Matrix\n- is concerned with the firms overall cashflow\n\n## Question Marks\n\n- Low share of a rapidly growing market\n- Cash flow is negative\n- Have potential but the future is uncertain\n- Could become either a star or a dog\n\n### Strategy\n\n- Invest to increase market share\n- Substaintial investment to achieve growth at the expense of powerful competitors\n- Invest in promotion and other aspects of marketing\n- Build selectively\n\n## Stars\n\n- High share of rapidly growing market\n- Position of leadership in a high growth market\n- The product/business is relatively strong and the market is growing\n- Require high marketing spending\n- Net cash inflow is neutral or at best modestly positive\n\n### Strategy\n\n- Investment to sustain growth\n- Build sales and/or market share\n- Spend to keep competition at bay\n\n## Cash cows\n\n- High share of a slowly growing market\n- Mature stage in the product lifecycle\n- Mature, successful product\n- Dominant share\n- Little potential for growth \n- Large positive cash inflow\n\n### Strategy\n\n- Defend market share\n- Aim for short term profits\n- Little need for investment\n- Little potential for further growth\n- Reduce investment in order to maximise short term cash flow and profits\n- Use profits from cash cows to invest in new products\n\n\n## Dogs\n\n- Dogs are either\n - Products that have failed\n - Products that are in the decline phase of their life cycle\n- Low share of a slowly growing market\n- Not gowing anywhere and no real potential \n\n### Strategy\n\n- Phase out or sell off (divest)\n- Not worth investing in\n- Any profit made has to be re-invested just to maintain market share\n- Uses up more time and resources that can be justified\n- Divest or, at most, focus on a defendable niche\n\n## How valuable is the Boston Matrix Model?\n\n- A useful tool for analysing product portfolio decisions\n- But it is only a snapshot of the current position\n- Has little or no predictive value\n- Focus on market share and market growth ignores issues such as developing a sustainable competitive advantage.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ProfitMeasurement":{"title":"To understand the measurement and importance of profit","content":"\n## Pricing considerations\nSetting a price is very important, but can be difficult. The following need to be considered:\n\n- Profit margins\n- Costs involved\n- Competition\n- Target market\n- Type of product\n- *Inflation*\n- Brand image\n- Quality\n\n### Revenue and Price\n\nRevenue—total sales * price of product\n\nA price must be high enough to cover costs and leave a surplus to provide a profit. Bad pricing can cost the business sales.\n\n### Total Revenue\n\nTotal revenue can be described as:\n\n- income\n- revenue\n- sales revenue\n- sales turnover\n- turnover\n\nTotal Revenue (TR) can be calculated by multiplying the average selling price (p) by the quantity sold (q).\n\n## Types of costs\n\nSome examples of costs include:\n\n- packaging\n- rent\n- wages\n- salaries\n- distribution\n- raw materials\n- promotion\n- machinery\n- production\n- running costs\n- administrative costs\n\nOverall, costs can be split into 2 categories -**variable** and **fixed**. A fixed cost does not change based on output, an example of fixed costs is salaries, rent and administrative costs.\n\nVariable costs are costs that do change with output. Examples include raw materials, wages (if hours fluctuate or are piece rate), packaging etc.\n\n**Fixed costs (FC) + Variable Costs (VC) = Total Costs (TC)**\n\n**(Units sold * variable cost per unit) + fixed costs = Total Costs**\n\nAverage costs—how much it costs to produce a single unit or item.\n\nAverage cost per unit = Total costs / Total Output\n\n| Output | FC | VC | TC | AC |\n|--------|------|------|------|-----|\n| 0 | 4000 | 0 | 4000 | - |\n| 10 | 4000 | 500 | 4500 | 450 |\n| 20 | 4000 | 960 | 4960 | 248 |\n| 30 | 4000 | 1610 | 5610 | 187 |\n| 40 | 4000 | 2200 | 6200 | 155 |\n| 50 | 4000 | 2800 | 6800 | 136 |\n| 60 | 4000 | 4400 | 8400 | 140 |\n\n---\n\n£175 per unit\n\n| Output | TR | FC | VC | TC |\n|--------|-------|------|------|------|\n| 0 | 0 | 5500 | 0 | 5500 |\n| 10 | 1750 | 5500 | 500 | 6000 |\n| 20 | 3500 | 5500 | 1000 | 6500 |\n| 30 | 5250 | 5500 | 1500 | 7000 |\n| 40 | 7000 | 5500 | 2000 | 7500 |\n| 50 | 8750 | 5500 | 2500 | 8000 |\n| 60 | 10500 | 5500 | 3000 | 8500 |\n\n## Profit\n\n**Profit = total revenue - total costs**\n\nProfit is a prime objective for most firms.\n\nTo improve profit businesses can:\n- increase sales revenue\n- decrease costs\n\nA combination of both is the ideal way of achieving additional profit.\n\nMany other ways do exist—such as decreasing price to increase sales volume and therefore sales revenue.\n\n### Importance of profit\n\n- Profit is a reward for owners and shareholders\n- Profit is a motivator\n- Profit is a measure of success\n- Profit is a source of finance\n\t- A very good source, because it doesn't require any repayment or investment\n- Profit is a guide for future investment\n- Profit is attractive to stakeholders\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/Promotion":{"title":"Promotion","content":"\n## Forms of Promotion\n\n- Advertising\n- Packaging\n- Sales (Discounts)\n- Sponsorships\n- BOGOF\n- Free samples/trials\n- Limited availability\n- Social Media\n\n\n## Aims of promotion\n\n- Inform—make sure people know it exists\n- Remind—remind them that it's still available \n- Persuade—them to buy it\n\n- The main aim of promotion is to ensure that customers are aware of the existence and positioning of products\n- Promotion is also used to persuade customers that the product is better than competing products and to remind customers about why they may want to buy.\n\n## Above and below the line\n\n- Above the line\n\t- Mass media is used to promote brands and reach out to customers\n- Below the line\n\t- More one to one and perhaps tailored to specific consumers such as merchandising at the point of sale or direct selling\n\n## Public Relations\n\nPublic relations activities are those that create goodwill toward an individual, business, cause or product.\n\n### Sponsorship \n\n- Takes place when a payment for an event, person, organisation is given in return for some consideration of benefit\n- A specialised form of public relations\n- Common in the worlds of arts and sport\n- Sponsorship should benefit both sides\n\n## Direct Marketing\n\nPromotional material directed through mail, email, social media or phone to individuals or businesses.\n\n\n### Technological Impact on Direct Marketing\n\n- Cookies and various digital tracking systems allow highly targeted advertising\n- Viral marketing\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PublicSector":{"title":"Public Sector Organisations","content":"**Public sector companies** are a relatively small number of companies owned or controlled by the government. \n\nExamples: RBS (Royal Bank of Scotland) (nationalised), Network Rail.\n\n\n**Public sector organisations** are bodies that provide goods and services which are owned and operated by public bodies. These are funded by central or local governments, but may still levy charges for some services.\n\nExamples: NHS, Highways Agency\n\n## Public vs Private sector\n\nPrivate sector companies frequently work to generate profit above all else. However, private sector works to provide a service or selection of goods **for all**.\n\n## Not For Profit Organisations\n\nNot for profit businesses trade to benefit the community. These businesses have social aims as well as trying to make money.\nExamples of social aims are job creation and training, providing community services and fair trade with developing countries.\n\n### Example: Divine Chocolate\n\nDivine chocolate ensures that they pay fair prices to the farmers in Ghana that produce the cocoa. This allows for investment to be made into the local community—improving sanitation and infrastructure. Divine chocolate does not exploit the farmers, whereas historically many have been exploiting by western businesses.\n\n## Case Study: Horbury Plc\n\n1) Horbury had been impacted by economic pressures in the UK, as they sell products in industries such as “music, entertainment, travel, and lifestyle” which are not classed as essential by many. Because of the economic status of the UK at this time people would have had less money to spend, and would have needed to prioritise the purchase of essentials, such as food, mortgages etc. As people would not have been purchasing electronic goods, Horbury plc would have experienced lower sales – resulting in reduced profits or increased losses. Due to this reduction in business performance, shareholders may have been spooked and panic sold shares to recover some of their capital, thus reducing share prices.\n2) For the board to buy the company back and make it private, they would need a significant amount of funding. Whilst the board probably controls a large portion of the company already, it wouldn't be cheap to buy back the rest of the shares. Something that could be beneficial to Horbury going private is that they would gain more control, as they would have shares locked into a group of known individuals. They wouldn't have random investors controlling shares in the company, as every shareholder would have to be invited. This would allow them to benefit from longer term shareholders, who have an interest in the business greater than the chance of making a profit. \n\tAs a private company, Horbury would be under reduced scrutiny as they would no longer have to publicly release as much information about their business, and would be analysed less. However, it would be important for the board to understand that as a public company they can raise capital through the sale of shares, which becomes a much lengthier process if they become a private company—meaning that changing business form would impact their ability to raise capital.\n\tThe company wants to diversify into more markets, and as a private company, they wouldn't be subjected to the whims of the shareholders as much. Instead, Horbury would be able to follow their own internal objectives without being worried about the share price.\n\n\tIn conclusion, Horbury should consider the pros and cons of each option, and take into account their current business plans and financial status before they commit to either decision. If they believe that it is worth it for them long-term, then they should become a private company. However, if they are looking to be able to raise capital quickly, then they should think twice before changing business form.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/RealIncome":{"title":"Real Incomes","content":"\n**Real incomes** measure the amount of disposable income available to consumers (eg, households \u0026 individuals).\n\n### Factors impacting real incomes:\n\n- inflation\n- wage growth\n- employment levels\n- interest rates\n- tax policies\n\n\nHousehold income is only one factor that impacts consumer spending.\n\n### Impacts of lower interest rates\n\n- Costs of servicing loans / debt is reduced—boosting spending power\n- Consumer confidence should increase leading to more spending\n- Effective disposable income rises—lower mortgage costs\n- Business investment should be boosted eg, prospect of rising demand.\n- Housing market effects - more demand and higher property prices\n- Exchange rate and exports - cheaper currency will increase exports\n\n### Impacts of higher interest rates\n\n- Cost of borrowing rises\n- Main effect will be through mortgages \n- Add contraction in retail credit\n- Repayments on other debts\n- Possible slowdown in housing market\n- Higher rates might also cause currency to get stronger\n- Makes UK exports more expensive in overseas markets\n\n## Demographic Factors\n\nDemography is concerned with the size and composition of a population. Changes in population dynamics occur slowly but can be significant for business.\n\n## Practice Exercise 2\n1) Explain terms\n\t- interest rates—the reward for saving or the cost for borrowing\n\t- market conditions—factors that impact the market a business is operating in\n\t- demographic factors—the makeup of the population that the business is operating in\n\t- environmental issues - whether a business can operate in an environmentally friendly way.\n2) Competition will split customers in the market between the competing businesses—this will reduce the revenue of individual businesses, and require them to adapt and outwit their competition to become dominant. This will increase the costs of the businesses. Equally, the demand for goods or services provided in the market will likely increase due to marketing campaigns, however the demand for a specific business's services may decrease if they are not successful in their marketing efforts.\n3) If the average income of the population is decreasing in terms of value (not necessarily numbers), then the amount of disposable income people have will decline. This will result in less money being spent on non-essential or luxury items—causing these businesses to suffer from reduced revenue. Additionally, it will increase the chance of people opting for cheaper products when they have multiple options. So lower income will reduce the demand for luxury items, which will in turn reduce the revenue of businesses producing such items.\n4) If interest rates decline, then people with debts or mortgages will have less to pay back, and will therefore have more disposable income. This will lead to greater consumer spending. However, the long-term implication of this is that people saving will be making lower returns on savings—resulting in possible economic issues for them in future. If people were on a tighter budget before interest rates dropped, they may now have more money available to spend—resulting in an increased demand for luxury items and/or services. It is also possible that the demand for very cheap items will fall off—because people will be willing to spend their money on quality.\n5) If a business relies on borrowing money or trade credit to function, then higher interest rates will increase the amount that the business has to pay back on these borrowings. This will directly impact the costs of the business, and will possibly force the business to restructure their finances. Higher interest rates will also impact the customers that the business relies on to generate revenue, possibly forcing them to spend less or move to cheaper competitors. So when interest rates are high, it becomes important to consider costs to their customers, as if they are charging too much they may experience a sharp decrease in sales.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/SWOTAnalysis":{"title":"SWOT Analysis","content":"\n### What is SWOT analysis?\n\n- A method for analysing a business, its resources and its environment\n- Often used as part of strategic planning\n- Looks at\n\t- Internal **S**trengths\n\t- Internal **W**eaknesses\n\t- External **O**pportunities\n\t- External **T**hreats\n\n#### Personal SWOT Analysis\n\n- Strengths\n\t- Technical ability\n\t- Motivation\n\t- Enthusiastic\n- Weaknesses\n\t- Over reaching\n\t- Repetitive tasks such as revision are difficult\n- Opportunities\n\t- Could get involved in open-source and build up a CV\n\t- Could get a part-time job\n\t- Could set up a small online store \n- Threats\n\t- Hard to stand out\n\t- Burnout\n\n### SWOT Analysis aims to discover\n\n- What the business does better than the competition\n- What competitors do better\n- Whether it is making the most of the opportunities available\n- How a business should respond to changes in its external environment\n\n### The SWOT Matrix\n\n- Positive factors\n\t- Strengths \n\t- Opportunities\n- Negative factors\n\t- Weaknesses\n\t- Threats\n\n### Internal vs External\n\n- Strengths and weaknesses\n\t- Internal to the business\n\t- Relate to the current situation\n- Opportunities and threats\n\t- External to the business\n\t- Related to changes in the environment which will impact the business\n\n### What are strengths?\n\n- Market share\n- Economies of scale\n- High quality\n- Leadership skills\n- Financial resources\n- R\u0026D capabilities\n- Technological representation\n- Brand reputation\n- Protected IP\n- Distribution network\n- Employee skill\n- High productivity\n- Flexibility of production\n- etc etc\n\n### What are weaknesses?\n\n- A source of competitive disadvantage\n\n- Low market share\n- Inefficient plant\n- Outdated technology\n- Poor quality\n- Lack of innovation\n- A weak brand name\n- High costs\n- Cash flow problems\n- Undifferentiated product\n- Inadequate distribution\n- Quality problems\n- Low productivity\n- Skills gap\n- Unmotivated staff\n- etc etc\n\n---\n\n### What are opportunities?\n\n- An opportunity is any feature of the external environment which creates positive potential for the business to achieve its objectives.\n\t- Technological innovation\n\t- New demand\n\t- Market growth\n\t- Demographic change\n\t- Social or lifestyle change\n\t- Government spending programmes\n\t- Higher economic growth\n\t- Trade liberalism\n\t- Diversification opportunity\n\t- Deregulation of the market\n\t- etc etc\n\n#### Emerging Markets\n\n- Developing countries (Pakistan, India etc)\n- Large amounts of change\n\n\n#### The “Grey Pound”\n\n- Pensioners are better off if they retired longer ago\n- Pensions used to be more generous than they currently are\n- Some OAPs have lots of disposable income\n\n#### COVID-19 Pandemic\n\n- Despite many being furloughed\n- Many opportunities for growth have been enjoyed by some\n\n\n### What are threats?\n\n- Any external development that may hinder or prevent the business from achieving its objectives\n\t- New market entrants\n\t- Change in customer tastes or needs\n\t- Demographic change\n\t- Consolidation among buyers\n\t- New regulations\n\t- Economic downturn\n\t- Rise of low cost production abroad\n\t- Higher input prices\n\t- New substitute products\n\t- Competitive pressure\n\t- etc etc\n\n\n### SWOT is more than a list\n\n- It is an analytical technique to support strategic decisions\n- Strategy should be devised around strengths and opportunities\n- The keywords are: match and convert\n\n#### Match and Convert\n\n- Match strengths with opportunities\n- Convert weaknesses into strengths\n\n##### Convert weaknesses into strengths\n\n- Outdated technology\n\t- Acquire a competitor with leading technology\n- Skills gap\n\t- Invest in training and more effective recruitment\n- Overdependence on a single product\n\t- Diversify the product portfolio by entering new markets\n- Poor quality\n\t- Invest in quality assurance\n\n**For every perceived threat, the same change presents an opportunity for a business.**\n\n### IKEA Case Study\n\n#### SWOT Analysis\n\n- Strengths\n\t- Growing customer base\n\t- 433 stores across 25 countries\n\t- Recognised brand\n\t- Low-cost of storage and transport of products due to flatpak\n\t- Franchise system reduces administrative burden\n\t- Committed to being climate positive by 2030\n\t- Prices are low\n- Weaknesses\n\t- Franchisee system decentralises the business\n\t- Requires work to setup their products\n\t\t- Many people are increasingly \"lazy\" and do not want to build their own furniture\n\t\t- IKEA may need to develop a solution to allow them to remain competitive\n\t- Operating across countries and franchisees means that IKEA will need a lot of work to keep a consistent experience\n\t\t- Different countries will have different demographics, looking for different items\n- Opportunities\n\t- E-commerce is growing rapidly, so moving more to the internet could help IKEA's performance\n\t- Diversification of products \n\t- Provide sustainable solutions\n\t- Chinese market growth\n\t\t- Enter other growing markets\n\t- Advertising/marketing could accelerate growth\n\t\t- Viral advertising could be highly effective\n\t- A simpler store layout could lead to more customers coming in\n- Threats\n\t- Partnership with Alibaba could disrupt relations with western countries\n\t- Amazon and similar companies may outcompete them on price\n\t- Legislation changes could force them to ditch their current Chinese-backed e-commerce platform in countries like the USA\n\t- Competitors could rapidly arise in developing countries and other regions where IKEA does not currently operate\n\t- Lower quality products could discourage potential customers\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/SegmentationTargetingAndPositioning":{"title":"Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning","content":"\nMarket segmentation involves dividing a market into parts that reflect different customer needs and wants.\n\n## STP model\n\n- Segmentation\n- Targeting \n- Positioning\n\n---\n\n### What is market segmentation?\n\nThe process of splitting the market into different demographics to help gauge where customer needs and wants.\n\n### Behavioural Segmentation\n\nAnalysing a market based upon factors such as habits like purchase frequency, method of purchase and other characteristics.\n\n### Geographic Segmentation\n\nDefining market categories based upon where people live. Looks at different sizes of regions. IE clothing companies may look at the colder regions of the UK to sell their warm clothing, whilst a farming goods company might look at regions with the highest agricultural activity.\n\n### Demographic Segmentation\n\nSplitting the market based upon the traits of the population. This could be anything from age to religion, gender, race, education.\n\n### Cons of market segmentation\n\n- Can encourage companies to ignore some of their potential customers\n- It can be difficult to break the market into obvious segments\n- It can be difficult to know certain demographics\n- Companies could miss out on wider ranges of opportunities\n\n### Pros of market segmentation\n\n- Advertising can be targeted at specific market segments\n- Least profitable markets can be avoided\n- It becomes easier to identify gaps in the market for new firms\n- It helps the firm to improve existing products and customer service\n\n### 3 characteristics that could be used in demographic segmentation\n\n- Age\n- Education\n- Income\n\n### Income segmentation groups\n\nA—higher managerial such as chief executives and directors\nB—Intermediate managerial such as solicitors, accountants and doctors\nC1—Supervisory, clerical or junior professional such as teachers and junior managers\nC2—Skilled manual such as plumbers, electricians and junior managers.\nD—Semi and unskilled workers such as refuse collectors and window cleaners\nE—Pensioners, casual workers, students and unemployed.\n\n### Segmentation Methods\n\n- Demographic\n- Geographic\n- Income\n- Behavioural\n\n----\n\nMarket Size: The volume of sales for a product\n\nBrand: A name, sign, symbol, design or slogan linked to a particular product or service\n\nPrimary market research: The collection of data on a first hand basis\n\nMarket Mapping: Various market conditions that are plotted on a map.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/TargetMarket":{"title":"Target Market","content":"\nA target market is the set of customers sharing common needs and wants that a business decides to target.\n\n## Three Main Strategies for Targeting a Market\n\n**Mass marketing (undifferentiated)**: Business targets the whole market, ignoring segments. Products focus on the common needs and wants of customers, not focusing on edge cases.\n\n**Segmented (differentiated):** Business targets several market segments within the same market. Products are designed and targeted at each segment. Requires separate marketing plans and often different business units and product portfolios.\n\n**Concentrated (niche):** Business focuses narrowly on smaller segments or niches. Aim is to achieve a strong market position (share) within those niches.\n\n## Case Study: Gymshark\n\nTarget market:\n\nAge: 18-25\nBehavioural: often and how much\n\nIncome: higher levels of disposable income\n\nLifestyle: Lives revolve around fitness, music and fashion\n\nPromotion:\n- Influencers on social media\n- Black Friday: 2 Big Sales\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/Unit1Revision":{"title":"Unit 1 Revision","content":"\n## Different legal forms of business\n\n### Sole Trader\n\n- Dave's Sweets\n- Advantages\n\t- Quick and easy to setup\n\t- Cheap\n\t- Less complicated to run\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Liability is not limited\n\t- Scalability problems\n\n### Partnership\n\n- High Street Dental Practice\n- Advantages\n\t- Good for group ownership of a fairly small firm\n\t- Shared responsibility and reward\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Unlimited liability\n\t- Disputes between owners can have large implications\n\t- Responsible for the actions of other partners\n\n### Private Limited Company (Ltd)\n\n- Green Construction Ltd\n- Advantages\n\t- Limited liability\n\t- Share capital to raise finance\n\t- More control over ownership than a plc\n\t- Option to choose who can buy shares\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Limited fundraising opportunities\n\t- Finance may be harder to raise\n\n### Public Limited Company (Plc)\n\n- isgplc\n- Advantages\n\t- Stocks can be sold easily on the stock exchange\n\t- Rapid finance raising is possible\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Higher transparency requirements\n\t- Requires £50,000 capital \n\n## Market capitalisation\n\nMarket capitalisation = Price per share x Number of Shares (Shares Outstanding)\n\nCalculates the \"value\" of the business\n\n## One reason for a private individual to invest in shares\n\n- Investing in the correct company may result in a share price rise in future, allowing the investor to sell their shares for a profit. It is also possible for them to collect dividend payments from a profitable business that they hold shares in.\n\n## One influence on share price\n\n- Competitor actions – a competitor announcing a new, better product may cause investors in your business to sell their shares in a panic, leading to a decline in your share price.\n\n## One reason why a business would change ownership model\n\n- If a business has grown, then it would be beneficial to them to change to a better ownership model, so a sole trader may change to a private limited company in order to gain the benefit of limited liability.\n\n## Difference between private \u0026 public sector\n\n- The private sector is run by companies\n- The public sector is run by the government \n\n## What is the relationship between mission and objectives?\n\n- Mission is the overall goal of the business. Many businesses have a mission statement that is very high level and long term.\n- An objective is a much more short term and low level target for the business. These are typically very precise and are easily measurable. \n\n### 5 possible business objectives\n\n- Break-even by Q2 2023\n- Increase the revenue of the clothing department by 20% before the end of the year\n- Sell all the stock in warehouse 2 before it closes \n- Release a new smartphone that sells at least 20 million units before the end of Q3\n- Reduce HR complaints by 50% before the end of the year\n\n## Why would someone set up a not-for-profit business?\n\n- A not-for-profit business is typically created to further the interests of humanity as a whole. Maybe the business will work to reduce hunger around the world or they will simply want to provide an ethical alternative to an existing product, and prioritise the ethics over the capitalist desire to make money.\n\n## The Hierarchy of Objectives (descending)\n\n- Mission Statement(s)\n- Corporate Aims\n- Corporate Objectives\n- Functional Objectives\n\n## Why would a business write a mission statement?\n\n- To provide stakeholders with a view of where the business aims to be in the future\n- To guide all internal objectives\n- To hold themselves to certain standards\n- To ensure that they follow a specific long term vision\n\n## Why is profit so important to a business?\n\n- Profit is an undisputed sign of success\n- Profit allows for dividend payments, which would appease shareholders\n- Retained profit is arguably the best source of finance\n- Profit makes it easier to gain new investments\n\n## Explain how external factors impact cost and demand\n\n\n### Competition\n\n- A strong competitor will reduce demand for your product and will also force you to reduce your price\n- A weak competitor will allow you to push them out of the market with superior price and/or quality\n\n### Market conditions\n\n- If the demand for your product decreases, maybe masks after the COVID-19 pandemic, then there is no longer enough space for all the businesses that exist in the market. \n- Whereas if you are at the start of a pandemic, the market for masks would grow rapidly, leading to businesses having to scale their production up and become more competitive as others try to enter the market.\n\n### Incomes\n\n- If the incomes of the population are rising, then employees will expect to be paid more for working for you. In order to remain a competitive employer, you will need to provide a pay rise.\n- However, if people have more money in general, then you may be able to increase the selling price of your product, which will possibly offset the increased wage costs.\n\n### Environmental\n\n- Consumers are increasingly focused on choosing a sustainable option. \n- By ensuring that you have clearly marketed environmentally conscious policies, you can glean customers from the competition\n\n### Interest Rates\n\n- Higher interest rates will make it more expensive to take out loans and owe money to other parties.\n- Lower interest rates will have the opposite effect.\n\n### Demographic\n\n- Targeting the correct demographic for the product will lead to an increase in demand and perceived value, allowing you to get more sales and charge a higher price. \n- Effective market research can result in good demographic decision making.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/WhatIsABusiness":{"title":"What Is A Business?","content":"\n## Definitions\n\nA business is an organisation that exists to provide goods and services on a commercial basis to customers.\n\nGoods are physical products that can be traded.\n\nServices are intangible products, a task is fulfilled by a business to save someone without the time, expertise, or the equipment the effort of sorting it out themselves.\n\nThey come in many [forms](sixth/Business/Units/fh/DifferentFormsOfBusiness.md)\n\n## Benefits to society\n- Sustain economy\n- Creates jobs\n- Increases consumer spending\n- Tax\n- Provide amenities\n- Drives innovation\n- Increased (international) investment\n\n[Public Sector](sixth/Business/Units/fh/PublicSector) businesses tend to exist to benefit society.\n\nBusiness's begin their corporate life as a startup, more information on startups can be found [here](sixth/Business/Units/fh/WhatIsAStartUp.md)\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/WhatIsAStartUp":{"title":"What Is A Startup?","content":"\n**Key Term:** A start-up is a new business enterprise, formed by one or more entrepreneurs.\n\nEntrepreneur:\n\n- A catalyst for the creation and growth of a business\n- fulfil their dreams\n- calculated risk taker\n- organise all the resources\n- find and fill gaps in the market\n\n## Case Study: Olio\n\nAn app that deals with improving waste management in the modern world. \n\n- Part of the solution\n- about carbon footprint, ethics, net 0, level target\n- app - tackle waste by connecting neighbours\n- 30,000+ volunteers\n- Food in 21 minutes (people can send and receive food for free within this time)\n- Nonfood less than 2 hours (same as food, but for shampoo etc etc)\n- Founded by Tessa Clarke\n\n\nAims:\n\n- improve the app\n- B-B proposition\n- international expansion\n- 1 billion user by 2030 \n\nInvolving restaurants, supermarkets, food distributors to reach net 0 waste\n\n\n- 6 million users\n- Their aim is for their customers to be part of the solution, and not just contribute, as to make the system a whole lot stronger and to bring about awareness of food waste.\n\n**Key Term:** A mission is a qualitative statement of the business aims.\n\n**Key Term:** An aim is a long term plan from which objectives are derived.\n\n**Key Term:** An objective is a target which must be achieved in order to realise the stated aim. A time assigned target is derived from the goals and set in advanced of strategy.\n\nThe mission statement is the overriding goal of the business. The reason for the business's existence. A strategic perspective or a vision for the future. Excites, inspires, motivates and guides.\n\n\nContinued in [Business Objectives](sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessObjectives.md)\n\n## Mission Statements Homework\n\n**1**: Netflix\n\u003e We promise our customers stellar service, our suppliers a valuable partner, our investors the prospects of sustained profitable growth, and our employees the allure of huge impact.\n\n**2**: McDonald's\n\u003eOur mission is to make delicious feel-good moments easy for everyone.\n\n**3**: Coca Cola\n\u003e to refresh the world in mind, body, and spirit, to inspire moments of optimism and happiness through our brands and actions, and to create value and make a difference.\n\n**4**: Google\n\u003eto organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful.\n\n**5**: Amazon\n\u003eWe strive to offer our customers the lowest possible prices, the best available selection, and the utmost convenience.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.547521394Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/BalanceSheets":{"title":"Balance Sheets","content":"\n**A snapshot of the business' assets (what it owns or is owed) and its liabilities (what it owes) on a particular day**\n\nRequired by any limited liability company\n\nAssets:\n- Current assets (yours for less than a year)\n- Non-current assets\n\nLiabilities:\n- Current liabilities (must be paid back within a year)\n- Non-current liabilities\n\nTotal equity: Capital raised from share sales + retained profit\n\n\n### Assets\n\n#### Current Assets \n\n- Can be quickly liquidised to pay bills etc\n\n- Cash\n- Trade Creditor (receivables)\n- Inventories (stock)\n\n#### Non-current Assets\n\n- Land \u0026 buildings\n- Plant \u0026 Machinery\n- Goodwill (intangible asset)\n\t- Brand etc\n\n### Liabilities\n\n#### Current liabilities\n\n- Trade creditor (Payables)\n- Short-term borrowings\n\n#### Non-current liabilities\n\n- Long-term borrowings\n- Other long-term liabilities\n\n\n\u003e [!note] Net position\n\u003e\n\u003e Net assets = Total assets (value £) - Total liabilities (value £)\n\n\n### Other formulae\n\nTotal assets = current assets + non-current assets\n\nTotal liabilities = current liabilities + non-current liabilities\n\nWorking capital = current assets – current liabilities\n\nTotal equity = share capital + reserves\n\n### Working Capital\n\n- Also called net working capital\n- Is a measure of a company's liquidity and short-term financial health\n- The difference between a company's current assets and current liabilities\n- A positive NWC indicates that a company can fund its current operations and may be able to invest in future activities and growth.\n\n- Too much working capital is wasteful\n\t- You are holding assets that won't make a return, invest the excess\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/BreakEvenAnalysis":{"title":"Breakeven Analysis","content":"\nBreakeven output (units) = Fixed costs (£) / Contribution per unit (£)\n\nContribution per unit = selling price per unit less variable cost per unit\n\nContribution per unit represents how much cash is contributed to the business for each unit sold. If the total contribution is greater than the fixed costs, then the business will make a profit.\n\n- Contribution\n\t- Looks at the profit made on individual products\n\t- It is used in calculating how many items need to be sold to cover all the business's costs\n\nContribution has several formulae:\n\nTotal contribution = total sales less total variable costs\nContribution per unit = selling price per unit less variable costs per unit\nTotal contribution can also be calculated as = contribution per unit x number of units sold\n\n**Profit = Contribution less fixed costs**\n\n\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n### Q1 \n\nFixed Costs = £3600\nSelling price per unit = £72\nVariable cost per unit = £12\nMOS (Margin of Safety) = 200 last month\n\nBreak-even output per month and profit made last month.\n\n200 x 72 = £14400\n200 x 12 = £2400\n\n14400 - (2400 - 3600) = £15600 profit\n\n2400 + 3600 = £6000 total costs\n\n72 - 12 = 60\n\n60 * 100 = £6000\n\n60 units = BEO\n\n260 * 60 = £15600 - 3600 = £2000 profit last month\n\n\n### Q2\n\n£1.50 per unit selling price\n£0.75 per unit variable cost\n£1500 monthly fixed costs\nOutput is 2400 units per month\n\n1.5 - 0.75 = 0.75\n2400 * 0.75 = £1800\n\n1800 - 1500 = £300 profit\n\n\n300/0.75 = 400\n400 u m/s\n\nBreak-even point\n\n1500 / 0.75 = 2000 units\n\nMargin of Safety\n400\n\n\n### Q3\n\nFixed costs = £200\n\n100/20 = £5 var cost per hr\n\nVariable cost and selling price per hour \nProfit made over 35 hours \n\n\nBreak even @ 20 hours worked\n20 hours worked = £100 var costs, so £5 var cost per hour\n£200 fixed costs per week\n\n20 hours = £300 revenue \n300/20 = £15 hourly fee\n\n15-5 = £10 contribution per hour\n\n10 * 35 = £3500 gross profit\n\n3500 - 200 = £3300 net profit\n\n\n\n---\n\n\u003e [!note] Margin of Safety\n\u003e\n\u003e The margin of safety is the difference between the actual output and the breakeven output.\n\nSelling price per unit £10\nVariable price per unit £4\nContribution per unit = £6\nFixed costs per period: £12000\nActual output = 3500 units\n**Breakeven formula: fixed costs / selling price - var cost per unit**\nBreakeven output = 2000\nMargin Of Safety = 1500\n\n\n---\n## Worksheet\n\n### Q1\n\nIf a business is breaking even it is neither making a profit nor a loss. To calculate how many units a business must sell to break-even, they must first calculate their contribution per unit. This equals the selling price per unit minus the variable cost per unit.\n\nBreak-even output is calculated by the following formula: fixed costs / contribution per unit\n\nThe higher the firm's fixed costs, the greater the breakeven output will be. Margin of safety refers to the difference between the break-even output and the number of units sold.\n\n\n### Q2\nAverage selling price £4\nVariable cost per unit £1.5\nTotal fixed costs £50k\nPlanned output 25k\n\n#### Contribution per unit\n\n4 - 1.5 = 2.5\n\n#### Total contribution if planned output is sold\n\n2.5 x 25000 = £62500\n\n#### Break-even output\n\n50000 / 2.5 = 20000 units\n\n#### Margin of Safety if planned output is sold\n\n5000 units \n\n(Break even is 20k, Planned output is 25k, 25k-20k=5k)\n\n### Q3\n*Referencing graph*\n\n1) 4 units\n2) 0 units\n3) £76 - £56 = £26\n4) \n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/BreakEvenAnalysisMerge":{"title":"Break Even Analysis","content":"\n## Break Even Analysis ##\n\nBreakeven tells you the number you have to produce and sell before you make a profit.\nBreakeven level of output is where total revenue = total costs. i.e there is no profit nor loss being made. Or where contribution = fixed costs\n\nUnderstanding the breakeven positions is key to understanding what a business needs to do to operate profitably.\nCalculating contribution and breakeven output is an important analytical method that is used in every type of business, big and small.\n\nIn order to do breakeven analysis, you have to make some important assumptions\n- selling price per uint stays the same, regardless of the amount produced.\n- variable costs vary in direct proportion to output - i.e. variable\n- all output is sold\n- fixed costs do not vary with output - they stay the same\nThese assumptions are not always realistic - a key limitation of breakeven analysis.\n\nMethod 1: Using a table\n\nOutput\tSales\tVariable Costs\tFixed Costs\tTotal Costs \tProfit\n\t\t\t\t\t\n 0\t £0\t £0\t £40,000\t £40,000\t -£40,000 SELLING PRICE: £10\n 1\t £10,000\t £40,000 £40,000\t £80,000 -£34,000\n 2\t £20,000 \t£80,000\t £40,000 £120,000 -£28,000 VARIABLE COST: £4\n 3\t £30,000\t £120,000 £40,000\t £160,000 -£22,000\n 4\t £40,000\t £160,000 £40,000\t £200,000 -£16,000 FIXED COST: £40,000\n 5 £50,000 \t£200,000\t £40,000 £240,000 -£10,000\n 6\t £60,000 £240,000\t £40,000 £280,000 -£4,000\n 7\t £70,000 £280,000\t £40,000 £320,000 £2,000\n 8\t £80,000 £320,000 £40,000 £360,000 £8,000\n \n Margin of Safety - The difference between the amount that you are producing, amd the breakeven point\n \n Method 2: The graph method]\n (if you want a copy of the graph lmk)\n \n Method 3: The formula method\n \n ## Breakeven level of output = Fixed Costs/Price per unit - Variable Costs per unit ##\n \n = Fixed Cost/Contribution per unit\n\nEXAMPLE: using the information from the table above\n\nB.E = 40,000/ 6\n = £6,667 units (always round up, so the breakeven point it reached fully)\n \n \n \n [Business](/Business)\n \n \n \n \n \n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/BudgetResearch":{"title":"Budget Research","content":"\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/1.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/2.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/3.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/4.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/5.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/6.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/7.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/8.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/9.png]]\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/BusinessOrgStructure":{"title":"Business Organisational Structure","content":"\n\n## Business Organisational Structure\n\nan organisational structure shows how people and management are organised in business.\n\nThe structure determines:\n - authority \u0026 responisbility - who is responsible for whom and who is in charge?\n - individual job roles \u0026 titles\n - the people to whom others are accountable\n - the formal routes through which comms flow in the business\n \n Span of control: number of employees for whom a manager is responsible\n \n # Narrow S.O.C#\n - allows for closer supervision\n - more layers in the hierarchy are required\n - helps more effective comms\n \n # Wide S.O.C #\n - gives subordinates the chance for more independance\n - more appropriate if labour costs are significant\n \nChain of command: describes the lines of authority within a business\n\nHierarchy: the number of layers of management or supervision in the organisational structure\n\n# Types of Structure # \n\nTALL\n- AKA traditional, tall or mechanistic structure\n- many layers in hierarchy \u0026 narrow s.o.c\n\nFLAT\n- AKA organistic, wide structure\n- flat hierarchy, wide s.o.c\n- delegation encouraged\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CapitalStructure":{"title":"Capital Structure","content":"\nEquity = amounts invested by the owners of the business (SHARE CAPITAL) (RETAINED PROFITS) LOWER RISK, LOWER REWARD\n\nDebt = Finance provided to the business by external parties (BANK LOANS) (OTHER LONG-TERM DEBT) HIGHER RISK, HIGHER REWARDS (MAKING PROFIT ON OTHERS' MONEY)\n\n## Reasons for higher equity in capital structure:\n\n- where there is greater business risk (startups)\n\n- where more flexibility required (don’t have to pay dividends, with a loan you have to pay interest)\n\n\n## Reasons why high levels of debt can be an objective\n\n \n\n- where interst rates are very low = debt is cheap to finance\n\n- where profits and cash flows are strong; so debt can be repaid easily (unicorn businesses)\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CarrollsCSRPyramid":{"title":"Carroll's CSR Pyramid","content":"- At the bottom of the pyramid, points are required\n- Towards the top, points are more optional\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230926095720.png]]\n- A simple example of how to approach CSR\n- Public limited companies must have a CSR report\n- CSR is built on the foundation of profit, which is why Economic is at the base of the pyramid\n\n### Main responsibilities\n\n#### Economic\n\n- Responsibility of the business to be profitable \n- Only way to benefit society in the long term\n\n#### Legal\n\n- Responsibility to obey laws and other regulations\n\n#### Ethical\n\n- Responsibility to act morally and ethically\n- Going beyond the narrow requirements of the law\n\n#### Philanthropic\n\n- Responsibility to give back to society\n- Discretionary but still important\n\n\n### Strengths and Weaknesses\n\n#### Strengths\n\n- Easy to understand\n- Simple message\n- Emphasis on importance of profit\n\n#### Weaknesses\n\n- Perhaps too simplistic\n- Should ethics be at the top?\n- Subjective/ liable to greenwashing\n- Possibly just window dressing\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyCapacityUtilisation":{"title":"Case Study: Kentmere Paper Mill","content":"\n## Analyse the ways in which the Operations Manager could increase capacity utilisation at KPM in the next year (9 marks)\n\nThe factory is currently only operating at about 71% capacity. This suggests that KPM has room to increase their output without pushing contingency margins too hard. New workers are inefficient until they have got integrated into the organisation fully, so turnover is bad for productivity in the factory. Luckily, the company is already addressing this as the turnover rate is reducing significantly.\n\nHowever, last year they were operating at 99% capacity, so the utilisation has dropped off significantly. KPM has clearly invested in improving the overall condition of their facilities, as well as capacity, but they have not scaled appropriately and now have wasted capacity. This is reflected by the higher unit costs this year. It would make sense for KPM to make the decision to employ more people in the factory, as a way to increase the capacity utilisation. Or if they felt that they did not need the extra capacity, they could reduce costs and scale back to a lower total capacity. This would be unlikely to be a good idea due to to the growing demand for their services. \n\n## To what extent do you agree that the decision to increase capacity from 545 tonnes to 830 tonnes was correct for KPM (16 marks)\n\nI do not believe that this increase in capacity was a good move for KPM. An increase in capacity was necessary, however they may have been overzealous in their increase, as they now have idling resources. Of course, we do not have information on their expected growth, so if they are expecting growth to continue rapidly, or a large spike in capacity demand, then running at 71% capacity may be a good choice for KPM.\n\nFor instance, if the extra capacity is the reason deliveries on time has increased by 6%, then they may see it as a worthwhile sacrifice because it will help their reputation. But the idle resources in the factory could be the reason, or part of the reason, behind the increase in unit costs. KPM are currently dealing with competition, which they have been managing to outcompete in pricing. Therefore, it is vital for KPM to ensure that their costs remain as low as possible, to enable them to profit from selling goods at a low price. Unused factory capacity will contribute to rising costs, which will increase the strain on their pricing model. If KPM falls behind in pricing, they will face a decline in sales and market share—which could be fatal for the business.\n\nBecause of the somewhat precarious situation the business is in—the main objective should be managing competition and retaining or growing market share. It may be wise to temporarily reduce capacity. If possible, turning machines off when they aren't actively required, they could reduce their capacity to lower costs. \n\nAnother issue that KPM needs to consider is that the paper industry is in decline globally as everyone moves towards a digital solution. This means that the lifespan of the company is limited and if the market is shrinking, they need to diversify. Diversifying into another market could help save KPM from dying along with the paper industry, however if their plan is to diversify then they should focus on that rather than increasing factory capacity. The large multi-million pound investments in state-of-the-art machinery and new premises may not have been a wise choice, as these resources may have been better spent on migrating towards a new industry.\n\nIn conclusion, there are many different choices KPM could make, however the increased capacity is unlikely to be a good move in the long run due to market decline.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyDaihatsu":{"title":"Case Study: Daihatsu","content":"\n## To what extent is cutting prices a good way for any business to respond to a fall in the overall capacity utilization in its industry? (16m)\n\nWhen capacity utilization falls in an industry, it suggests that the overall demand🌟🌟🌟 for the products produced by that industry has also fallen. This usually suggests that the business is operating in a market that produces luxury goods, such as Daihatsu producing their small cars. 🌟\n\nBecause people do not need the industry to survive, the only realistic option🌟🌟 for businesses trying to exist in that market is for them to offer lower prices to consumers. A lower consumer price point means that regardless of the state of the economy or the consumer's personal finances, people will be more likely to purchase the business's goods.\n\nThis response will result in revenue being kept as high as possible for the business, which will be very important for keeping things afloat.\n\nThe problem that arises for a business such as Daihatsu offering lower prices is that due to their customizations, they cannot mass produce whole cars, meaning that their unit costs will already be higher than most of the industry. Because of this, they will be subjected to higher costs meaning that reducing their prices may require them to sacrifice some of their USP by reducing the customisability of their cars. Whilst this may be damaging to the business, it is likely that they would be able to continue operation as they would retain their reputation and grow their potential customer base. \n\nEffectively, businesses in industries where overall capacity utilisation is falling need to shift their focuses to different parts of the market to ensure that their longevity is secured. Cutting prices is a good way to reduce the impact of higher unit costs, meaning that for many businesses it will be a viable option.\n\n---\n# Feedback\n\n- Good, but narrow\n- Mention price elasticity of demand\n- Consider demand falling for short term\n\n🌟 Not necessarily\n\n🌟🌟 Really? Marketing, reduce capacity\n\n🌟🌟🌟 Why is this a problem?\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyPassionForQuality":{"title":"Case Study: Passion For Quality","content":"\n## Analyse why Sarah wants to introduce a system of quality assurance into the business? (9m)\n\n1) Sarah wants to introduce quality assurance into the business as it will help to improve the business reputation because customers will receive less faulty goods. It will also help to identify problem areas in the production process, helping the business to eradicate resource drains. \n\nAs quality assurance is a constant process that exists throughout the entirety of production, it would also allow faults to be stopped as soon as they are found, meaning that the business doesn't have to waste materials and employee time working on a faulty product. \n\nA side effect of the quality assurance implementation will be to introduce a sense of increased responsibility upon all employees. This will be because they now have an expanded job role which gives them more insight into the running of the organisation. A positive for the business will be that many people may see themselves as more closely linked/important to the business, however there is a chance that employees will see the increased responsibility as a chance to demand additional pay—adding costs to the business.\n\n## To what extent do you agree with Jamie’s view that Passion for Fashion’s competitiveness depends on the quality of the design of its clothes? (16 marks)\n\n2) Passion for Fashion is operating in the clothing market, towards the mid end of the pricing range. This means that customers will expect quality. Especially in the current economic climate, it will be likely that any shortfalls will have a negative impact on the business, even if they are quick to resolve any issues.\n\nTherefore, the importance of quality is paramount to the business's competitiveness. And the easiest way for the business to ensure quality is to use quality assurance. This methodology will maximise the number of people and time spent on searching for issues, meaning that any problems that impact a client should realistically be spotted and corrected or stopped before any faulty goods leave the production line.\n\nIf they deliver a faulty product to a client, then it means that the business's reputation will be at risk. If somebody decides to post the faulty product on social media, it could have the potential to seriously damage the company's business.\n\nBy delivering consistent quality to their customers, they can also create themselves a reputation where they are seen as a higher quality brand, which will give people a higher perceived value and lead to them being able to charge greater prices for their products.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyPerfectPaper":{"title":"Case Study: Perfect Paper Plc","content":"\n## With reference to the Tannenbaum Schmidt continuum and Blake Mouton Grid, analyze what type of manager Jayne is. (9m)\n\nJayne has received instructions from her superiors and has made a decision to remedy the situation. However, when interacting with her employees, whilst she does listen to feedback, she does not take it on board. To make this work, she likely has to compromise with her subordinates to keep morale up. This places Jayne on the **Task Manager** corner of the Blake Mouton Grid - giving her a significant focus on achieving goals above anything else. Jayne does not adapt her plans based on the requests of her employees. She is told that some staff members may not be happy with travelling long distances (such as Scotland to London) for various reasons, including them being parents of young children. Whilst she does justify her decision as helping to prevent redundancies - she does not adapt it.\n\nIn a similar sense, she falls under the authoritarian segment of the tannenbaum schmidt continuum. This is because she has centralized the decision-making process, and is giving very little control to the people who her decision will impact. \n\nThis does not make Jayne a bad manager, however it does mean people may not feel comfortable around her or taking their problems to her. But at the end of the day, Jayne is not trying to create a Paternalistic environment, all she is focused on is the results. If she can get good results, then her subordinates keep their jobs and everyone can be happy. Because of this, Jayne could be seen as a good manager, but one that works employees hard.\n\n**Feedback:** Tells or Sells? First paragraph is strong, tannenbaum schmidt needs to be more precise.\n\n## To what extent might a change in Jayne's leadership style improve sales volume? (16m)\n\nUnder her current style, she will be suppressing the creativity of her employees. This is because they will feel like they just have to follow her orders and do everything to the letter. As they are working in the sales team, creative freedom will allow for new ideas to come to fruition and will allow all 25 members of staff to benefit the team at a higher level. However, on the flip side, moving to a different model, such as the democratic one, would have other effects than increasing the diversity of ideas. Some people may be less productive with more freedom, and some of the ideas that the team comes up with may not work out. Luckily, with a greater range of ideas the team is more likely to have a few good ones - whereas previously they would have been stuck with trying to make a single idea work.\n\nIf Jayne were to take this to an extreme and take a more Laissez-faire approach to leadership, she would be taking a much higher risk, but also possibly looking at a much higher potential reward. As long as the team she is managing consists of skilled people whom are capable of working well indepndently from each other, then she should be able to increase productivity by taking a backseat on some of the decision making. \n\nDespite all the potential positives of a more relaxed management style, her current approach with her new plan may be just as, if not more, successful. Jayne is a good sales person, who has been promoted to her position for a reason - and therefore the company has trusted her to do a good job. Whilst sales have decreased since last year, this may not be reflective of sales efforts and simply due to an increasingly digital world. Jayne does have a plan, and as long as she can ensure her team executes it effectively - it should have some success. \n\nIn conclusion, Jayne may be perfectly fine where things are - and would be taking the least risk by changing nothing. However, moving towards greater employee freedom may be incredibly beneficial and boost productivity more than Jayne could manage under her authoritarian style. The problem with a new approach is that the outcome is unknown - so the risk is high.\n\n**Feedback:** Good understanding. To get higher marks, make less points and go into more detail. Also needs evaluation.\n\n## Leadership Styles Research\n\n**McDonald's**: They have an effective leadership style, because staff working there are typically low skilled. So they delegate from a business manager to a general manager, and then down to shift managers who give instructions to the crew members. As you move higher up the ladder, it becomes less authoritarian as a higher skill level is assumed. This does cause some issues, but most of them are minor and can be easily resolved.\n\n**Nando's**: Managers are reportedly very imposing and stressed. They are not paid much more than the lowest level workers, but are given a lot more responsibility and are expected to run everything. This results in the managers not caring much for the business or their work and results in a more impoverished management style. Becuase of this there are employees who do not feel satisfied with the Nando's management style.\n\nA significant amount of data for this research was found on [Breakroom](https://breakroom.cc)\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyScalingUpForThePlantCurious":{"title":"Case Study: Scaling up for the plant curious","content":"\n\u003e [!info] Info \n\u003e\n\u003e These are draft answers.\n\n\n## Explain how the growth of Allplants might have benefitted from its status as a private limited company (4m)\n\nThey were able to gain share capital by selling shares to venture capitalists, allowing them to gain a significant amount of funding. Share capital is a form of income that they can quickly deploy, because the investors gain a stake in the business. It also might bind an investor to the business, meaning that they involve their skills in the management of the business.\n\n## Discuss two factors that might halt the rise of Allplants ltd (8m)\n\n- Brexit\n\t- Limitations from delayed transit\n\t- Limitations on workforce\n\t- Added burden of tariffs\n\t- Extra red tape\n- Competitors\n\t- Established within the EU, allowing them to undercut prices\n\t- Might provide a broader range of products, leading to Allplants loosing demand \n\n\n## Explain why crowd-funding can be an attractive way for young companies like Allplants Ltd to raise finance (4m)\n\n- It doesn't require you to give any security or risk an asset\n- It helps raise publicity\n- If successful, more cash can be generated than requested.\n- Crowd-funding is easy and reasonably quick\n\n## Jonathon and Alex have had a meeting with a large American venture capital business that is prepared to pay up to £100m for Allplants ltd. It would give them £30m each. They have two options: sell up and end all links to the business or reject the offer and work on the expansion plan. Evaluate and recommend. (20m)\n\n\n- For selling\n\t- Quick cash\n\t- Immediate loss of liability, option of early retirement\n\t- £30m is enough to enjoy a rich lifestyle without the need for any further income\n\t- The business will be more likely to succeed with the finances of a large firm behind it\n- Against selling\n\t- Loss of business, something they've worked on for years\n\t- Loss of focus, the business interests will change\n\t- Loss of income potential, if the business is really successful, they will never get a penny over £30m for it\n\t- Opportunity cost is high\n- Evaluation\n\t- The business is clearly worth a lot of money already; if the founders have plans and believe that they can carry it forward to greater heights without selling it out, then it might be worth considering taking that route. if they got it to this point, they can get it further.\n\t- Selling now is always an option for them to consider, but it would mean giving up on their work and finding a new livelihood (if one was desired). If the business is worth £100m and they would only get £30m each, then there are other parties with a 40% net stake in the business meaning that others will have opinions on the deal as well.\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyStakeholders":{"title":"Case Study: Stakeholders","content":"\n1) The local community would stand to benefit from Roxio's offerings. The availability of food, clothing, electronics and other basic items would improve the quality of life in the local area. This would encourage the community to support the opening of a new store. Whilst there may be drawbacks, such as traffic influxes and rubbish management issues - these will probably be seen as worth it for the availability of more amenities and essentials.\nA large factor that may impact the community views on this proposition is the presence of local businesses that are involved in similar markets to Roxio. If there are a few small, independent shops in the town or village, then Roxio may be viewed as being monopolistic by trying to dominate the market. However, it may be that there is a severe lack of shops, or that the market overlap is not absolute - which would result in Roxio still being able to enter the area without causing friction with the locals.\n\n\n2) Whilst Roxio does initially need to please shareholders, they shouldn't overlook the other stakeholders, nor their combined power. Individually, the shareholders have the most influence over the business, but the customers and employees are both vital to it being able to function, and either group could cease operation of the business. Therefore, it is important for Roxio to prioritize the needs and wants of all of their stakeholders proportionately. Only by properly understanding where people stand with relation to the business will Roxio be able to develop their plans. \nTherefore, Roxio should listen to the complaints of the local communities that they are looking to enter, and instead of ignoring them, they should take steps to meet a compromise. If they appear as a human organisation rather than a robotic one, people will be more likely to accept their presence, even if they initially opposed it. \n\nFurthermore, the government is a powerful entity that could have a massive impact on the business. Roxio should take steps to ensure that the government concerns about their market share do not result in any major action against the company. Again, this will likely result in compromise such as them having to slow their growth plans to fall below the radar of government monitoring agencies.\n\nIn conclusion, the shareholders are only one stakeholder group - in a business the size of Roxio's it is important that they are taking appropriate time to understand and meet the needs of all of their stakeholders. Whilst they may choose their shareholders as priority #1, they cannot be priority 1/1.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CashFlowForecasting":{"title":"Cash Flow Forecasting \u0026 Management","content":"\nLiquidity is important. Having money to spend helps protect against unexpected expenses and keeps the business afloat.\n\nCash flow forecasting links with: budgeting, inventory management, financial objectives, working capital, sales forecasting.\n\nCash flow is important.\n\n- Cash flow is a dynamic and unpredictable part of life for most businesses (particularly start-ups and SMBs).\n- Cash flow problems are the **main** reason why a business fails.\n- Regular and reliable cash flow forecasting can address many of the problems.\n\n### Cash inflows\n\n- Cash sales\n- receipts from trade debtor's\n- sale of fixed assets\n- interest on bank balances\n- grants\n- loans from bank\n- share capital invested\n\n### Cash outflows\n- payments to suppliers\n- wages and salaries\n- payments for fixed assets\n- tax on profits\n- interest on loans and overdrafts\n- dividends paid to shareholders\n- repayment of loans\n\n### Why produce a cashflow forecast?\n\n*Efficient businesses produce accurate cashflow forecasts.*\n\n- Advanced warning of cash shortages\n- Make sure that the business can afford to pay suppliers and employees\n- Spot problems with customer payments\n- As an important part of financial control\n- Provide reassurance to investors and lenders that the business is being managed properly\n\n**Terminology:** Overdraft Facility ⇾ A service provided by a bank to allow a business to go into negative balances and later pay it off with interest.\n\nExample cashflow forecast:\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/cashflow-forecast-example-2340931153.png]]\n\n\u003e [!EXAMPLE] Interpreting the table\n\u003e\n\u003e Closing balance for one month is the opening balance for the next.\n\n- They key to effective cashflow forecasting is reliable information\n- A good cashflow forecast is:\n\t- Updated regularly\n\t- Makes sensible assumptions\n\t- Allows for unexpected changes\n\n---\n## Worksheet\n\n1) Cash flow values\n\nA = 3500 ✓\nB = 8000 ✓\nC = -(4000) ✓\nD = 8000 ✓\n\n2) Calculate net cash flow\n\n**Untrusted data below**\n```\n\n 35000 - 34000= £1500 NOV CLOSE\n4000 NOV OPEN\n\n(£500 + £36000) - 34000 = £3500 DEC CLOSE\n1500 DEC OPEN\n\n(31500+36000)-(34000+34000) = -£500 NET CASH FLOW\n```\n\n---\n\n# Recap\n\n## Liquidity\n\nLiquidity is how close an asset is to cash.\n\n- Cash is the most liquid asset \n- A building is fairly illiquid, as the process to convert it into cash is lengthy\n\n## Cash flow is important\n\n- Cash flow is dynamic and unpredictable \n- Cash flow is **the main cause of business failure**. \n\t- They try and grow too quickly and run out of working capital, they might be profitable, but if they run out of cash they can't pay the bills.\n\nNon-exhaustive lists:\n\n- Cash Inflows\n\t- Cash sales\n\t- Receipts from trade debtors\n\t- Sales of fixed assets\n\t- Interest on bank balances\n\t- Grants\n\t- Loans from banks\n\t- Share capital investments\n- Cash outflows\n\t- Payments to suppliers \n\t- Wages and salaries\n\t- Payments for fixed assets\n\t- Tax on profits\n\t- Interest on loans \u0026 overdrafts\n\t- Dividends paid to shareholders\n\t- Repayment of loans\n\n- **Cash is king** - it is the lifeblood of the business\n- If a business runs out of cash it will almost definitely fail\n- Few businesses have near unlimited cash, so careful management is required\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CorporateSocialResponsibility":{"title":"Corporate Social Responsibility","content":"\n### What is CSR?\n\n- The extent to which a business addresses the concerns and obligations to its wider stakeholders\n- The actions a business takes over and above the minimum required by law in addressing societal needs and wants\n\n- CSR is based on the idea that the needs of business and society are interdependent\n\n- Society needs business\n\t- Employment \u0026 wages\n\t- Investment \u0026 innovation\n\t- Profits \u0026 taxes\n- Business needs society\n\t- Create demand\n\t- Public assets and infrastructure\n\t- Legal protection\n\n\n### The Debate on Social Responsibility\n\n- Not all business organisations behave in a socially responsible manner\n- Some argue that that it is not the job of businesses to be concerned about social issues and problems\n- Two schools of thought:\n\t- Free market view: the job of business is to create wealth for shareholders\n\t- Corporate social responsibility view: business should be concerned with social issues\n\nWant to turn on fun video effects during your next call? Or do you need to blur your background when you hop on your next online work meeting? You can now do both in Google Meet on Firefox. If you use Firefox version 115 or higher, you can set your visual effects either before or dur\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/DangersofCapacityUtil":{"title":"Dangers of Capacity Utilisation","content":"\n## Initial Questions\n\n1) Capacity utilisation is calculated as\nused capacity/total capacity x 100\n\n2) 13,000 capacity\n11,500 produced (2020)\n14,000 produced (2021)\n\n11,500/13,000 x 100 = 88.46%\n\n14,000/13,000 x 100 = 107.69%\n\nUtilisation change = 19.23%\n\n\n3) Running at high capacity utilisation means high efficency, so you are maximising profits.\n\n4) Running at high utilisation does not protect against contingencies. So you are vulnerable to faults.\n\n---\n\n## High utilisation\n\n- No downtime, high defects\n- Equipment wears out faster\n- Increased stress for employees\n- Unexpected demand increases can cause a loss of sales\n\n## Low utilisation\n\n- High unit costs\n- Wasted resources\n- Difficult to compete effectively\n- Reduced job security\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/DecisionMaking":{"title":"Decision Making","content":"\n**Opportunity Cost:** The cost of missing out on the next best alternative. The benefits that could have been gained by making a different decision.\n\n1) Distinguish between scientific decision-making and intuition/hunch based decision-making.\n- Scientific is easier to justify\n- Scientific will usually be more reliable\n- Hunch based is much faster\n- But may be less reliable\n- It is cheaper to use hunch based\n- Scientific is more common due to the rise of Big Data\n\n2) Not key stages in the decision-making process:\n- Recording data\n- Setting objectives\n\n3) Scientific decision-making is a lot more trustworthy and reliable. It can be backed up with evidence and data that supports or opposes a decision. Scientific decision-making also makes use of a wider set of information than a hunch. Hunches may be based on 1 or 2 things, whereas a scientific decision may be based upon hundreds or even thousands of data points.\n4) Intuition/hunch based decisions can be useful for when action is required quickly. If you don't have the time or resources to make a scientific decision, then intuition is your best chance.\n5) In any decision, you will need to account for all possible risks and uncertainty that may come from a decision, and weigh it up against the possible rewards. If you do this correctly, you are unlikely to make any decisions where you lose more than you can afford.\n6) Opportunity cost is the benefits that have been given up by making a particular decision over another.\n7) Opportunity cost helps you to see what your resources are going towards, and what you're getting back. It allows for a more analytical overview of decision-making.\n\n---\n\n## Decision Trees\n\n- A mathematical model\n- Used by managers to help make decisions\n- Uses estimates and probabilities to calculate likely outcomes.\n- Helps to decide whether the net gain from a decision is worthwhile. \n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221003120813.png]]\n\n**Expected Value:** The financial value of an outcome calculated by multiplying the estimated financial effect by its probability.\n\nExample:\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221003121736.png]]\n\nHigh sales + low sales = Total Expected Value\n\nNet gain = Total Expected Value - Cost\n\n---\n\n(A):\n\n1.4m cost\n\n=\u003e 40% 2.5m payoff\n=\u003e 60% 800k payoff\n\n0.4 * 2500000 = 1000000\n0.6 * 800000 = 480000\n\n1000000 + 480000 = 1480000 (1.48m)\n 1.48 - 1.4 = 0.08m net gain\n\n(B):\n 0.5m cost\n\n=\u003e 30% 1m payoff\n=\u003e 70% 0.5m payoff\n\n0.3 * 1000000 = 300000\n0.7 * 500000 = 350000\n\n\n300000 + 350000 = 650000 (0.65m)\n0.65 - 0.5 = 0.15m net gain\n(C):\n\nDo nothing. Not optimal.\n\n\nOption **B** is the most profitable option.\n\n== {Express in a single unit—everything in millions would have been good}\n\n## Advantages of using decision trees\n- Choices are set out logically\n- Options are considered in parallel\n- Use of probabilities enables risk analysis\n- Likely costs are considered as well as potential benefits\n- Easy to understand \u0026 tangible results\n\n## Disadvantages of using decision trees\n- Probabilities are just estimates—can be erroneous\n- Uses quantitive data only—ignores qualitative aspects of decisions\n- Assignment of probabilities and expected values prone to bias\n- Decision-making technique doesn't necessarily reduce risk\n\nQuality of data inputted is equal to the quality of the data outputted.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/DecisionTreesHwk":{"title":"Decision Trees","content":"\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221005100716.png]]\n\n###### Displayed in millions\n\n - (£8) should have been used as -£8\n1) Germany:\n\t0.75 * 24 = 18\n\t0.24 * 4 = 0.96\n\t18.96\n\tSpain:\n\t0.55* 32 = 17.6\n\t0.45 * 4 = 1.8\n\t19.4\n\tUSA East:\n\t0.45 * 44 = 19.8\n\t0.55 * 8 = 4.4\n\t24.2\n\tUSA West:\n\t0.5 * 37.5 = 18.75\n\t0.5* 6 = 3\n\t21.75\n\nNet gain for all 4: 21.75+24.2+19.4+18.96 = £84.31\n\n---\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221005101243.png]]\n\n2) £850,000 capital is available, additional £175,000 legal expense to be paid with external investments. Find most rewarding option.\nKitchen:\n0.6 * 1340000 = 804000\n0.4 * 125000 = 50000\n\n854000 / 850000 = 1.004705882\n\nSports Club:\n0.25 * 1480000 = 370000\n0.5 * 1220000 = 610000\n0.25 * 155000 = 38750\n370000 + 610000 + 38750\n1018750 / 850000 = 1.198529412\n\n\n\nExtra Capacity:\n0.25 * 1280000 = 320000\n0.35 * 1240000 = 434000\n0.4 * 1190000 = 476000\n320000 + 434000 + 476000 = 1230000\n850000 - 175000 = 675000\n1230000/675000 = 1.822222222\n\nKitchen expansion is most profitable as it has the highest probability of returning the investment.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/DunelmAndHomewaresMarket":{"title":"Dunelm And Homewares Market","content":"1) \n \n Current Ratio: 1.78\n \n ROCE: 30.44%\n \n Gearing: 57.2%\n \n Payables days: 18.6 days\n \n Receivable days: 8.3 days\n \n Inventory Turnover: 3.5\n\nAbove is corrected. May cause discrepancies.\n\n2) \n \n ROCE has declined significantly with a sharper drop in the last year. This suggests that investments are not being earnt back. \n \n Current ratio grew from 2014 to 2014 but fell again in 2018 which showed that the company has higher debts and/or lower asset value towards the end of the period. \n \nGearing has risen massively and is now above the higher optimum bound of 50%, raising an alarm on the company overextending their finances. \n\nPayable days have dropped however which will improve supplier relations as suppliers will be happier to be paid quickly. \n\nReceivable days have risen slightly which means that they may experience some cash flow problems in future as their customers are taking longer to pay them for goods. \n\n\n3) Dunelm are not in a terrible financial situation. However, they are running the risk of running out of cash \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/EconomiesOfScale":{"title":"Economies of Scale","content":"\n**Economies of scale arise when unit costs fall as output increases.**\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221111144900.png]]\n\n## Internal Economies of Scale\n\n- Buying economies—buying greater quantities usually results in lower price (bulk-buying)\n- Technical—use of specialist equipment of process to boost productivity\n- Marketing—spreading a fixed marketing spend over a larger range of products, markets, and customers\n- Network—adding extra customers or users to a network that is already established\n- Financial—larger firms benefit from access to more and cheaper finance\n\n## Labour Productivity\n\nLabour Productivity = **Output per period (units) / Number of employees at work**\n\nThe answer will typically be expressed in terms of output per employee.\nEg: 1000 units per employee per month\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/EdenProjectQ6":{"title":"Eden Project Question 6","content":"\n## To what extent did The Eden Project benefit from the time spent on its budgeting? (16 marks)\n\nThe Eden Project produced a large, detailed budget based on information that they had researched, allowing them to easily approach investors with a plan, showing what they were doing and how they planned to achieve it. Through this method, they managed to provide security to potential investors, ensuring that they are aware of the costs and where money was being allocated. Because of this, more money was given to The Eden Project, ensuring the success of the scheme.\n\nAs they managed to ensure their budgeting was accurate, they reduced the budget variance, meaning that they didn't need to take drastic actions to ensure that they had enough money to complete the project.\n\nAlthough their budget did have variances in it, they quickly disclosed these to the Millennium Commission which agreed to cover some of the additional costs of the project. Had detailed budgeting guidance not been given, then it might not have been possible for additional funding to be released, because the required sums of money were in the millions, they needed to justify the expenditure properly.\n\nSales were much higher than expected, meaning that funds could be gained to finalise the project without the need for investments from third-party organisations.\n\nWhilst the project would probably still have been *possible* without a comprehensive budget, they would likely have struggled with gaining and managing finances much more, leading to reduced efficiency. With only a 16% increase from the expected budget to the actual budget, The Eden Project was successful in their budget management with an incredibly good capital budget management for a project of that size.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","casestudy","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/EmployerEmployeeRelationsAtAirbus":{"title":"Employer-Employee Relations at Airbus","content":"\u003e This page was mostly written whilst my glucose was low. Expect a few abnormalities. \n\n1) Analyze whether Airbus managers were right originally to offer a 2.7% pay rise to staff. [9]\n \n A 2.7% pay rise is very low, considering that inflation was 7%, this means that Airbus were offering employees a below inflation pay rise, so they would have a lower quality of living as a result. In addition to this, the financial performance of Airbus was positive - meaning that they reported record profits providing no reason for them to use poor financial performance as an excuse for their low pay offer. To compound these factors, Airbus's main rival Boeing were experiencing difficulties at the same time, providing Airbus with a comfortable lead. \n \n Airbus was aiming to pay out a dividend of €1.50 per share, which would have been hampered by a larger pay rise to staff. Managers were clearly trying to balance the desires of the shareholders with those of the employees, however they overlooked the economic climate of the country and tried to offer employees and insulting low offer, which lead to disruption at Airbus. \n \n So, whilst managers had a reason for making a low offer, it was a poorly considered decision that would definitely have backfired on Airbus. A competent manager should have seen that employees would be dissatisfied and acted to protect their reputation and avoid the dispute.\n\n2) Assess two reasons why Airbus might benefit from treating staff as an asset not a cost. [8]\n \n Staff are not a typical resource like aluminium or a warehouse. They have much more intricate requirements, rights and feelings. By treating them like an inanimate resource, Airbus looses a key element of their employer-employee relations; they cannot build trust with their staff and nor can they construct an environment where employees feel seen as equals. This will reduce the productivity and the willingness to help of staff at Airbus, seriously damaging the company in future. \n \n By treating staff as as an asset rather than a cost, they can offer luxuries to them to entice them to work harder and to continue working at Airbus, rather than moving to a more appealing competitor. This will lead to greater productivity, lower absenteeism and an overall more appealing environment. \n \n Additionally, the positive environment that they will create for staff will aid in the recruitment process, allowing Airbus to attract more skilled staff to take up jobs within their firm. This requires very little additional effort on top of what Airbus offer their existing employees, so could save on marketing costs for recruitment. Whilst staff **are** a cost, they are also an asset, and by recognising the latter, Airbus can foster a much better relationship, which benefits all involved parties in the long run.\n\n3) Evaluate how Airbus staff may benefit from the collective bargaining efforts of 'Unite' rather than an individual approach to wage negotiations.\n \n Individuals have almost always got no clout, no bite. They can ask their manager for a pay rise and if their manager says no, they can't do anything about it. They can accept it or try and get a different job. However, for most people this is entirely impractical. A union changes this balance by giving the employees power to make their voices heard. The main difference is that instead of an individual employee raising an issue over pay, a large group of employees can raise an issue together, backed by legislation to protect them and a union. A union can also take action to force an employer to comply with certain demands. Strikes and industrial action are the most extreme form of expressing a concern, and should only be used as a last resort. However, the threat of a strike is enough to make most employers seriously try to mitigate a situation. \n \n In Airbus's case, the managers didn't take enough action early on and it lead to strike action happening. This could not have happened without the union, meaning that employees would not have been able to be heard. So for employees, collective bargaining is both a useful and a vital tool. \n \n Individual bargaining *may* have occasionally been effective, but it would have created an uneven pay stratum, leading to inequality within an organisation. \n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/ExamTechniqueAndRevision":{"title":"Exam Technique And Revision","content":"\n- Contribution\n\t- The money in - costs for a specific unit. The contribution is how much money is added to the business's coffers.\n- Breakeven output\n\t- Fixed costs / (price - variable costs)\n- Margin of Safety\n\t- Actual sales - breakeven output\n- Profit\n\t- Margin of safety x contribution\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","revision"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/Finance":{"title":"Finance","content":"\nA financial objective is a specific goal or target of relating to the financial performance, resources and structure of a business.\n\nTypical financial objectives:\n\n- Profit\n- Cash flow\n- Return on investment\n- Capital structure\n- Revenue\n- Costs\n\n\n3 profitability ratios:\n\n- Gross profit margin\n- Operating profit margin\n- Profit for the year margin\n\nIf **gross profit** is positive, then it is still worth you producing a product or offering a service. It is making the business money to provide. If it is negative, then it is costing the business money to provide.\n\nGross profit is revenue from sales minus cost of sales\n\nOperating profit is gross profit - expenses\n\nAnd Profit for the year is operating profit - interest and taxation\n\n\nInterest and taxation covers interest paid on debt or received plus tax payable of profit\n\ngross profit margin = gross profit / sales revenue x 100\n\n\n---\n\n## Statement of comprehensive income\n\n- Public limited companies and private limited companies need to publish their accounts every year, according to UK law.\n- As part of those accounts they need to show their profit and loss and this appears on their \"statement of comprehensive income\" (SOCI)\n\n\n```\nNOTE: Irrelevant to notes, practice.\n\n367.8 / 597.5 * 100 = 61.6\n\n15825000\n13550000\n\n13550000 / 15825000 x 100 = 85.6%\n\n\n**Buy and Save**\ngpm: 4089/64826 * 100 = 6.3%\nopm: 2188/64826 * 100 = 3.4%\npfty: 120/64826 * 100 = 0.19%\n\n**Trolleyworld**\ngpm: 1206/18116 * 100 = 6.7%\nopm: 949/18116 * 100 = 5.2%\npfty: 647/18116*100 = 3.6%\n\nTrolleyworld wins!\n\nTrolleyworld go from 3.6% to 4.2%, meaning a change of +0.8%\n\n```\n\n\n## Methods to increase profitability\n\n- Higher prices\n- Reduce Costs\n- Sell a greater volume of goods\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialPerformanceBudgets":{"title":"Financial Performance Budgets","content":"\u003e [!failure] Low glucose\n\u003e\n\u003e Lesson done with low glucose, output and quality likely lower.\n\n# Case Study: Frank Roseland, dairyman\n\n## What is meant by the term 'variance analysis'? (2m)\n\nVariance analysis is the technique used to analyse the difference between expected units sold and actual units sold, as well as expected price per unit and actual price per unit. By calculating the differences, the business can identify whether or not they need to make changes.\n\n## What is the difference between a favourable variance and an adverse variance? (4m)\n\nA favourable variance means that the deviation is in favour of the business, so more units sold than expected, or sold at a higher unit price than expected. This would benefit the business.\n\nAn unfavourable variance is one that occurs in a way that is detrimental to the business. So maybe units are selling for less than predicted, or less are selling in total.\n\n## Explain two reasons why an adverse variance might not be a sign of poor management by the budget holder. (9m)\n\nAn adverse variance could be caused by unexpected external factors, such as political changes. If a new law is introduced that interferes with the business operations, then it may cause the business to have to pay more per unit sold, leading to higher costs and ultimately lower profits. The adverse variance here isn't something that a budget manager could likely have predicted, and isn't something that they should be blamed for. \n\nAlso, adverse variances also occur because of an issue that has occured somewhere else in the organisation, for instance somebody working in sales may have undersold a batch of units, meaning that the adverse variance was caused by their error, not the budget planners. In this case, the company needs to address the protocols in place to ensure that this kind of underselling does not occur in future.\n\n\n---\n\n# Case Study: Budgeting the Eden Project\n\n## What is meant by the term budget ?(2m)\n\nA budget describes the amount of money set aside for a certain purpose. It can be money that exists in the business currently, or more of a prediction for how money that will enter the business should be used. It allows for cash flow to be managed more intelligently.\n\n## Identifying one favourable variance from Table 17.11 (1m)\n\nSoil and plants, including nursery.\n\n## Calculate the variance between the total budgeted cost and the total total actual cost as a percentage of the budgeted cost (3m)\n\n86/74 = 116%\n\n## Explain one reason why firms find it easier to estimate revenue budgets than capital budgets (4m)\n\nCapital budgets are frequently hard to predict, as they can be caused by equipment failure. Businesses rarely have advance warning on when something is going to break, and therefore don't know exactly how much they will be spending on repairs over one period of time \n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialRatios":{"title":"Financial Ratios","content":"\n## About financial ratios\n\n### Key Stages \n\n- Gather data\n- Calculate ratios\n- Interpret results\n- Take action\n\n### Sources of Data\n\n- Income Statement\n\t- Revenues\n\t- Cost of sales\n\t- Profits\n- Balance Sheet\n\t- Current assets\n\t- Current liabilities\n\t- Inventories \n\n## ROCE\n\n- Return on Capital Employed\n- How to calculate\n\t- ROCE (%) = (Operating Profit (or net profit)) ÷ (Total Equity + Non-Current Liabilities)) x 100\n- Bigger is better\n\n- Useful for\n\t- Evaluating the overall performance of the business\n\t- Providing a target return for individual projects\n\t- Benchmarking performance with competitors\n\n## Liquidity Ratios\n\n- Check for risk of running out of cash\n- Current ratio\n\t- **Current Assets / Current Liabilities**\n- Normally presented as a ratio\n\n---\n\n\n## Practice Exercise 7\n\n1) \n\ta) 1.5\n\tb) 1\n2) Avoiding a low current ratio is important for firms to avoid a cash flow problem. If the current ratio is within the ideal range, then should all the active liabilities for the business come up, there would be enough assets to cover the costs and to keep the business afloat. If the business does not have a favourable current ratio, then they are at risk of going into default and possibly shutting down.\n3) A high current ratio suggests that there are wasted current assets. There is no need to have an excessive amount of current assets in the business because it reduces the investment in ventures with a return. If there is a high current ratio, then there is money not being spent that could be invested into the business. ABF plc has a high current ratio , and the ratio is increasing further. In order to maximise the businesses' long term profitability and viability, it is important that they invest these additional assets into their operations. \n \n It is also possible that the business needs a larger amount of current assets than standard, maybe they have lots of temporary equipment that has a high value, but by selling this equipment off to reduce their current ratio, they could put themselves in a poor situation. So it is important to analyse the use of the resources before redirecting them.\n\n4) 5.9.2018:\n\t Current assets: 5,285\n\t Current liabilities: 3,248\n\t RTotal: 8,533\n\t Asset ratio: 0.61\n\t Liability Ratio: 0.38\n\t **Current Ratio:** 0.61:0.38\n\t13.9.2014:\n\t\tCurrent assets: 3,626\n\t\tCurrent liabilities: 2,684\n\t\tRTotal: 6,310\n\t\tAsset ratio: 0.57\n\t\tLiability Ratio: 0.43\n\t\t**Current Ratio:** 0.57:0.43\n\n5) ABF plc has managed their liquidity adequately. They are in a positive current ratio, which means that they are not in any immediate financial risk. They have improved their liquidity over the 4 years between the two datasets, which is a positive sign for the overall health of the business. They are however not at the ideal ratio of 1.5:1, which is realistically very hard to achieve, but they could put resources towards trying to get closer to this value than they currently are. It is financially smart to ensure that their current ratio is as good as possible to ensure that the business is capable of adapting much more dynamically to changes in the environment and to unexpected charges. \n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialRatiosForRevision":{"title":"Financial Ratios for Revision","content":"\n*Screenshots are taken from past exam papers.*\n\nFind [more papers](https://www.savemyexams.co.uk/a-level/business/aqa/-/pages/past-papers/)\n\nSee the answer snippets [here](sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialRatiosMarkscheme)\n\n### Payable days\n\nPayables = Trade Payables / Cost of Sales x 365\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626145027.png]]\n[Source paper](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/sample-papers-and-mark-schemes/2021/november/AQA-71321-QP-NOV21.PDF)\n\n\n\n### Receivable days\n\nReceivables = Trade Receivables / Revenue x 365\n\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626145339.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626145416.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626145307.png]]\n\n[Source paper](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/sample-papers-and-mark-schemes/2021/november/AQA-71322-QP-NOV21.PDF)\n\n### ROCE\n\nROCE (%) = Operating Profit / Total Equity + Non-current liabilities x 100\n\n- Bigger is better\n- Useful for\n\t- Benchmarking\n\t- Overviews\n\n### Inventory turnover\n\nInventory Turnover = Cost of Sales / Inventories\n\n\n\n\n### Current ratio\n\nCurrent ratio = current assets/ current liabilities\n\n- Determine the risk of running out of cash\n- Normally presented as a ratio, but can be shown as a decimal or a fraction\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626150826.png]]\n\n[Source paper](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/sample-papers-and-mark-schemes/2020/november/AQA-71322-QP-NOV20.PDF)\n\n\n### Gearing ratio\n\nNon-current liabilities / total equity + non-current liabilities x 100\n\n- Optimum is between 20-50%\n- Below 20% is too low\n- Above 50% is too high\n- The above is usually correct, there can be exceptions however\n\n*For question, see current ratio.*\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialRatiosMarkscheme":{"title":"Financial Ratios Markscheme","content":"\nQuestions found in [revision questions](sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialRatiosForRevision) have answer snippets here. Look at that page first.\n\n### Payable days\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626150007.png]]\n\n### Receivable days\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626150217.png]]\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626150253.png]]\n\n### Current Ratio and Gearing Ratio\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626151007.png]]","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/Gearing":{"title":"Gearing","content":"\nGearing focuses on long term liquidity and shows whether a firm's capital structure is likely to continue to meet interest payments and repayments on long term borrowing.\n\n**Capital structure** — What proportions of capital originate from each source\n\n\n### Two ways of measuring gearing\n\n- Debt/equity ratio\n- Gearing ratio\n\n### Debt to equity ratio (%)\n\nDebt/Equity * 100 \n\n- Higher is riskier\n- Higher can lead to much more profit, or much more catastrophic failure\n- Lower is safer, but earnings are unlikely to spike\n- The best choice depends on the business\n\n### Gearing ratio (%)\n\nNon-current liabilities / Total equity + non-current liabilities * 100\n\n#### Evaluating\n- If ratio is 50% or above, normally said to be high\n- Gearing of less than 20% normally said to be low\n- But levels of acceptable gearing depend upon the business and industry\n\n---\n\n1) 50%\n2) 20%\n3) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/GovernmentPolicy":{"title":"Government Policy","content":"### New Businesses\n\n- There are many government initiatives to support businesses\n- The UK government supports small businesses by offering New Enterprise Allowances.\n- These aim to:\n\t- encourage more people to consider becoming self-employed as a way to get back into work\n\t- encourage entrepreneurs, employers and retired professionals to consider volunteering as a business mentor\n- NEA is now defunct\n\n### Infrastructure\n\n- The government has a new infrastructure and projects authority they are the centre of expertise for infrastructure and major projects\n- They support the successful delivery of all types of infrastructure and major projects; ranging from railways, schools, hospitals and housing, to defence, IT and major transformation programmes.\n- They work with the government and industry to ensure infrastructure and major projects are delivered efficiently and effectively and to improve performance over time.\n\n### Environment\n\n- The government has a department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)\n- They are the UK government department responsible for safeguarding our natural environment, supporting our world-leading food and farming industry,and sustaining a thriving rural economy.\n- Their broad role means they play a major role in people's day-to-day life, from the food we eat, and the air we breathe, to the water we drink.\n\n#### The Environment Agency\n\n- The environment agency was established under the Environment Act 1995 to act as a regulator to make sure the law is adhered to by businesses.\n\n### International Trade\n\n- Free and fair trade is fundamental to the prosperity of the UK and the world economy.\n- It leads to higher wages and ensures more people can access a wider range of goods and services at a lower cost, making household incomes go further, especially for the poorest in society.\n- The UK's trade with the world is equivalent to over half of the country's GDP\u003e\n\n\n### Impact of government policy\n\n#### On enterprise\n\n- School curriculum boosts interest in business operation\n- Television programmes such as *Dragon's Den* have also encouraged public enthusiasm for running a business\n- Successful enterprise culture with many small or medium businesses (SMEs) is very positive for the UK economy and the government work to encourage that\n\n#### On regulators\n\n- Regulators are appointed by governments\n- Regulators are tasked with monitoring and regulating prices\n- Maintaining high standards of customer service\n- Opening up markets to competitive forces\n\n#### On infrastructure\n\n- Major infrastructure challenges listed by the government:\n\t- Smart Power\n\t- Transport for a World City\n\t- High Speed North\n\t- Connected Future\n\t- Partnering for Prosperity\n\t- Data for the Public Good\n- Infrastructure changes typically require large up-front investment followed by a long period in which these costs are repaid by taxpayers.\n- The National Infrastructure Commission (NIC) was established in 2015 to assess the UK's long-term infrastructure needs and provide advice on how to meet these needs.\n\n#### On international trade\n\n- International trade is vital for the UK's prosperity.\n- The EU used to be the most important international trade party that the UK was a member of, however after leaving the EU, the UK has had to scramble to create new agreements.\n- In 2018, the EU accounted for 46 percent of UK exports and 53 percent of UK imports, so the impact of Brexit was significant and required much reshuffling\n\n### Practice exercise 2\n\n1) An enterprise is a business, started by an entrepreneur with the aims of producing profit\n2) An entrepreneur is “an educated risk taker\", who starts a business by investing their time and money.\n3) Successful entrepreneurs are willing to take risks but also use their own knowledge and understanding to ensure all risks are taken with caution and prior consideration.\n4) Taking risks is vital to developing a business because without taking any risks you cannot --\n\n\n6) Government policy offers subsidies to new enterprises to help them covers their startup costs. This leads to businesses being more likely to succeed, and entrepreneurs to be more likely to make the decision to start a business. Similarly, by providing business advisers for free, entrepreneurs without formal training or skills can consult with somebody to ensure they are making the correct decisions. \n7) Regulators operate in water, industrial manufacturing and telecommunications industries, as well as many others.\n8) Regulators can intervene by fining a company that has violated a regulation, creating a financial incentive for companies to follow regulations. In more extreme cases, regulators can also split companies up into smaller, competing companies to prevent monopolies or duopolies. This ensures markets do not stagnate, and consumer choices are preserved. Some regulators also create artificial competition by imposing tariffs and taxes to give competitors an advantage over a dominant player, forcing actual competition.\n9) Infrastructure refers to the basic resources provided in an area such as water, electricity and internet.\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/ImportanceOfQuality":{"title":"Importance of Quality","content":"\n## Measures of Quality\n\n### Tangible\n\n- reliability\n- functions and features\n- support levels and standards\n- cost of ownership (repairs etc)\n\n### Intangible\n\n- brand image\n- exclusiveness\n- market reputation\n\n## Importance of Quality\n\n- Markets are **highly** competitive\n- Customers are increasingly:\n\t- knowledgable and demanding\n\t- prepared to complain about poor quality\n\t- able to share information about poor quality via the internet\n- If a business can develop a reputation for high quality then it may be able to create an advantage over its competitors.\n\nQuality is every stage, not just the product. It includes:\n\n- the buying process\n- product reliability\n- cost of ownership\n- after-sales service\n\nJust having a high quality product may not be enough. People won't be happy about the product if they have to wait 6 months for delivery, for instance.\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\nQuality Control → Inspecting finished products for any faults and removing them\n\nQuality assurance → Designing a process in such a way that defects do not happen\n\nTotal Quality Management → An approach which recognises the contribution made by everyone in the organisation.\n\nQuality Standards → A system of monitoring achievement in relation to certain targets.\n\n### Not benefits of improving quality\n- better skills for employees\n\n### 3 ways in which better quality may help a business to be more profitable\n\n1) Better reputation means more repeat customers and word of mouth marketing\n2) Higher quality products will likely last longer, meaning that they may provide better value to customers than the competition\n3) People are willing to pay a higher price for a quality product, meaning markups could be increased\n\n### Briefly explain why a business might have an increase in the number of fault goods being returned\n\nIf a fault has occurred somewhere in the production process and has not been picked up by any quality management processes, then they may have batches of products that are faulty and do not meet the expectations of their customers. This may result in many customers being unsatisfied with the product and will likely lead to a spike in returns. \n\nIt is also possible that an external factor to the production process may be causing issues, such as careless handling of the products in logistics, which could cause damage to perfectly fine units and require the business to replace them.\n\n**Other options:** New staff, problems with raw materials, faulty machinery etc\n\n\n---\n\n## Quality and the Law\n\n- Products must meet a minimum standard set out by the law.\n\nThis includes the likes of:\n\n- Satisfactory Quality\n- Fit for purpose\n- As described\n\n\n## Quality Control - detecting faulty output\n\n- The traditional way of managing quality and means a business will be checking and reviewing work that has already been done.\n\nIncludes:\n\n- Inspection\n- Testing\n- Sampling\n\n- Quality control is mainly about \"detecting\" faulty output rather than preventing it\n\n- Quality control can also be a very expensive process as there may be a large number of rejects before a problem is spotted.\n\n---\n\nYou could measure low quality by looking at:\n\n- Customer feedback/reviews\n- Customer surveys\n- Returns\n- Quality checks at the end of production\n- Mystery Shoppers\n\nFor Quality Assurance see the QA doc via search.\n\n## Benefits to improving quality\n\n- If a business improves the quality of their processes ir the products and services offered it may:\n\n - Motivate the employees to be working with better machinery or systems\n - reduce the cost from waste and reworking faulty goods\n - less time wasted sorting customer complaints\n\n## Difficulties of improving quality\n\n- Once a quality assurance system has been implemented it will need to be checked regularly to make sure employees are filling in the paperwork and following new principles.\n- New quality procedures may require an entire company culture shift which will take time.\n- Can be expensive at the start especially if better machinery has been purchased.\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/InternalAnalysisFinancials":{"title":"Financial Ratio Analysis","content":"\n## SWOT analysis\n\n- Strengths\n- Weaknesses\n- Opportunities \n- Threats\n\n\nSW → Internal\nOT → External\n\n## Financial Statements\n\n### Management accounting\n\n- The creation of financial information for use by the internal users within the business in order to predict, plan, review and control the financial performance of the business.\n\n- Management accounting data:\n\t- Revenue, cost and profit objectives\n\t- Decision trees\n\t- Investment data\n\t- Capital structure data and source of finance\n\t- Cash flow forecast and outcomes\n\t- Budget and outcomes\n\t- Break-even charts\n\t- Etc\n\n### Financial accounting\n\n- The provision of financial information to show external users the financial position of the business; it concentrates on historical data.\n\n- Financial accounting data:\n\t- Cash flow statements\n\t- Data on profitability\n\t- Capital structure\n\t- Sources of finance\n\t- Income statements\n\t- Balance sheets\n\n## Income Statements\n\n- Profit and loss accounts\n- Historical record of the income and expenditure over a period of time (typically the preceding year or quarter)\n- Sole trader, private limited company, public limited company\n- Gross profit, gross profit margin, net profit, net profit margin\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230509100900.png]]\n*Example income statement*\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/InterpretationOfVariances":{"title":"Interpretation of Variances","content":"\n\n- The difference between a budget and the actual result is described as a variance. They can be favourable (in favour of the business) or adverse (not in favour of the business).\n- Variance Analysis is the process of calculating and interpreting these variances.\n- Notes on variances exist in [Budget Research](sixth/Business/Units/nd/BudgetResearch)\n\n### Examples of variances\n\n#### Adverse\n\n- Expenditure higher than budget\n- Income lower than budget\n- Profit lower than budget\n\n\n#### Favourable\n\n- Expenditure lower than budget\n- Income higher than budget\n- Profit higher than budget\n\n### Interpreting Variances\n\n- Once a variance has been identified it is important to:\n\t- Identify the cause of the variance\n\t- Consider the effect of the variance\n\t- If appropriate look for a solution\n\n- Possible causes of variances\n\t- Actions of competitors\n\t- Internal inefficiency \n\t- Action of suppliers\n\t- Changes in the economy\n\t- Internal decision making\n\n- Having identified variances managers now need to respond:\n\t- Change budgets\n\t- Staff training\n\t- Reward Staff\n\t- etc\n\n\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n#### Q1\n\nA budget is a **financial plan** for the future concerning the revenues and costs of a business.\n\nBudgets for sales/revenues and **expenditure** are prepared in advance and then compared with the actual performance to establish any **variances**.\n\n**Managers** are responsible for controllable costs within their budgets and are required to take remedial action if **favourable or adverse** variances arise, and they are considered excessive.\n\nThere are many management uses for budgets. For example, budgets are used to:\n- Control income and expenditure (the **traditional** use)\n- Establish priorities and set **targets** in numerical terms\n- Provide direction and co-ordination, so that business **objectives** can be turned into practical reality.\n- Assign responsibilities to budget holders (managers) and allocate **resources**.\n- Communicate targets from management to **employees**.\n- Monitor **performance**.\n\n#### Q2\n\n1) Variance Analysis\n2) Sales Revenue Budget\n3) Financial Forecast\n4) Adverse Variances\n\n\n#### Q3\n\n1) False\n2) True\n3) True\n\n\n#### Q4\n\nSales discrepancy: £50,000\nExpenditure discrepancy: -£11,000\nProfit budget: £255,000\nActual profit: £294,000\nProfit discrepancy: -£39,000£255,000\nActual profit: £294,000\nProfit discrepancy: £39,000\n\n#### Q5\n\n*Why might a sales revenue budget be higher than forecast?*\n\nA sales revenue budget might be higher than expected if the demand in the market is very changeable. If the market is for a product such as masks, then planners before the covid pandemic would not have been able to predict the sharp increase.\n\nA sales budget is also based on extrapolated data, so changes in the real world may differ greatly from assumptions made by a budget planner.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/InventoryTurnover":{"title":"Inventory Turnover","content":"\n**Inventory turnover measures how often each year a business sells and replaces its inventory.**\n*Bigger is better.*\n\n\n### Main types of inventory\n\n- Raw Materials \u0026 Components\n- Work in progress\n- Finished goods\n\n### Calculating inventory turnover\n\nInventory Turnover = Cost of Sales / Inventories\n\nSo if cost of sales was £500,000 and inventories was £50,000 then inventory turnover would be 10 (times per year).\n\nCost of sales from income statement\nInventories from balance sheet\n\n### Receivables \n\n\nReceivables (days) = Trade receivables / revenue (sales) x 365\n\n### Payables\n\nPayables (days) = Trade payables / cost of sales x 365\n\n### Evaluating inventory turnover\n\n- Varies between industries\n- Holding more inventory may improve customer service\n- Seasonal fluctuations in demand during the year may not be reflected in the calculations\n- Inventory turnover is not relevant to most service businesses\n\n### How can inventory turnover be increased?\n\n- Sell-off or dispose of slow-moving or obsolete inventory\n- Introduce lean production techniques to reduce amounts of inventory held\n- Rationalise the product range made or sold\n- Negotiate “sale or return” arrangements with suppliers – so inventory can be returned if it does not sell\n\n### Limitations of Ratio Analysis\n\n- One data set is not enough\n- Unknown reliability of data\n\t- Window dressing\n- Based on the past\n- Comparability\n\n### Why might ratio data not be entirely reliable?\n\n- Financial information involves making subjective judgements\n- Different businesses have different accounting policies\n- Potential for manipulation of accounting information (window dressing)\n\n### What ratios don't show\n\n- Competitive advantages (brand strength etc)\n- Quality\n- Ethical reputation\n- Future prospects\n- Changes in the external environment\n\n\n### Ratios Summary\n\n- Very useful analytical tools\n- Widely used and understood\n- Identify issues but don't solve problems\n- Part of a range of indicators of business problems\n\n---\n*Following is work not notes*\n\n### Practice Exercise 11\n\n- Which ratio would be best for:\n1) how effective inventory control is -\u003e Inventory Turnover\n2) whether shareholders are likely to be happy with their share of the profit: ROCE\n3) whether a business is likely to be able to avoid a liquidity problem in the short term if it can convert all of its liquid assets into cash: Current Ratio\n4) how effective a business is in turning its raw materials or finished products into products with higher value: Gross Profit Margin\n5) whether a business is likely to experience a liquidity problem in the long term: Gearing\n6) how successful the business is in using its capital to generate profit: ROCE\n7) how quickly a business is receiving money from customers who buy its good on credit: Receivables days\n8) whether a business is successful in generating profit from its usual business activities, in comparison to the sales revenue that it receives: Operating Profit Margin\n9) whether suppliers are providing the business with good credit terms: Gearing\n10) how vulnerable the business might be if there is a dramatic increase in interest rates: Gearing\n\n\n### Practice Exercise 12\n\n*Planned responses only.*\n\n1) Explain two factors that may cause the information used in a firm's ratio analysis to be unreliable.\n \n Window dressing is capable of masking the true financial situation of the business, so if used correctly a firm may be able to appear as though it is in a better situation than it actually is.\n \n Financial reports are also historical, which means they only reflect what the situation of the business *was*, not what it is currently. This makes them ineffective at identifying any short term trends or changes in the business.\n\n2) State two types of comparison used in ratio analysis\n \n - Direct comparisons of ratios – works within an industry\n - Historical comparisons – look at trends between companies\n\n3) Explain three reasons why comparisons of ratios may provide misleading results.\n \n - It is possible to manipulate figures by using ratios that place a business in a more favourable light (window dressing)\n\t - The business may choose to try and show their best side in financial reports to increase the chance of people investing in the business and to protect themselves from fear amongst shareholders. \n- Not all ratios are always relevant to all situations\n\t- It makes sense for specific businesses and industries to use certain formulae, however for other businesses that formulae may not provide any valuable insight into the state of the business.\n- Data may contain inaccuracies or be interpreted wrong\n\t- It is possible that a figure was written down wrong or a formula was followed improperly, leading to untrue statistics being used in a financial report. Whilst this is unlikely as these reports should be checked, it is still definitely a possibility. \n\n4) Identify two external factors that can affect company performance. Using a particular ratio, show how it might be affected by the two external factors that you have identified.\n \n - Inflation\n - A change in foreign policy (tariffs/customs)\n \n - Inventory turnover may reduce if there are frequent delays at customs\n - If inflation rose, then people might have to ration their usage of your products\n\n5) Analyse how changes in a car manufacturer's corporate objectives might influence the ways in which a car manufacturer uses ratio analysis.\n \n \n If a corporate objective goes from being breaking even to maximising profit, then switching from current ratio to receivable days might have a positive impact on the business.\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/InvestmentAppraisal":{"title":"Investment Appraisal","content":"**The process of analysing whether investment projects are worthwhile.**\n\n### Annual Average Rate of Return (ARR)\n\n- The annual percentage return on an investment project based on average returns earned by the project\n\n#### Calculating and interpreting ARR\n\n- Calculate the **average** annual **profit** from the investment project\n- Divide the average annual profit by the initial investment outlay\n- Compare with the target percentage return\n\n\n### Discounted Cash Flow (NPV)\n\n**Net present value (NPV) calculates the monetary value now of a project's future cash flows.**\n\n- Discounting is the method used to reduce the future value of cash flows to reflect the risk of inflation or the investment not working out.\n\n#### The Time Value of Money\n\n- Better to receive cash now than in the future\n- Future cash flows are worth less\n- Use discount factors to bring cash flows back to their present value\n- Relevant discount factor determined by required rate of return\n\n#### Calculating the present value of a future cashflow\n\n\u003e [!note] Formula\n\u003e\n\u003e Cash Flow x Discount Factor = Present Value \n\nIf NPV is positive, then the investment is worth doing.\nIf NPV is negative, then the investment is not worth doing.\n\nIf you have a choice between two positive NPV projects, then you want the one with the highest NPV.\n\n### Payback Period\n\n- Identify the net cash flows for each period (eg, a year)\n- Keep a running total of the cash flows\n\t- Initial investment is an outflow\n\t- When does the running total move from negative to positive (outflows)\n\t- When the total net cash flow becomes positive, that is the end of the payback period.\n\n\n| Year | Cash Flow Detail | Cash flow £ | Cumulative Cash Flow | Payback? |\n|------|-----------------------|-------------|----------------------|----------|\n| 0 | Investment (cash out) | (500,000) | (500,000) | No |\n| 1 | Net Cash Inflows | 100,000 | (400,000) | No |\n| 2 | Net Cash Inflows | 150,000 | (250,000) | No |\n| 3 | Net Cash Inflows | 175,000 | (75,000) | No |\n| 4 | Net Cash Inflows | 150,000 | 75,000 | Yes |\n\nIn this case, there is an overshoot. It took 3 and a bit years to reach payback. We can tell because there is more than 0 at the end of year 4. \n\n\u003e [!note] Formula\n\u003e\n\u003e Payback Period = Initial Investment / Annual Cash Flow\n\n#### Benefits of payback period\n\n- Simple and easy to calculate\n- Focus on cashflows\n- Easy to understand the results\n- Emphasises speed of return; good for fast moving markets\n- Straightforward to compare competing products \n\n#### Drawbacks of payback period\n\n- Ignores cash flows after payback has been reached\n- Takes no account of the \"time value of money\"\n- May encourage short-term thinking\n- Ignores qualitative aspects\n- Does not actually create a decision for the investment.\n\n### Calculating and Interpreting ARR\n\n- Calculate the total net inflow from the project\n- Deduct the outlay (initial investment) to get the annual profit\n- Divide the total annual profit by the total number of years to get the average annual profit\n- Divide the average annual profit by the initial investment (“outlay”)\n- Compare with the target percentage return\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/Labour":{"title":"Labour","content":"\n**Labour Intensive**\n- Food processing\n- Hotels and restaurants\n- Fruit farming\n- Hairdressing\n- Coal mining\nLabour costs are higher than capital costs\nCosts are mainly variable = lower breakeven output\nFirms benefit from access to source of low-cost labour\n\n**Capital intensive**\n- Oil extraction and refining \n- Car manufacturing\n- Web hosting\n- Intensive arable farming\n- Transport infrastructure\nCapital costs are higher than labour costs\nCosts are mainly fixed = higher breakeven output\n\n\n## Capital Intensity\n\n### Benefits\n- Greater opportunities for economies of scale\n- Potential for significantly better productivity\n- Better quality \u0026 speed (depending on product)\n- Low labour costs\n\n### Drawbacks\n- Significant investment\n- Potential for loss competitiveness due to obsolescence\n- May generate resistance to change from labour force\n\n\n**Luddite:** A term used for workers afraid that technology and automation will take their jobs.\n\n## Labour Intensity\n\n### Benefits\n- Unit costs may still be low in low-wage locations\n- Labour is a flexible resource—through multi-skilling and training\n- Labour at the heart of the production process—can help continuous improvement\n\n### Drawbacks\n- Greater risk of problems with employee/employer relationship\n- Potentially high costs of labour turnover\n- Need for continuous investment in training\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeadershipOrManagement":{"title":"Leadership or Management?","content":"\n**Leaders**: Inspire people, build relationships, take risks and have followers.\n\n**Managers**: Enact the plan, use their authority, manage risks, have subordinates\n\nBoth are closely linked and one person may have to do both roles.\n\n\u003e Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things - **Peter Drucker**\n\n## Traditional Levels of Management\n\n**Senior Management:** \n- Board of Directors\n- Set corporate objectives and strategic direction\n- Board is responsible for shareholders; led by the CEO\n\n**Middle Management:**\n- Accountable to senior management\n- Run business functions and departments\n\n**Junior Management:**\n- Supervisory role, accountable to middle management\n- Monitor and control day-to-day tasks, and manage teams of workers\n\n### Moving away from Autocratic Styles\n\nWhy is this happening?\n\n- Changes in society's values\n- Better educated workforce\n- Focus on need for soft HR skills\n- Changing workplace organisation\n- Greater workplace legislation\n- Pressure for greater employee involvement\n\n## Blake Mouton Managerial Grid\n\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20220913095215.png]]\n\nThe \"*Blake Mouton Managerial Grid*\" shows how management styles differ between the balance between a concern for people and concern for results.\n\nProduce or Perish Management is also called Task Management.\n\n### Impoverished Management\n\nLaissez-faire style; minimal effort on management; looking to avoid blame for errors. \n\nLow concern for people and task\n\n### Country Club Management\nFocus on creating safe, comfortable working environment with minimal conflict.\n\nHigh concern for people, low concern for task\n\n### Task Management\nAutocratic style, consistent with McGregor Theory X. Workers have to complete tasks - nothing else.\n\nLow concern for people, high concern for task.\n\n### Team Management\nStaff closely involved in decision-making and feel valued; consistent with McGregor Theory Y.\n\nHigh concern for both people and task.\n\n### Middle of the Road Management\nCompromises made to achieve acceptable performance; thought to be the less effective leadership style.\n\nMedium concern for people and task.\n\n---\n\nGood decisions should be made with consideration towards [stakeholders](sixth/Business/Units/nd/Stakeholders.md).\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeadershipStyles":{"title":"Management and Leadership Styles","content":"\n**Authoritarian:** Absolute power to the boss, gives orders, does not delegate responsibility. Frequently used in highly regulated industries, low skilled jobs and areas where there is no time for debate (military, emergency services etc).\n\n**Paternalistic:** Guides and helps subordinates and acts as a fatherly/motherly figure for people. Tends to see staff as part of the family - lots of staff like this management style. Higher staff loyalty is genuinely a result of this. Businesses that are smaller and where the employees have a very close link with their manager frequently employ this management style.\n\n**Democratic:** Delegates most decision making to the group and doesn't directly order people to do much. Everything is fairly open and negotiable. Staff are typically highly skilled in jobs where this leadership style is employed.\n\n**Laissez-faire:** Very little care is taken, employees are told what to do and left to get on with it. Staff have to be very trusted and should know what they're doing for this to work.\n\nLeadership styles are important and should be considered by [new businesses](sixth/Business/Units/fh/WhatIsAStartUp.md)\n\nThis is developed upon in [Management and Leadership](sixth/Business/Units/nd/ManagementAndLeadership.md)\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeanManagement":{"title":"Lean Management","content":"\n## Time based management\n\n- Looks to reduce wasted time\n- Faster development of new products\n- Reduced lead times\n\nRequires flexible, multi-skilled staff and the ability to change production at short notice. \n\nTime-based management focuses on optimising the usage of time to the greatest extent possible. \n\n### Simultaneous Engineering\n- An element of time-based management, simultaneous engineering is a project management methodology. Instead of moving through the project in a linear way, all stages are handled simultaneously.\n- Suppliers will be involved in the process as well, meaning that the final product can be produced much faster—and the time to market can be greatly reduced.\n\n## JIT (Just in Time) production\n- Products are produced on demand rather than in advance. \n- This process is much more vulnerable to supply chain disruptions.\n- Costs are reduced, because less storage space and management of inventory is required.\n- Lead times can be reduced, as products are not being produced in large batches or way in advance, so people could order products and have them in days rather than weeks or months.\n\n## Cell Production\n\n- A typical flow production line is split into many units (or cells). Each cell is responsible for one element of the finished product\n- Cells tend to be isolated away from the main company—potentially being able to manage hiring and holidays internally.\n- Cells interact with other cells as customers, meaning quality is ensured within the production line.\n\n**KAIZEN** =\u003e Continually removing waste from your system\n\n## KAIZEN\nKAIZEN is to continuously improve\n\n### Kaizen morning routine\n- 7.30 - alarm\n- 7.35 - get woken up by dad\n- 7.45 - get woken up by dad\n- 7.55 - get pulled out of bed by dad\n- 8.00 - contemplate life\n- 8.05 - breakfast\n- 8.10 - get changed\n- 8.15 - brush teeth\n- 8.17 - standby mode\n- 8.45 - leave for school\n\n- Optimisations\n\t- ignore dad until shaken out of bed\n\t- wake up later to avoid standby mode\n\n### 7 deadly wastes\n\n- Over-production\n- Waiting time\n- Transportation time\n- Extra processing\n- Excess motion\n- Excess inventory\n- Quality\n\n---\n\nProductivity = output per input\n\nEfficiency = output for all inputs\n\nFirms with a **higher** output per employee are more efficient, but they tend to gain a competitive advantage.\n\nQuality of inputs in the production process can stop the line and lose the company money whilst out of action.\nHaving the right number of staff at peak times will increase productivity overall, because stretched employees are demotivated by being overloaded.\nInvestment in new technology; robots can work 24/7 without rest breaks and so will increase productivity levels dramatically.\n\n## How to increase productivity and labour productivity\n\n**Some** of the ways in which you can increase labour productivity are:\n\n- productivity bonuses\n- productivity deal (for whole workforce)\n- staff training\n- investment in new machinery and equipment\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeanProduction":{"title":"Lean Production","content":"\n**An approach to management that focuses on cutting out waste, whilst ensuring quality. This approach can be applied to all aspects of a business—from design, through production to distribution.**\n\n## In a Nutshell\n*Not quite Kurzegasgt though*\n\n- Doing the simple things well\n- Doing things better\n- Involving employees in the continuous process of improvement\n- ...and as a result, avoiding waste and therefore reducing costs\n\n\n## Effective lean management\n\n### Requirements to be effective\n- Good relations with suppliers\n- Committed, skilled and motivated employees\n- A culture of quality assurance; continuous improvement \u0026 willingness to embrace change\n- Trust between management and employees\n\n### Various methods of lean production\n- Time based management\n- Simultaneous engineering\n- Just in time production (JIT)\n- Cell production\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/M2P5JosieNotes":{"title":"M2P5 Josie Notes","content":"\n## Labour VS Capital Intensity\n\nLabour intensity – product relies on using labour resources\nCapacity intensity – product relies on using capacity resources\n\n# Benefits of Labour Intensity\n- unit costs may still be low in low-wage locations\n- labour is a flexible resource-through multi-skilling and training\n- labour at the heart of the production process – can help continuous improvement\n\n# Drawbacks of Labour Intensity\n- greater risk of problems with employee/employer relationship \n- potentially high costs of labour turnover (recruitment etc)\n- need for continuous investment in training\n\n# Textbook Exercise\n\n1)\tA\n2)\tB\n3)\tD\n4)\tA\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/ManagementAndLeadership":{"title":"Management and Leadership","content":"\n**Leadership**: A relationship through which one person influences the behaviour and actions of other people.\n\n## Leadership Skills\n\n- Confidence (Laissez-faire)\n- Perserverance \n- Decisive\n- Caring (Paternalistic)\n- Discipline (Authoirtarian)\n- Intelligence (EQ/IQ)\n- And many others\n\nDifferent kinds of leader [(leadership styles)](sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeadershipStyles.md) will show different leadership skills to complement their style.\n\nThe traditional view of good leadership (Victorian) is that you will take *Command and Control* and be good at *Decision-making*. However, the more modern view is that a leader will:\n\n- inspire employees\n- create a vision\n- shape core values and culture\n- build effective teams\n\n\n## Tannenbaum and Schmidt\n\nA \"continuum of leadership\" that goes from complete authoritarianism to laissez-faire. \n\nAs you move along the continuum, it moves from the manager telling staff what to do to, them selling the idea and then the next section is consulting. When a manager asks employees about a decision for advice. The final stage is join - where the group makes a decision.\n\nThe extremes of the spectrum are Manager-centered leadership and subordinate centered leadership.\n\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20220912151118.png]]\n*Tell, sell, consult, joins*\n\n**Tells**: Leader identifies problems, makes decisions and announces to subordinates.\n\n**Sells**: Leader still makes decision, but attempts to overcome resistance through discussion and persuasion.\n\n**Consults**: Leader identifies problems and presents them to the group and listens to advice before making a final decision.\n\n**Joins**: Leader defines problems and leaves the staff to decide on a solution.\n\nTo compare, see [Leadership or Management](sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeadershipOrManagement.md)\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/MethodsForImprovingCashflow":{"title":"Methods for improving cashflow","content":"\n### Warmup\n\na) 360 ✓\nb) 540 ✓\nc) 720 ✓\nd) 960 ✓\ne) 960 ✓\nf) -(500) ✓\ng) 1120 ✓\nh) 1120 ✓\ni) -(420) ✓ \nj) 700 ✓\nk) 700 ✓\nl) -(240) ✓\nm) 460 ✓\n\na) 1200 ✓\nb) 1100 ✓\nc) 2600 ✓\nd) 600 ✓\ne) 1600 ✓\nf) 2600 ✓\ng) 4200 ✓\n\n## Cash flow problems\n\n- When a business does not have enough cash to pay its liabilities\n\n### Common issues\n\n- Sales prove lower than expected\n\t- Easy to be over-optimistic about sales potential\n\t- Market research may have had gaps\n- Customers do not pay up on time\n\t- A notorious problem for businesses, particularly small ones\n- Costs prove higher than expected\n\t- Perhaps because purchase prices turn out higher\n\t- Maybe also because the business is inefficient\n- Imprudent cost assumptions\n\t- A common problem for a start-up\n\t- Unexpected costs always arise - often significant\n\n### Causes of cash flow problems\n\n- Too much capacity\n\t- Spending too much on fixed assets\n\t- Very low liquidity on fixed assets\n\t- Worse if short term finance is used\n- Excess inventories held\n\t- Excess stocks tie cash up\n\t- Increased risk that stocks become obsolete\n- Allowing customers too much credit and too long to pay\n\t- \"Trade debtors\"\n\t- Offer credit = grow sales\n\t- Late payment is a common problem\n\t- Worse still, debt may go bad\n- Overtrading - growing business too fast\n\t- Where a business expands too quickly, putting pressure on short-term finance\n\t- Classic example - retail chains\n\t\t- Keen to open new outlets\n\t\t- Have to pay lots in advance\n- Unexpected changes in the business\n- Seasonal demand\n\n### Terminologies\n\nSuppliers:\n- are creditors - you owe them\n- payables\n\nCustomers:\n- are debtors - they owe you\n- receiveables\n\nTo optimise cash flow, a business will look to speed up payments from customers and slow down payments to suppliers.\n\n\n### Managing cash flow problems\n\n- Choose the right source of finance\n- Make and action reliable cash flow forecasting\n- Manage working capital effectively\n\n\nReceivables - Amounts owed by customers\nPayables - amounts owed to suppliers\nInventories - Cash tied up in raw materials, work in progress and finished goods\n\n### Managing amounts owed by customers\n\n- Credit control\n\t- Policies on how much credit to give and repayment terms and conditions\n\t- Measures to control doubtful debtors\n\t- Credit checking\n- Selling off debts to debt factors\n- Cash discounts for prompt payment\n- Improved record keeping - eg accurate and timely invoicing\n\n### Debt factoring\n\n- The selling of debtors (money owned to the business) to a third party\n- This generates cash\n- It guarantees the firm a percentage of the money owed to it\n- But it will reduce income and profit margin made on sales\n- Cost involved in factoring can be high\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/OrganicFVBuis":{"title":"Organic Fruit and Veg Business","content":"\n## Organic Fruit and Veg Business ##\n\n*calculate the marginal cost of producing one box of vegetables*\n- 9/2 = 4.5 (one box)\n4.5+4 = $8.50 (actual cost of the vegetables)\n\n*state the formula for break-even in boxes (units)*\n- fixed costs/contribution per unit\n\n*calculate the break-even point in boxes (units)*\n- $4,500+$10,500+$2,00 = $17,000 (fixed costs)\n- $12 - $8.50 = $3.50 (contribution)\n- 17000/3.50 = 4857 boxes (breakeven point)\n\n## Sibon plc Manufacturers ##\n\n*contribution per unit sold*\n- 4 units\n*break-even in units*\n- 2250 units\n\n## 3 things that you could do to reduce the break even output ##\n\n1. LOWER FIXED COSTS (rent/hire machinery instead of buy)\n2. REDUCE VARIABLE COSTS (increases contribution/unit, however may cause lower quality)\n3. INCREASE SELLING PRICE (increases contribution/unit, however demand may decrease)\n\nEFFECTS ON BREAK-EVEN\n- higher selling price = higher contribution/unit = lower breakeven output\n- lower selling price = lower contribution/unit = higher breakeven output\n- higher variable cost/unit = lower contribution/unit = higher breakeven output\n- lower variable cost/unit = higher contribution/unit = lower breakeven output\n- increase in fixed costs = no change to contribution/unit = higher breakeven output\n- decrease in fixed costs = no change to contribution/unit = lower breakeven output\n\n## strengths of breakeven analysis ##\n\n- focuses on what output is required before a business reaches profitability\n- helps management and finance-providers better understand the viability and risk of a business or business idea\n- margin of safety calculation shows how much a sales forecast can prove over-optimistic before losses are incurred\n- illustrates the importance of keping fixed costs down to a minimum\n- calculations are quick and easy\n\n## limitations of breakeven analysis ##\n- unrealistic asumptions - products are not sold at the same price at different levels of output; fixed costs do vary when output changes\n- sales are unlikely to be the same as output - there may be some build up of stocks or wasted output too\n- variable costs do not always stay the same. for example as ouput rises the busienss may benefit from being able to buy inputs at lowers prices (buying power)\n- most businesses sell more than one product\n- a planning aid rather than a decision-making tool\n\n## plenary ##\nprofit = contribution - fixed costs\ntherefore profit + fixed costs = contribution\nand contribution - profit = fixed costs\n\ncontribution = £15900\nprofit = 22500 - £20650 = £1850\nFIXED COSTS = £15900 - £1850 = £14050\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/PESTLE":{"title":"PESTLE","content":"**P**olitical\n\n**E**conomic\n\n**S**ocial\n\n**T**echnological\n\n**L**egal\n\n**E**nvironmental\n\n## Political/Legal\n\n- A rule of regulation that is legally enforced upon a business can be referred to as a regulation.\n\n### Main roles of business legislation\n\n- Regulate the rights and duties of people carrying out business\n- Protect customers from harmful business activities\n- Ensure employees are treated fairly\n- Provide protection to investors and creditors\n- Deter and prevent unfair competition\n\n### Labour Market\n\n#### Employment Rights\n\n1) National Living Wage for 23 and over: £10.42/h. At 25, you become eligible for the National Living Wage instead of the National Minimum Wage.\n2) The Equality Act of 2010's main areas are: (protection from discrimination based on): sexual orientation, age, disability, non-equal pay, race.\n3) The employment Act of 2008 aimed to reform existing laws and protect the rights of workers by more strictly enforcing basic rights such as minimum wage.\n4) The Small Business, Enterprise and Employment Bill 2015 pushes additional liabilities onto company directors as well as ensuring that public sector procurement is effective and efficient. (Makes it easier for smaller business to receive public sector contracts)\n\n\n### Pay - Right to Equality\n\nRegardless of gender, age, religion or any protected characteristic, people are entitled to equal pay for work of equal value.\n\n## Industrial Relations\n\n- Protection from unfair dismissal\n- Employers must recognise union is \u003e50% of staff \n- Regulation of procedures for industrial action\n- Role/powers of Employment Tribunal\n- EU—Works Councils requirements\n\n## Task\n\n1) Explain the general purpose of legislation from the point of view of a business.\n- To protect workers and consumers from unfair or unsafe practices\n- To ensure that business is conducted properly and honestly\n- To prevent exploitative or anti-competitive practices\n- Stop mergers that could give a single business a dominant market position\n\n2) Explain two advantages of business legislation in relation to competition.\n\n- Monopolies can be reduced and broken up\n\t- A monopoly would allow a single business to completely dominate a market, exploiting the consumers by charging any price they want and not having to innovate. Competition regulation tries to prevent the creation of monopolies through large mergers and through a single business rising to dominate the market. Businesses can have mergers blocked and in extreme cases can be broken into smaller competing businesses by a regulator. \n\n- Anti-competitive agreements can be blocked or removed\n\t- When large companies in a market agree to conditions to not directly compete with each other, it creates an oligopoly. This is extremely damaging to the competition in the market and the choice of consumers, so regulators will take action to break these agreements up.\n\n3) Using an example, explain how legislation related to the labour market might affect strategic or functional decision-making in a business.\n\n- The Small Business, Enterprise and Employment Act reinforces basic employee rights such as minimum wage. This means that businesses are required to pay employees over 25 a national living wage at minimum, leading to increased costs in the business.\n- The business **has** to comply with these regulations, which may force them to cut costs elsewhere. It could also require them to pay even more than the minimum in order to compete and attract a stronger, more motivated workforce.\n\n4) Explain two advantages to a business of legislation related to the labour market.\n\n- Employee happiness will be higher as they know they are entitled to certain rights, meaning that they don't need to worry as much about mistreatment.\n\t- This will lead to higher productivity and will make the business's job of managing employees easier in the long run, because legislature defines how \n\n### Competition\n\n#### Aims of competition policy\n\n- Promote competition\n- Make markets work better\n- Improved efficiency\n- Ensures\n\t- Technological innovation which promotes dynamic efficiency in different markets\n\t- Effective price competition between suppliers\n\t- Safeguard and promote the interests of consumers through increased choice and lower price levels.\n\n#### Main elements of competition policy\n\n- Anti-trust \u0026 cartels\n\t- Elimination of agreements that restrict competition including price-fixing by firms who hold a dominant market position\n- Market liberalisation\n\t- Introducing competition in previously monopolistic sectors such as energy supply, retail banking, postal services, mobile and telecommunications and air transport\n- State aid control\n\t- Policy analyses state aid measures such as airline subsidies to ensure that such measures do not distort competition in the Single Market\n- Merger control\n\t- Investigation of mergers and take-overs between firms which could result in them dominating the market\n\n#### Regulatory Authorities\n\n- In the UK, there is the CMA (Competition and Markets Authority) who have enormous powers to force companies to cancel deals, sell parts of themselves and is tasked with moderating the UK market, keeping it competitive.\n- Most countries and blocs (such as the EU) have their own regulators.\n\n- Other regulators in the UK\n\t- OfWat - Water regulation\n\t- Ofcom - Telecoms \u0026 Broadcasting\n\t- FCA - Financial Services\n\t- ORR - Rail Regulator\n\t- OfGem - General Energy Markets\n\t- \u0026 many others\n\n#### What regulators actually do\n\n- Monitor and regulate prices\n- Standards of customer service\n- Open up markets\n- The “Surrogate Competitor” – Introduce artificial competition\n\n#### Price Fixing \n\n- Businesses may not:\n\t- Agree prices with competitors\n\t- Share markets or limit production to raise prices\n\t- Impose minimum prices on different distributors such as shops\n\t- Agree with competitors what purchase price will be offered to suppliers\n\t- Cut prices below cost in order to force a smaller or weaker competitor out of the market\n\n#### Dominant Position\n\n- A market share of 50% or above indicates that you are dominant\n- Oligopolies behave similarly, however there must be few companies with high market share\n\n#### Abuses of a dominant position\n\nWhilst in a dominant position, you may not:\n\n- Impose unfair trading terms such as exclusivity\n- Excessive, predatory or discriminatory pricing\n- Refusal to supply or provide access to essential facilities\n- Tying \n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/PoliticalAndLegalEssay":{"title":"Political And Legal Essay and Worksheet","content":"\n### To what extent do you think Government investment in infrastructure will impact the strategic and functional decision-making in the UK? Explain your reason.\n\nA lot of modern infrastructure, such as internet services, provide a lot of opportunities for businesses. If the government increases investment in fibre delivery, then businesses will be able to more easily migrate to an internet centred business. Whether this is in terms of closing an office and switching to online work, or whether it means conducting business with clients digitally. If you want to have a meeting with someone on the other side of the UK, then instead of one party having to travel and spend a long period of time being unproductive, a simple web-based meeting could be setup to allow both parties to discuss from their own locations. With higher investment in the internet, this becomes much more achievable.\n\nHowever, far more important is traditional infrastructure like roads. Take a company like Tesco for example, they offer a home delivery service to customers to make it much easier to shop with them. However, in order for them to effectively offer this service, they rely heavily upon roads. If roads are poor, then their delivery vehicles will be forced to move slower and will be more likely to sustain damage. Therefore, Tesco will not offer this service in areas where roads are of poor quality. If the local authority or wider government takes action to improve road quality, then Tesco is likely to start offering home delivery in the area. Not only will this provide an additional service to residents, but it will also provide jobs and additional income generation to the area. Because of this, we can assume that an increase in infrastructure quality in an area will result in an increase in quality of life for residents and an increase in local GDP. \n\nForeign businesses are also more likely to decide to bring their future ventures to the UK if there is a more reliable, modern, and stable infrastructure situation across the country. So investing in infrastructure now may lead to more industry entering the country in future. This, in turn, will provide jobs and value to the economy, whilst also generating additional tax revenues for the government which will repay the costs of infrastructure development and then fund future projects and expenditures.\n\nIt may not always be the best option to invest heavily in infrastructure, however. More remote areas of the UK such as the Scottish highlands are not well suited to industry and are also extremely sparsely populated. This means that any major infrastructure improvements here won't have much benefit at all. Whilst there are people living there, and they would appreciate the change, there are no major business functions that would provide real benefit to the country as a whole.\n\nFunctional decision makers will want to operate near good infrastructure, whilst strategic decision makers may be more inclined to begin operation near upcoming infrastructure improvements in an attempt to reduce initial costs. \n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/Revision":{"title":"Leadership And Management Revision","content":"\nWork on Anki.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/SensitivityAnalysis":{"title":"Sensitivity Analysis","content":"\n**Sensitivity analysis is a technique which allows the analysis of changes in assumptions used in forecasts.**\n\n### Assumptions\n\n**Cash flow forecast:** Timing and amounts\n**Budgeted profit:** Sales volumes and unit selling prices\n**Investment appraisal:** Timing and amount of project cash flows over a period\nEtcetera\n\n- What if assumptions are worse by 10%?\n\n### Benefits and Drawbacks\n\n#### Benefits\n\n- Identifies the most significant assumptions\n- Helps assess risk and prepare for a less favourable scenario\n- Helps make the process of business forecasting more robust\n\n#### Drawbacks\n\n- Only tests one assumption at a time (many assumptions may be linked)\n- Only as good as the data on which forecasts are based\n- A somewhat complicated concept—not understood by all managers\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/SettingOperationalObjectives":{"title":"Setting Operational Objectives","content":"\nOperations is the core of the business. It is the fulfilment of the purpose of the business.\n\nIn operations inputs, such as raw materials go through a transformation process to convert them into the output—the output being the final product or the finished service.\n\nOperations is the transformation process.\n\nExamples of operational objectives:\n\n- Cost/Volume\n- Quality\n- Efficiency \u0026 Flexibility\n- Environmental\n\n## Internal and External Influences\n\n### Internal\n- Corporate objectives\n- Finance \n- HR\n- Availability of resources\n- Nature of the product\n\n### External\n- Market factors\n- Competitor actions\n- Technological change\n- Economic factors (interest rates etc)\n- Political factors\n- Legal factors\n- Environmental factors\n- Suppliers\n\n\n**The capacity of a business is a measure of how much output it can achieve in a given period.**\n\n\nCapacity is a dynamic concept, which may change based on certain factors. For example if a machine breaks it may reduce the production capacity until it is fixed.\n\n\nCapacity utilisation is **the proportion of a business' capacity that is actually being used over a specific period.\n\nCapacity utilisation can be calculated using the formula:\n\n#### Actual level of output / Maximum possible output x 100\n\n### Worked Example\n\nActual output = 127500 units\nPotential Output (Capacity) = 150000 units\nCapacity Utilisation = 127500/150000 = 85%\n\nSo 15% of the capacity is unused, meaning that the business is not as efficient as possible here. If demand has reduced, reducing capacity may save costs, however if people are being less productive, workers may need additional motivation.\n\n## Why does capacity utilisation matter?\n\n- It is a useful measure of productive efficency since it measures whether there are idle resources in the business\n- Average production costs tend to fall as output rises - so higher utilisation can reduce unit costs, making a business more competitive\n- Businesses usually aim to produce as close to full capacity as possible in order to minimise unit costs. Many focus on 95% to give room for handling of issues.\n- A high level of capacity utilisation is required is a business has a high break-even output due to significant fixed costs of production.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/SocialChanges":{"title":"Social changes","content":"### Migration\n\n- Movement of people between countries or regions\n- Immigration – movement of people into the country\n- 1/7 of people are migrants\n### Urbanisation\n\n- Movement of people from rural areas to urban areas (towns and cities)\n- Degree of urbanisation: the percentage of the population living in urban areas\n\n\n### Key Business Implications of Demographic Change\n\n- Rising population will increase demand for goods and services\n- Impact on per capita income\n- Rapid growth in urbanisation in emerging economies is linked with growth of a more affluent middle class\n- Impact of net inward migration on public services—pressure on government spending\n- Ageing population will provide increasing opportunities for businesses targeting older consumers\n- However these changes occur slowly\n- Ageing population has implications for labour supply - how will businesses source their workforce requirements\n\n#### Business Responses to Demographic Change\n\n- Close stores, open smaller\n- Pricing decisions\n- Establishing alliances\n- New product development—throw away society, leisure, holidays\n- New market development—cooking boxes\n- Use of social media and online business 24/7 society\n\n### Qs\n\n#### Identify and explain two examples of how social change in relation to urbanisation and migration might affect business in the UK or globally.\n\n- Increasing urbanisation would increase the size of cities. Bigger cities means that it makes more sense for businesses to deploy more stores in urban areas, whilst closing more remote locations as there popularity would decrease\n- If people are migrating to a country, they may not be adept at communicating in English which could put strain on businesses trying to hire them. Therefore, it might make sense for businesses to either offer to fund English lessons for these people, or provide accommodations for people who do not wish to use English. If the business does this, they can likely increase productivity.\n\n#### Identify and explain three examples of how changes in consumer lifestyles and buying behaviour might affect business in the UK.\n\n- If a country becomes more urbanised, then people will likely reach more affluent lifestyles. This will increase the demand for luxury products and decrease the demand for budget ones. This change could threaten pound stores, possibly encouraging them to offer some higher end items, whilst it will also likely boost more premium stores, especially those selling commodities. \n- As the internet becomes an increasingly popular as a place to shop, consumers will become less likely to make purchases in stores and more likely to prefer online purchases. This will incentivize businesses to provide online shopping options, and possibly even close stores. \n- In an ageing population, the demand for certain products like skateboards will likely decline. Because of this, businesses that sell products targeted at youths will likely need to diversify their offerings to provide value to older members of society, or they will need to outcompete other players in the market to hold their revenue.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/SourcesOfFinance":{"title":"Sources of Finance","content":"\n## Potential Sources\n\n### Long-term\n\n- Finances the whole business over many years\n\n- Share capital\n- Retained profits\n- Venture capital\n- Mortgages\n- Long-term bank loans\n\n\n### Medium-term\n\n- Finances major projects or assets with a long life\n\n- Bank loans\n- Leasing\n- Hire purchase\n- Government grants\n\n### Short-term\n\n- Finance day to day trading of the business\n\n- Bank overdraft\n- Trade creditors\n- Short-term bank loans\n- Factoring\n\n\n## Types of sources \n\n\n### Internal\n\n- Founder finance\n- Retained profits\n- Friends and family\n\n#### Founder Finance\n\n- Cash and investments\n- Redundancy payments\n- Inheritances\n- Personal credit cards\n- Re-mortgaging\n- Putting time into the business for free\n\n#### Importance of personal sources to startups\n\n- Cheap (comparatively)\n- Entrepreneur keeps more control over the business\n- The more the founder puts in, the more others will invest\n- Little red tape or delay\n- Skin in the game\n\n### External sources\n\n- Bank loan\n- Bank overdraft\n- Business angels\n- Loans and grants\n\n\n## Internal Sources—Detail\n\n### Retained Profits\n\n- An internal source of long-term finance\n- A good indicator of the firm's success\n- Allows surplus profit to be used for future activities\n- If used properly, can cause share prices to rise, appeasing shareholders\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Cheap\n\t- No security required\n\t- Independent and confidential\n\t- Shareholder goodwill\n\t- Management of dividend payments\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Impact on dividends to shareholders\n\t- Misuse of funds\n\t- Possibility of overcapitalisation and ineffective use of funds\n\t- Opportunity cost\n\n\n### Ordinary Share Capital\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Limited liability encourages shareholders to invest\n\t- It is not necessary to pay a dividend\n\t- Bringing new shareholders into a small business can add further expertise\n\t- Increasing ordinary share capital can make it easier to borrow more funds from the bank\n\t- Ordinary share capital is permanent\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Possible high dividend payments\n\t- Conflict of objectives\n\t- Loss of control of original owners\n\n\n### Asset Disposal \n\n- Selling an asset that is not vital to the core business to raise capital quickly\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Quickly reduce the responsibility of the business\n\t- Quickly gain working capital\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Sacrifices part of the business\n\t- May reduce ability to compete in future\n\t- May reduce the size of your portfolio\n\n### Working Capital\n\n- Money that already exists within the business\n\n- Advantages\n\t- The money is already available \n\t- No agreements or repayments needed\n\t- Quick\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Requires the cash to already exist within the business\n\t- Isn't guaranteed\n\n\n\n\n\n## External Sources—Detail\n\n### Bank overdraft\n\n- Widely used and flexible\n- Useful for businesses with seasonal sales \n- Rate of interest is always variable\n- Security typically not required\n- Banks can demand immediate repayment, but this is rare\n- Overdraft agreements can be revised and are typically treated as a reliable source of finance\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Extremely flexible\n\t- Interest is only paid on the amount of the overdraft being used\n\t- Particularly useful to seasonal businesses\n\t- Security is not usually required\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Level of interest rate charged\n\t- Flexible interest rates\n\t- Banks can demand immediate repayment\n\t- Paperwork demands\n\n### Loans\n\n- Bank agrees to lend a sum of money to the firm or individual for an agreed, specific purpose.\n- Creditors are providers of loan capital\n- They charge interest and must be paid before any dividends are received by shareholders\n- If a business goes into liquidation, creditors must be paid in full before anyone else\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Easy for budgeting\n\t- Lower interest rates\n\t- Designed to meet the company's needs\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Limitations on amount available \n\t- Inflexibility\n\t- Potential expense\n\n### Venture Capital\n\n- Typically, between £50,000 and £150,000\n- Provided by individuals, usually known as *business angels*\n- High risks but frequently has very good returns\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Suited to high-risk companies\n\t- Venture capitalists may allow interest or dividends to be delayed\n\t- Source of advice and contacts\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Giving up some ownership of the business\n\t- Possible high finance costs\n\t- Excessive influence\n\n### Debentures\n\n- Long term loans made to a business\n- Fixed interest rate (%)\n- Repayable on a selected date\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Very explicit, guidelines and times need meeting\n\t- Fixed repayments \n- Disadvantages\n\t- Finance must be returned by a certain date \n\n### Debt Factoring\n\n- Selling debts to a debt factoring company for a percentage of the full amount \n\n- Advantages\n\t- Quick return\n\t- Works with potential bad customers, not repaying their debts to you\n- Disadvantages\n\t- You don't get the full amount back\n\t- Might damage reputation with customers\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/Stakeholders":{"title":"Stakeholders","content":"\nA **stakeholder** is anybody with an interest in the business.\n\n**Starbucks Stakeholders:**\n- Employees\n- Shareholders\n- Customers\n- Government\n- Suppliers\n- Local community\n- Competitors\n- Pressure groups\n- Charities\n\n\nStakeholders can be categorized as either *internal* or *external*. An internal stakeholder is part of the business, whereas an external stakeholder is not.\n\nInternal:\n- Employees\n- Shareholders\n\nExternal:\n- Customers\n- Suppliers\n- Local Community\n- Competition\n- Charities\n- Pressure groups\n\nStakeholder needs should be considered when making decisions. This can help to avoid resistance to change.\n\n- Businesses use stakeholder mapping to help inform decision-making\n\t- Stakeholder mapping the relative power of each stakeholder group against the degree of interest\n\t- This helps inform managers pm how important each stakeholder group is and therefore how involved they should be in the decision-making process.\n\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20220923144942.png]]\n\n---\n\n| Stakeholder | Example of needs |\n| --------------------- | ------------------- |\n| Customers | Product or service |\n| Employees | Good pay |\n| Shareholders | Dividend Payments |\n| Government | Tax and Regulations |\n| Community | Respect local area | \n| Suppliers | Frequent sales |\n| Financial Institution | Loan repayments |\n\n## Influences on the relationship with stakeholders\n\n- Leadership style\n- Mission and objectives including:\n\t- Financial\n\t- Social\n\t- Ethical\n\t- Environmental\n- Stakeholder power and interest\n- Market conditions including competition\n- External influences (eg, legislation)\n- Business Form\n\n\n## Decision-making\n\n### Hunch\n- Based on intuition, gut feel and experience\n- Key benefit - very quick!\n- But hard to justify for business decisions involving significant risk.\n\n### Scientific\n- Based on data and analysis\n- Downside: time-consuming and costly; no guarantee of the right decision.\n- Increasingly common and automated, supported by Big Data and data analytics\n\nDecision-making is continued [here](sixth/Business/Units/nd/DecisionMaking.md)\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/StockControl":{"title":"Stock Control","content":"\n### Inventory Types\n\n**Stock**: Finished products\n**Raw materials:** Components required to make stock\n**Work In Progress:** Stock that has not been finished\n\n### Challenges of inventory management\n\n- Costly to store\n- Needs securing\n- Climate controlled environment (dependent on inventory contents)\n- Retrieval and deposit\n\nLeading to:\n\n- Negative impact on profit when storing lots\n- Cash flow problem (cash will leave, but money won't come in on stored stock)\n\n\u003e [!danger] Holding too much stock is bad\n\u003e\n\u003e Leads to various issues with cash flow and can lead to perishable goods expiring\n\n### Positives to having inventory\n\n- Avoids production interruptions and inefficiencies \n- Resilience—protection from supply chain disruptions\n- Quality-having a product available maintains customer relations and perception of quality\n\n\n\u003e [!tip] Inventory Ideals\n\u003e\n\u003e Make sure you have *enough* stock, but not too much. Optimise your workflow without negatively impacting your business's cashflow.\n\n## Inventory Control Charts\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/th-1145081636.jpg]]\n*Bar Gate Stock Graph*\n\nThe time between the reorder level and the restock is the **lead time**. This is the amount of time it takes for the stock to be delivered after the order.\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n### Business A\n\n1) Minimum stock level: 20\n2) Reorder level: 30\n3) Weekly Sales: 10 \n4) Lead time: 1 week\n5) Holding buffer stock gives them the ability to handle any increased demands or supply chain disruptions without impacting their customers. This will lead to an overall higher quality service provided by the business, and likely a better reputation.\n\n### Business B\n\n1) Maximum stock level: 1500\n2) Reorder Quantity: 1100 units\n3) About 110 units per week\n4) Lead time: About 3 weeks\n5) If demand declines or the stock is perishable, they will face the risk of wasting stock, which will result in a negative impact on revenue and cash flow. It is important that the business does everything it can to avoid this.\n\n### Business C\n\n1) Daily sales until day 220: about 80/day\n2) Lead time: 40 days\n3) An unexpected increase in demand has caused them to enter their buffer stock and hit a stock level of 0 before the resupply order could arrive. \n4) To prevent this, they could have tried to predict this increase in demand and order more units in the previous order. They could also have seen units were selling faster than usual, and ordered new units early or simply maintained a higher buffer stock level to give them more time to deal with high demand.\n---\n\n## Cost of Holding Stock\n\n**Cost of storage:** Paying to hold all the stock, warehouses etc\n\n**Interest costs:** Money that could have been gained from interest by not holding stock.\n\n**Obsolescence Risk:** The longer the inventory is held, the more likely the product is to become outdated and worth less.\n\n**Stock out costs:** A stock out happens if a business runs out of inventory. This results in lower customer reputation and loss of sales.\n\n\u003e [!EXAMPLE] Why use inventory control charts?\n\u003e\n\u003e The overall objective of inventory control is to maintain inventory levels so that the total costs of holding inventories is minimised.\n\n## Factors that make an effective supplier\n\n### Price\n\n- Often considered the most important\n\n### Quality\n\n- Consistently high quality\n\n### Reliability\n\n- Delivers the correct product on time\n- Goods and services work as described\n\n### Communication\n\n- Easy to communicate with supplier\n\n### Financially secure\n\n- Long-term trading relationship requires supplier to stay in business, also more likely to offer better trade terms/credit.\n\n### Capacity\n\n- Ability to handle increased volume of supply\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/SupplyChain":{"title":"Supply Chain","content":"\nA good supply chain should:\n- meet needs and wants of customers\n- be efficient\n\n## Flexibility\n\n- Flexibility is the ability to respond to change\n\t- To meet a sudden increase or decrease in demand\n\t- Change an aspect of the product to meet changing consumer tastes\n\t- Respond to erratic demand\n\t\t- Seasonality\n\t\t- Fashion\n\t- Flexibility can be improved through managing inventory and supply chain management\n\t\t- Good relationship with suppliers to respond quickly to changing needs\n\t\t- Just in time operations\n\t\t- Technology to quickly change re-order levels\n\t- A trend in increased flexibility is the ability of firms to use mass customisation\n\t- Mass customisation is the ability to tailor goods made in bulk to meet the requirements of individual customers\n\n## Benefits and Difficulties of Mass Customisation\n\n\n### Four types of mass customisation\n\n- Collaborative Customisation\n\t- The business works closely with the customer to meet their precise needs\n- Adaptive Customisation\n\t- A standardised product which can be customised or adjusted by the customer.\n- Transparent Customisation\n\t- This type of customisation occurs when unique products are produced for each customer but these are not identified as mass customised products.\n- Cosmetic customisation - where standard products are produced but marketed to different customers in different ways.\n\n### Benefits\n\n- Higher revenue\n- Cost reductions\n- Greater customer loyalty \n- Competitive advantage\n- Improved understanding of customer's wants\n- Improved workforce motivation\n- Higher profile\n\n### Factors required for mass customisation\n\n- A market in which customers value variety and individuality\n- Quick responsiveness to market changes\n- Ability to provide customisation (a wide variety of alternative versions of the same product).\n- Scope for mass efficiency/economies of scale.\n\n### Drawbacks/Difficulties related to mass customisation\n\n- Requirement for sophisticated information systems\n- Greater expense in terms of IT, capital equipment and staff training\n- Problems with rejected products\n- Unsuitable supply chains\n\n\n## Speed of response and dependability\n\n- Speed of response\n\t- To meet customers needs within a set time period\n\t- Ability to make changes to products to reflect changing consumer tastes\n\t\t- This will only be achievable if inventory levels are low a d suppliers can change order sizes and components quickly\n\t- Dependability\n\t\t- A business operating a just in time system will be reliant on suppliers to deliver the right quantity and quality on time to ensure supply meets demand.\n\n## How to make supply meet demand\n\n- Lots of stock/capacity\n- Outsource\n- Temporary Labour\n- Produce to order\n\n## Practice exercise 1\n\n1) c\n2) c\n3) d\n4) b\n5) A business trying to use mass customisation might face issues relating to lead times, as suppliers may struggle to deliver products on time when changes have to be made on a per unit basis. \n\n---\n\nA strategic supplier is a supplier that is essential for the running of a business, whereas a commodity supplier is not completely essential.\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/TBSContinuum":{"title":"Tannenbaum-Schmidt continuum revision questions","content":"\nTell -\u003e Sell -\u003e Consult -\u003e Joins\n\n\n## To what extent do you think leadership style would be the most important factor in successfully implementing such a controversial decision? Justify.\n\nIf people are able to relate to their manager and have a friendlier relationship with them then they will be more willingly to accept a controversial decision so:\n\n- more team based approaches will likely have a higher success rate\n- more task focused approaches will likely be met with greater resistance\n\nTherefore:\n\n- adopting a more reasonable approach, and listening to subordinates as well as having some room to negotiate an alternative will probably lead to a more motivated workforce. \n\n\n## What is meant by “subordinate”?\n\n- Somebody who is below a manager in a hierarchy, typically directly\n\n## What is the term \"manager-centred leadership\"?\n\n- A manager makes a decision and announces it to subordinates. There is no room for negotiation.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","revision"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/TechnologicalFactors":{"title":"Technological Factors","content":"- In PESTLE analysis, technological factors are variables which relate to the existence, availability and development of technology. \n- This could include things from computational power to engine efficiency.\n\n### Impact on business\n\n- Improved efficiency and reduced waste\n- New, better products and services\n- Advances in communication\n- Improved working environment\n- Wealth creation and higher living standards\n\n### What might the problems in introducing new technology be?\n\n- The cost of keeping up to date with the latest technology\n- Choosing the right new technology\n- Industrial relations\n- Personnel issues\n\n### Practice exercise 3 (NF)\n\n#### Identify and explain one example of the impact of technological change on each functional area within a business\n\n- The warehouse team at a distribution company would benefit from more capable technology. If all the items in the warehouse are tracked digitally, then a phone-type device could be used by workers to navigate to and quickly locate any item. \n- This would lead to a temporary decrease in productivity whilst workers get used to the new system\n- There would be higher costs as the handhelds would need purchasing and powering, and the system would have license fees\n- However, in the long-term there will be increased productivity across the organisation as more orders can be fulfilled more efficiently. \n\n\n#### Identify and explain one example of the impact of technological change on business strategy.\n\n- Artificial Intelligence (AI) will be able to provide lots of previously human only labour at much lower costs, much faster and likely at a more reliable quality.\n- If a business adopts AI as a replacement for a human role, they will likely be able to outcompete other businesses in the area, **assuming that AI is capable enough to perform the role properly**. This will put pressure on competitors to make the same change.\n- This may also demoralize employees, as they may feel their job security has been weakened.\n- The business will likely have to plan for making a smooth transition towards AI technologies at the correct time for each area of the business.\n\n#### Explain two benefits to consumers of the use of new technology.\n\n- Less waiting time. New technology typically increases productivity, as people have to do less manual work due to automation. This improves customer experience because their interactions with the business will be faster and have less friction.\n- Less work, an automated order form on a website is easier than sending an email or a letter and having a back and forth with a sales rep.\n\n#### Explain two benefits to firms of the use of new technology.\n\n- Lower costs. Fewer people are needed to fulfil the same roles, as a computer system can probably take on some of the previously human workload. AI threatens to completely replace many human roles in the future.\n- Greater productivity. Employees can spend their time doing the more complex tasks as the repetitive or menial tasks can be automated. This saves time for everyone, improves employee motivation and makes employees more efficient.\n\n#### Identify and explain four factors that illustrate the pressure for socially responsible behaviour.\n\n- Customers want to buy ethical products. This might be people looking for something like a Fairtrade badge or organic foods. In other industries, it may be a matter of looking for products that are produced without any slave labour, where people across the whole production chain are treated well. \n- Businesses want to trade with reputable partners. If a business is considering a deal with another, they won't want to be affiliated with someone who has negative ethical credentials, and will actively favour businesses with positive ethical credentials. Therefore, acting ethically will provide businesses with greater opportunities.\n- Staff want to work for an ethical business. If a business treats their staff well, and their partners ethically, staff are more likely to enjoy working there, which will in turn lead to improved employee productivity and a better reputation. \n- Markets are not shaped by the business, but by the consumers and the investors. If a business cannot comply with the expectations of both of these stakeholder groups, then they cannot succeed. Increasingly frequently, all stakeholders want business to act transparently and in an ethical way. \n- “The Court of Public Opinion” is an increasingly relevant concept, with the advent of social media and instant global communication, if someone finds something out about a business behaving unethically, it can spread extremely rapidly around the globe and impact a business's ability to function. \n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/TechnologyOperations":{"title":"Technology use to improve operational efficency","content":"\n- High quality\n- Lower cost\n\nIncludes:\n- robotics\n- automation\n- digital communications\n- apps and software advances\n\n## Computer Aided Design (CAD)\n\nThe use of computers to improve the design of products. CAD is frequently combined with CAM to provide a business with optimal efficiency.\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221205120713.png]]\n\n## Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)\n\nTypically, using robotics or some form of automation, CAM utilizes computer systems to control parts of or all of the manufacturing process.\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221205121019.png]]\n\n## Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS)\n\nA full till system, potentially including features such as stock control and signalling to employees to inform them of whats they need to be doing. It includes basic functionality such as products, pricing and monetary calculations. \n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221205121107.png]]\n\n## Benefits of technology\n\n- Testing can be performed without wasting a physical product. thanks to simulations.\n- Efficiency can be improved.\n- Faster iteration.\n- Improvements can be suggested automatically.\n- Inefficiencies can be ironed out quickly.\n- Manufacturing can be sped up.\n- Manufacturing can continue 24/7.\n\n## Drawbacks\n\n- Technology can require high upfront investment.\n- Requires skill to use.\n- Requires maintaining by someone with equipment and training.\n- Dependent on electricity and internet connectivity.\n- Can be too rigid for certain systems—meaning that if a business adds a new product with lots of customisations, it may not be reflected properly on their till.\n- Technology moves quickly, may only last several years before replacements are needed.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/ZeroHoursCaseStudy":{"title":"Zero Hours Case Study","content":"\n1) Analyse the reasons for protests against the use of zero-hours contracts by firms (12m)\n \n Zero-hour contracts harm the workers by reducing their job stability. If their employer doesn't want to give them any hours, they don't have to. This means that many vulnerable workers who need to work so many hours in order to achieve a living salary are not guaranteed the hours they need to work. This will add unnecessary stress to their lives and also reduces their bargaining power, as they may have to persuade their employer to offer the additional hours to them rather than another employee. Some employees have also been cut out of benefit/bonus schemes due to being on a zero-hour contract. These contracts do not guarantee them the same benefits employees on other, more standard, contracts might expect. Because of this, many people on zero-hour contracts suffer from various forms of mistreatment by management.\n \n The industries where greater numbers of employees are being moved to zero-hour contracts are typically characterised by high labour turnover, low employee skill and low morale. Because of this, there is higher absenteeism and companies such as McDonald's would argue that offering casual workers sick pay and guaranteed hours would create additional problems as employees frequently do not attend shifts anyway.\n\n\u003e Feedback: Good knowledge, lacking application, needs more depth\n\n1) To what extent do you believe that governments around the world should follow New Zealand in banning zero-hour contracts? Justify your view. (20m)\n \n In my opinion, the existence of zero-hour contracts is not bad. Many casual workers benefit from not being stuck working a strict set of hours, and it gives employers greater flexibility to adapt to demand. However, older employees or people who are working out of necessity rather than for some extra cash deserve to be protected and promised a certain degree of stability in their working life. \n \n Companies like \"Outdoor Sports\" are arguing for the continued use of zero-hour contracts due to the flexibility it offers their staff. Unfortunately, some employees from Outdoor Sports reported being excluded from the company's bonus scheme, which suggests that Outdoor Sports sees employees on a zero-hour contract as cheap labour rather than a valuable asset. By excluding their lowest employees from bonus schemes, they are forcing people who already likely earn less than the national average to sacrifice the ability to earn more for their hard work. This system seems backwards and is something that should be corrected by the government or a regulator. \n \n It is worth also noting that companies like Outdoor Sports claim that the presence of zero hour contracts enables them to perform business viably, by allowing them to reduce costs and decide upon shifts at short notice. If removing or over regulating zero-hour contracts would genuinely lead to the collapse of employers, then there are other issues that need to be addressed. Retailers reporting slow or no financial growth are already struggling and as the UK high street continues to decline due to the rise of internet shopping it is possible that enforcing strict regulations could result in the death of the remaining physical stores. Whilst this issue would be wider than the one being discussed, it might prevent the government from being able to legislate effectively.\n \n In summary, I would oppose a ban on zero-hour contracts due to the fact that I believe many casual workers do benefit from them and due to the fact that many companies seem to be in a struggling financial situation. However, it is important that workers are not exploited and that appropriate measures, including new legislation, is taken to ensure workers on these contracts are protected from abuses and have clear rights to allow them to work with a bit more peace of mind.\n \n \u003e Accurate knowledge, good response, more depth required, insufficient evaluation (evaluate each point)\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.55952138Z","tags":["business","casestudy","homework"]},"/sixth/Careers/WritingAPersonalStatement":{"title":"Writing a Personal Statement","content":"### Starting out\n\n- Why have you chosen this course?\n- What excites you about the subject?\n- Is my previous or current study relevant to the course?\n- Have you got any work experience that might help you?\n- What life experiences have you had that you could talk about?\n- What achievements are you proud of?\n- What skills do you have that make you perfect for the course?\n- What plans and ambitions do you have for future careers?\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/BuildingBlocks":{"title":"Building Blocks","content":"\nAn algorithm is an unambiguous, repeatable set of instructions that can be followed to complete a given task in a finite time.\n\nProgramming is the process of converting an algorithm into computer code.\n\n## Building Blocks\n\n### Sequence\nA series of instructions that must be completed in order.\n\n### Iteration\nRepeating a sequence zero or more times.\n\n### Decision\nZero or one sequences that can be chosen from a range of options.\n\n\nA [plan](sixth/CompSci/Programming/Planning) is vital to producing a good program if it has any complexity.\n\n# Worksheet\n\nAn algorithm is an umabiguous, repeatable set of instructions that can be followed to complete a task in a finite time. [*5/5*]\n\nSequence -\u003e To carry out a set of instructions in the order that they are given.\nDecision -\u003e To choose between, and perform, zero or one from a range of options.\nIteration -\u003e Repetition of a sequence of commands zero or more times. [*3/3*]\n\n**Definite iteration:** Iterating a set number of times, determinable without executing the algorithm. ☑\n\n**Indefinite iteration:** Iterating an unset number of times, in programming this is usually shown as a while loop. The loop only ends when a condition is met, not when a task has been performed X times. ☑\n\n[*10/10*]\n\n## Exam Style Questions\n\n1. An algorithm is an unambiguous, repeatable set of instructions that can be followed to complete a given task in a finite time. [*2/2*]\n2. May run zero times. (TRUE about iteration) ☑\n3. There are 28 pupils in Miss Green's class. She would like to award each pupil a house point. What sort of iteration should be used?\n\nDefinite iteration would make sense, because we know how many pupils are in the class. In terms of programming, we can use a for loop to assign a house point to each pupil before the loop terminates. This allows us to perform a simple logical operation many times without having to write the logic out 28 different times. [*3/3*]\n\n\n[*15/15*]\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Graphs":{"title":"Graphs","content":"\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628115431.png]]\n\nGraphs are used to represent data visually. They require relations between the data.\n\nCircles or nodes are called vertices and the lines between them are called edges.\n\nLarger graphs might look like this:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628115623.png]]\nIf an edge has a value associated with it, such as 6, then that edge is weighted. Typically, if one edge is weighted, you would expect all other edges to have a weight. You can describe a graph that includes weights, intuitively, as a weighted graph.\n\nYou can also represent data from a graph as an [adjacency matrix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjacency_matrix#Undirected_graphs)\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628115830.png]]\n\nIf a graph would be symmetrical, so all weighted values are equivalent both ways (so A to B and B to A both have a value of 5), then you only need to complete half of the graph, giving you a triangular shape to your adjacency matrix.\n\nThe graph below only defines one value for each route, meaning it would be symmetrical.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628120332.png]]\n\nData can also be represented as an adjacency list, such as the one shown below.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628120204.png]]\n\n\nAn adjacency list makes more sense when there are few connections between vertices as it will use less space.\n\nA cycle occurs if you can move from a vertex without crossing an edge twice. \n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628123235.png]]\n\nA **tree** is another kind of graph.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628123352.png]]\n\nTo be a tree, a graph must:\n- have no cycles\n- be fully connected (one structure)\n- cannot be directed or weighted\n\nA tree will have a root, which is designated.\n\nThe vertexes at the end of a tree are called leaves, whilst the edges between vertexes are called branches.\n\n## Binary Trees\n\n\n### Constructing a tree\n\n- We take the data in the order that it arrives in and add it to the tree\n- If the tree already has a vertex, then we have to compare the data to the previous entry. \n- If the data comes **BEFORE** the previous vertex, we create a vertex to the **left** of the vertex. If it comes **AFTER** the previous vertex, we create a vertex to the **right** of the vertex.\n\n- A tree is typically more efficient than trying to sort your data. \n- Usually used for smaller datasets and stored in RAM\n\n### Tree traversal\n\n#### Pre-order\n\n- Process the root of the tree first\n- Then the left branch of the tree\n- Then the right branch of the tree\n\n- Uses:\n\t- copy\n\n#### In-order\n\n- Process the left branch first\n- Then the root\n- Then the right branch\n\n- Uses:\n\t- sort\n\n#### Post-order\n\n- Process the left branch first\n- Then the right branch\n- Then the root\n\n- Uses:\n\t- delete\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230704145502.png]]\n\n- Process is different depending upon what the program is doing\n- When moving down a tree, you effectively create sub-trees, which have their own root. You use this to repeat the traversal process down the tree.\n\nAnd time for the beautiful hand-drawn tree, with sorted examples.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/tree.png]]\n\n### Storing a binary tree\n\n- You could use an adjacency matrix or list, however a **linked list** is the proper method.\n\n#### Linked list\n\n- Items do not have to be next to each other in memory, unlike an array.\n- A pointer simply indicates where each item is stored in memory.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230706122524.png]]\n\n\n\n\n\n[Computer Science](/ComputerScience)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/LiteralsVariablesConstants":{"title":"Literals, Variables and Constants","content":"\n## Literals\nA literal is a directly defined value. ``\"25\"`` is a literal. So is `true`\n\nIn Python, this is an example of a literal:\n\n```py\nprint(5 + 3) \n```\n\nBoth 5 and 3 are literals in this context, because they are definied exactly where they are used.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220908115725.png]]\n\n## Variables\nA variable is an object with an assigned value that can be referenced elsewhere in the program. It is useful for dynamically updating a value.\n\n`bobAge = 50` is a variable.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220908115815.png]]\n\nNaming conventions should be followed when naming variables to prevent misunderstandings.\n\nIf your variable is called `penisland` there may be issues with people not reading Pen Island.\n\nSo naming a variable `pen_island` would be better. This is what PEP8 recommends, and is therefore the best option for naming variables in Python (if you want people to like you).\n\nConventional naming would be `penIsland` though. Camelcase means the first word of a variable is lowercase and then all additional words in the name should start with a capital.\n\n\u003e [!note] Note\n\u003e\n\u003e Variable names can also be called an identifier.\n\n## Constants\nA constant is a variable that CANNOT be changed after definition. The idea of a constant is to define a reused value once at one point in the code, and then allow for it to be used everywhere. if you want to change the speed of the player in your game, you can change the constant at first definition, avoiding a huge amount of refactoring.\n\n\u003e [!bug] Python does not support constants natively\n\u003e\n\u003e Instead, use a fully capitalised variable name and do not change it. This method is flawed, but it's the best one avaliable.\n \n\n`SPEED = 5.0`\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220908115902.png]]\n\nThe next page is [subroutines](sixth/CompSci/Programming/Subroutines)\n\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Modules":{"title":"Modules","content":"\n## Importing a module\n\nUsing the `import` keyword, you can bring a module into your code. You can then call any subroutines included within that module, in your code.\n\nHere's an example using the `random` module:\n\n```py\nimport random\n\nmyNum = random.randint(0,10)\nprint(myNum)\n```\n\nEvery time you run this script, it will print out an integer between 0 and 10.\n\n## Installing modules\n\nUsing `pip` you can install a Python module from the repositories. \n\nSimply run the command `pip install module-name` to download a module. You can then import it into your program and use it.\n\n[PyPi](https://pypi.org/)\n\n## Making a module\n\nMake a new python file with the following content\n\n```py\ndef say_hi(first_name):\n\tprint(f\"Hi, {first_name}\")\n```\n\n\nThen save this in the folder that you wish to call the module from - *or the Python module library to call anywhere.*\n\nIf you called this file `hello.py` then you can import it using `import hello` and call the procedure it includes using `hello.say_hi(\"Bob\")`.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220913105509.png]]\n*Code to import and call*\n\nAnd here is the output:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220913105612.png]]\n\n\u003e [!tip] Hint \n\u003e\n\u003e Make sure you've saved both files in the same folder, otherwise this won't work. Additionally, you can save the file you want to import in your Python path or environment, with the core libraries. (Or add your modules folder to your PATH variable)\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Planning":{"title":"Planning","content":"\nTaking time to think through what we intend to do will nearly always raise questions and usually helps you to understand the full scale of the problem that you are trying to solve.\n\n## Methodologies\n\n### Waterfall\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220914121626.png]]\nWaterfall is flexible because you can go up or down the chain as needed. \n\n### Lifecycle/Agile\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220914121746.png]]\nA large project may use multiple instances of the agile pan to work on subprojects. It's also possible to cycle around if an issue is found.\n\nMore subject to issues than Waterfall, as waterfall allows for queries to go back up the chain.\n\n### Scrum\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220914122207.png]]\n\nContinuous reviews of the project result in faster problem detection and resolution. Scrum immitates a much more natural working style. Sprints are used to focus on getting things finished bit by bit and allow everybody to stay on schedule.\n\n### Flowcharts\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220914123033.png]]\n\nA diagram that explains the flow of a program.\n\nShapes represent actions that must be perfomed.\n\nThe shapes are connected together with arrows - defining the flow route.\n\nFlowcharts are much easier for the layman to understand.\n\nThe shapes all represent a specific action. In a flowchart, the shape is important. The key is shown below:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220914123717.png]]\n\n### Pseudo Code\n\nLaid out roughly like code, with some form of uniform syntax. HOWEVER - there is not set syntax rules and ideas can be expressed more freely.\n\nIt is more natural for programmers to work with pseudo code than any of the other methods.\n\nNo rules as such, but it is conventional to declare the end of an IF, WHILE or something else.\n\n\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Programming":{"title":"Programming Theory","content":"\nAlgorithms are instructions.\n\nComputer process instructions.\n\nProgramming is the process of turning algorithms into instructions that can be followed by a computer.\n\nInstructions are binary codes that represent the operations that the computer can perform.\n\nSo `0001` could be ADD and `0010` could be SHIFT.\n\nEach type of computer has its own set of instructions - creatively called an instruction set, examples of these include x86 and ARM.\n\n## Programming Languages\n\n### 1st Generation\n- Machine code\n- Binary\n\t- Eg - 0001010 could be the code for `ADD` on your processor.\n\n### 2nd Generation\n- Assembly code\n- One-to-one equivalence to machine code\n\t- We would use a command word like `ADD` instead of a binary representation, because it is easier to remember\n\n### 3rd Generation (or high level)\n- High level languages are portable\n\t- They will run on different platforms (such as Linux x86 and Android ARM)\n- They are natural-like\n\t- A single high level instruction (such as `print`) would turn into many low level instructions.\n\nIn 1st and 2nd generation languages (the low level languages) the programmer needs to know and think about how the computer works.\n\nWith 3rd generation/ high level languages - the programmer focuses on solving the problem more than on how the computer works.\n\n\n### Low level languages\nAlways called:\n\n- Machine code: the binary codes that instruct the computer on what to do.\n- Assembly code: the code word equivalent of machine code\n- Sometimes they may include the chipset, eg x86 machine code.\n\n### High level languages\nUsually referred to by the language name:\n- Python, C, Basic, Pearl, PHP, Java, C++, C#, JavaScript, HTML etc etc etc\n\n#### Why so many?\n- Different languages have different strengths and weaknesses\n- Some are compiled, some are interpreted.\n- Some are focused on particular applications, such as business, engineering or games etc.\n\n## Rosetta Code\nA stone was discovered holding the \"Rosetta code\" which includes a message in 3 different languages, 1 of which was hieroglyphs. We couldn't understand hieroglyphs until we found this stone, however once we used the Rosetta code to translate the message on the stone, we managed to crack hieroglyphs.\n\nSimilarly, the website [RosettaCode.org](https://rosettacode.org/wiki/Rosetta_Code) allows you to compare programming languages similarly. It has solutions to different tasks in many different languages.\n\n\n## Translators\n\n- Source code **needs** to be translated into object code.\n- Object code is combined with other object code to create machine code before it can run.\n\t- Examples of object code could be other translated source code or standard libraries provided with languages.\n\n| **Source Code** | _Machine Code_ | _Assembly Code_ | _High Level Code_ |\n| --------------- | -------------- | --------------- | ------------------------------------------------------ |\n| **Translate** | N/A | Assembler | Compiler / Interpreter |\n| **Combine** | Linker | Linker | Linker (usually automated) Interpreter bypasses linker |\n| **Executable** | Machine Code | Machine Code | Machine Code |\n\nAssembly has a 1:1 equivalence with machine code. It is the exact same, just represented with keywords rather than binary.\n\n## Compiler or Interpreter\n\n- Compiler\n\t- The source code is translated into object code\n\t- This only needs to be done once\n\t- The result is machine code that will run very quickly\n\t- No other software is needed to be supplied to the user\n- Interpreter\n\t- The source code is interpreted by a special program at run time.\n\t\t- The source code, effectively, calls upon pre-built routines in the interpreter.\n\t- This must be done every time the program is run\n\t- Interpreted programs do not execute as quickly as compiled code.\n\t- You must provide the end user with a copy of the interpreter AND your source code.\n\n## Errors\n- When writing code, we should expect a few errors\n\n- Errors fit into three classifications\n\t- Syntax Errors: the grammar of the statement is wrong\n\t- Runtime Errors: the program has received some wrong data that it cannot process\n\t- Semantic Errors (logical errors): the program gives the wrong result.\n\n## Exceptions\n- Exceptions happen when something exceptional (unexpected) happens.\n- This is often an error, although it doesn't mean the error is unexpected\n\t- The programmer can write exception handling routines to deal with these situations\n- Throwing, catching and fatal errors.\n\t- When an exception happens, we describe this as throwing an error.\n\t- Having a routine to deal with it is called catching an error.\n\t- A fatal error would be an error that is thrown but for which there is no catch routine.\n\n- When an error gets thrown:\n\t- The current process gets suspended.\n\t- The exception handling routine is called—if it exists.\n\t\t- If there is none, the program crashes.\n- The original routine is restored.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220928120809.png]]\nThe above diagram shows the flow if the exception is caught. If it is uncaught, then it will just crash.\n\n## Development Lifecycle\n\n- Initiation—what needs to happen. \n- Feasibility study—can I solve this problem? Is it affordable?\n- Analysis—what is the problem? Legal limitations?\n- Planning—how are we going to achieve the goal? What needs changing? Who is doing what?\n- Design—Creating flowcharts, pseudocode, FSMs etc.\n- Development—Writing the code, creating databases etc\n- Installation/ roll-out—Put everything into a production environment, ensure it is working.\n- Training—Make sure the people who need to use the product can use the product.\n- Maintenance—Fixing issues, ensuring performance and security are up to standard. Keeping the system ticking over.\n\nThis is not a rigid list, not everyone uses every stage, and not everybody does them in the order used here. Some people may collapse stages into larger categories.\n\nYou can go back through phases if an issue arises.\n\n[Planning is important!](sixth/CompSci/Programming/Planning)\n\n\n[Majority of programming work is found on GitHub](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingChallenges)\n\n\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingChallenges":{"title":"Programming Challenges","content":"\n\nSee programming challenges from Comp Sci here: [Crispy Fiesta](https://github.com/isaluki/crispy-fiesta)\n\n\n\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster":{"title":"Programming","content":"\n**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Computer Science](/ComputerScience)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Recursion":{"title":"Recursion","content":"**Recursion**—Defining a subroutine in terms of itself.\n\tThe subroutine calls itself.\n\nRecursion ≠ iteration\n\nDanger: the call stack may be exhausted\n\nThe call stack is a stack onto which we place a new stack frame each time a new subroutine is called. The stack frame contains information such as:\n- the state of each variable in the calling subroutine\n- a return address to start executing once the called subroutine is finished\n\n\n\n\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/StateMachines":{"title":"State Machines","content":"\n## Finite State Machines\n An FSM shows the states in which a system can exist, what causes the system to move from one state to another, and what outputs or changes the transition causes.\n\nThe system must have a known (finite) number of states.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220920143733.png]]\n\nFSMs can be converted into a circuit, meaning that they can be used to control things such as traffic lights without the need for actual code.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220920145051.png]]\nStates are connected by transitions (arrows). Transitions should be labelled with the trigger for the transition.\n\nThey can be useful for debugging an algorithm or representing it in a way that people who don't work with code will be able to understand more easily. Start can be indicated with an -\u003e coming from nothing.\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/doorbell.drawio.png]]\n\n---\n## Mealy vs Moore Machine\n\n### Mealy Machine\nThe output is determined by its current state and current inputs.\n\n### Moore Machine\nThe output is determined solely by the current state.\n\n\n\n## State Transition Table\n\nA state transition table shows the current state, the input that is received, the state to move to (next state) and any output produced in the process.\n\nEg\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/mooremealy.png]]\n\n\n| Current State | Input | Next State |\n|---------------|-------|------------|\n| Se | 0 | Se |\n| Se | 1 | So |\n| So | 0 | So |\n| Se | 1 | Se |\n\n\n\n### Producing a table\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/haveago.png]]\n\n\n\n| Current State | Input | Next State |\n|---------------|-------|------------|\n| S0 | a | S1 |\n| S1 | b | S2 |\n| S2 | c | S1 |\n| S1 | b | S2 |\n| S2 | a,b | S3 |\n| S3 | - | - |\n| S0 | c | S0 |\n| S0 | b | S3 |\n\n\n## State Transition Practice\n\n\t![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/transitionpractice.png]]\n\n| Current State | Input | Next State |\n|---------------|-------------------|------------|\n| S1 | I | S2 |\n| S2 | P | S3 |\n| S3 | 1\\|2\\|3\\|4 | S4 |\n| S4 | Numeric Digit | S6 |\n| S6 | Numeric Digit | S7 |\n| S7 | Letter | S9 |\n| S9 | Letter | S11 |\n| S11 | - | - |\n| | | |\n| S1 | I | S2 |\n| S2 | Letter (except P) | S13 |\n| S13 | Numeric Digit | S16 |\n| S16 | Numeric Digit | S17 |\n| S17 | Letter | S19 |\n| S19 | Letter | S21 |\n| S21 | - | - |\n| | | |\n| S1 | Letter (except I) | S14 |\n| S14 | Numeric Digit | S16 |\n| S16 | Letter | S22 |\n| S22 | Numeric Digit | S23 |\n| S23 | Letter | S19 |\n| S19 | Letter | S21 |\n| S21 | Any character | S12 |\n| S12 | Any character | S12 |\n* Not all possible routes are listed in the above table\n\n## Flowchart, Pseudo Code of Finite State Machine?\n\n- Flowcharts are a great way to present information to non-specialists\n- Pseudo code is great if your audience are programmers\n- Finite State Machines are best suited to control systems\n\n## Natural Languages vs Formal Languages\n\nA natural language is your typical-spoken language - English or Spanish are good examples. They are ambiguous and can be interpreted in multiple ways.\n\nWhereas a formal language is like a formula in maths or science and programming languages. It can only be interpreted in a single way and is very rigid.\n\n\n### Algorithms\n\nTypically, an algorithm will use a formal language (or will be much closer to formal than natural). A recipe is an example of an algorithm that can be represented using natural languages, with a more formal structure. A recipe can be misinterpreted, a program cannot.\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Subroutines":{"title":"Subroutines","content":"\nInstead of writing a huge, monolithic piece of code, you can break a program down into smaller pieces, called subroutines. These allow for increased modularity in an application. It also makes it much easier to work on a project with multiple people involved because they can each write subroutines to work together and produce a complex system quickly.\n\nIt is much easier to solve a problem by breaking it down into subroutines.\n\nAll subroutines are reusable, meaning that if you write a utility to authenticate a user, you can call the same subroutine from multiple places, keeping code tidy and reducing time-wasting.\n\nHere is an example subroutine written in Python:\n\n```py\n# Define the subroutine\ndef AddNum(num1,num2):\n return (num1+num2)\n\n# Call the subroutine\naddition = AddNum(1,2)\nprint(addition)\n```\n\nWhen this code is executed, it will return the literal `3`. This is because we pass the values `1` and `2` to the subroutine, which then adds them together. The answer is printed out because we save the result in a variable and then display it with the `print` command.\n\nHere is a demonstration of the program being executed:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220908123946.png]]\n\nTaking this a step further, we could ask the user to pick the values to add together. We would do this using the following code:\n\n```py\n# Define the subroutine\ndef AddNum(num1,num2):\n return (num1+num2)\n\n# This could be more efficient, and will crash if we enter an invalid input.\nnum1 = int(input(\"Enter num1: \"))\nnum2 = int(input(\"Enter num2: \"))\n\n\n# Call the subroutine\naddition = AddNum(num1,num2)\nprint(addition)\n```\n\nAnd the result looks like this when we run it:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220908124522.png]]\n\n## Types of subroutine\n\n\u003e [!abstract] In terms of Python\n\u003e\n\u003e The following uses Python keywords as examples, but the same logic can be applied to any language.\n\nBecause this code uses the `return` keyword, it is a **function**.\n\nThe other type of subroutine is a **procedure**, this would not use the `return` keyword.\n\nA procedure does not return any value to the logic that called it, whereas a function does. This is the only difference between the two types.\n\nA function would typically be used where a response is needed or the status of the action needs verifying. If you do not need an answer, then a procedure may be the best choice.\n\nSubroutines are made out of the basic [building blocks](sixth/CompSci/Programming/BuildingBlocks) found here.\n\n## Task: Write a subroutine\n\nA procedure that:\n- Receive a person's name\n- Adds \"from PHHS\" to the name\n- Prints the product\n- Ends\n\n```py\ndef FromPHHS(name):\n\tprint(name+\" from PHHS\")\n```\n\nNext, a function to convert celsius to fahrenheit:\n\n```py\ndef CelToFaren(celsius):\n\tfahren = celsius * 1.8 + 32\n\treturn fahren\n```\n\n\u003e [!info] Identifiers\n\u003e\n\u003eJust like with variables, the name of a subroutine is officially called an identifier. Also - just like with variables - the identifier should be descriptive as it improves code readability.\n\nTo extend the functionality of a subroutine (or any of your code), modules are very useful. Find out more [here](sixth/CompSci/Programming/Modules)\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/ValuesExpressionsAndStatements":{"title":"Values, Expressions and Statements","content":"\n\n## Value\nA **value** is a single piece of data. It can be used as a [literal](sixth/CompSci/Programming/LiteralsVariablesConstants) or stored in a variable.\n\nExamples:\n\n- 45\n- \"Liam\"\n- True\n- 64.52\n- [\"apple\", \"kiwi\", \"pear\"]\n\nVariables can *only* contain values. So if it is contained within a variable - it is a value.\n\n---\n## Expression\nAn **expression** is an operation of values and/or variables that will result in a value.\n\nTypically, you get a different value output than the input - as you are performing a mathematical operation usually (and most of the time you won't be doing a * 1 operation).\n\nExamples:\n\n- 32 * 4\n- 15 - 2\n- 43 / 7\n- 3 == 5\n- \"hello\" + \"world\"\n- 4 \u003e 2\n- \"hello\" * 4\n- input(\"What is your name? \") * 6\n- ((12 * 6) /4 ) + 8\n\nExpressions are used to modify or compare values. They may contain a function call (ie, `int(3.4) * 5` is still an expression).\n\nData Types do matter in expressions - so whilst you can multiply a string by an integer, you cannot divide a string by an integer.\n\nSo `Bob * 4` is valid and results in \"BobBobBobBob\"\n\nBut `Bob / 2` is not valid and will return an error.\n\nA division operation will **always** return a float - even if the inputs were integers.\n\n---\n## Statement\nA **statement** is any valid fragment of code. (A command, any line of code etc).\n\nExamples:\n\n- print(\"Hello world\")\n- import random\n- 25 == 30\n- if int(age) == 30:\n\n\n\n\n---\n\u003e [!question] Multiple types \n\u003e\n\u003eSomething can be or contain multiple types. So a statement may contain an expression which may then contain a value.\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.59552134Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/BinaryLogic/BinaryLogic":{"title":"Binary Logic","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/BinaryLogic/BooleanAlgebra":{"title":"Boolean Algebra","content":"\nNOT\nXOR\n\n000\n011\n101\n111\n\nNOT A OR B AND C\n\nOR\n0\n1\n1\n1\n\n\nNAND\n1\n1\n1\n0\n\n\n# Adders and flip-flops\n\n\n## Half adder\n\n- The ALU in a CPU uses a half-adder logic circuit for performing the binary addition of two bits.\n- The input consists of two bits, A and B, and hence 2^2=4 input combinations are possible.\n\n- Two output bits are required to denote the sum and the carry.\n- The output Sum(S) is 1 when both inputs A and B have different values.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230130104834.png]]\n\n- S is true under two conditions:\n\t- A is false and B is true\n\t- A is true and B is false\n- The Sum is an XOR operation between A and B.\n\n- The output carry is only 1 when A and B are also true\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230130105236.png]]\n\n## Full Adder \n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230130105758.png]]\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230130105833.png]]\n\n## Expanding full adders\n\n- Full adders can be expanded to adders of any number of bits. \n- *n* full adders shall be combined to form an *n-bit* adder.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230130111135.png]]\n\n## Combinational vs Sequential Circuits\n\n### Combinational circuit\n\n- The output is dependent on the combination of inputs.\n\n### Sequential Circuit\n\n- The output is not only dependent on the present state of input variables, but also on the past state of output variables.\n- To store the past state of input variables, we need a memory unit in the circuit.\n\n---\n\n## Recall\n\n- Two bits in, 1 bit out and 1 carry out (half) - A AND B in -\u003e S AND C out\n- Two bits in, 1 bit out and 1 carry out (full) - A AND B AND C in -\u003e S AND C out\n\n\n1) AND\n2) NOR\n\n## SR Latch\n\n- The circuit diagram and truth table for an SR latch.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203134912.png]]\n\n## Sequential Circuits - Clock\n\n- For synchronous sequential circuits, we require a clock signal.\n- A clock is a type of sequential circuit that changes state at regular intervals.\n- A clock signal synchronises the components in sequential circuit. A positive-edge triggering clock signal is given below. The output responds to the changes in the input only at the positive edge of the clock pulse.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203135721.png]]\n\n### Falling Edge\n\n- Alternatively, a negative-edge triggering sequential circuit can also be designed.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203135958.png]]\n\n## D flip-flop\n\n**Requires the clock pulse.**\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203140109.png]]\n\n- The input and output waveforms of a positive-edge triggered D flip-flop are given.\n- The output Q follows the input D at the positive edges of the clock pulse.\n- Assume the value of Q is 0 initially.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203140538.png]]\n\nD = Delay\n\n## JK Flip Flops\n\n- The input J acts as the set input and K acts as the reset input. When both J and K are equal to 1, the value of Q is switched. \n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203141813.png]]\n\n\n\n[Binary Logic](sixth/CompSci/Theory/BinaryLogic/BinaryLogic)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":["compsci","theory","boolean"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/BinaryLogic/BooleanLogic":{"title":"Boolean Logic","content":"\n\n- Logic gates are combined to form transistors\n- Transistors combine to form integrated circuits\n- The integrated circuit is a silicon wafer that consists of various microelectronic components\n- An integrated circuit is usually made of a single type of gate only\n\n\n### Set representation\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230209115049.png]]\n\n### Order\n\n\u003e Bidmas for logic gates\n\n\nOrder for gates:\n\n- Brackets\n- NOT\n- XOR\n- AND\n- OR\n\nBig Noonoo Xtreme Apetite Orange\nBring Now, eXtremely Angry Otters\nBehold Newly eX Assistant Orthodontists\n\n**If you want to prioritise OR over AND then brackets are required.**\n\n### Commutive Laws\n\n\n- The order of the operands does not matter\n\n\n### Associative Laws\n\n- When all the operators are the same, it does not matter what order they are applied in.\n\n### Simplifying boolean expressions\n\n- Simplifying means rewriting the expression in a way that uses fewer logic gates but keeping the exact same functionality.\n\nA+(-)A=1 - A OR NOT A IS TRUE\nA+A=A\nA.0 = 0\nA.1 = A\nA.A = A\nA.(-)A=0\n(-)(-)A=A\n\n1) A\n2) B\n3) A.B\n4) D.F+G+A.(-)B\n5) \n---\n#### Starter\n\nA AND NOT A IS FALSE\n\nThis is correct because A is TRUE and NOT A is FALSE. So an AND operation on a TRUE and FALSE will result in FALSE due to one of the inputs being FALSE.\n\n## Boolean Laws (continued)\n\n### Absorption Laws\n\n- If a term is ANDed or ORed to itself, then it is equivalent.\n\nA + A.B = A\nA.(A+B) =A\n\n\n\n#### Practice\n\nC + C.D = C\nD + C.D.B = D\nA.(C+A) = A\nD.F + D.1 = D.\nE.F.(E.F+D) = E.F\nA.A+A.1+B.-B = A\n\n### Distributive Laws\n\n- Like mathematical algebra, you should expand brackets where needed.\n\n- It is also possible to expand brackets in Boolean algebra expressions when an expression is ANDed with an expression enclosed in brackets.\n\n- This can often help to simplify an expression (though sometimes it might not—just because you can expand brackets does not mean it is always right to do so.)\n\nA.(B+C) = (A.B) + (A.C)\n(A+B).(C+D) = (A.C) + (A.D) + (B.C) + (B.D)\n\n### Inverse Distributive Laws\n\nAlso known as: **factoring**\n\n- In algebraic expressions you will have seen that sometimes an expression can be simplified by adding brackets, the same is true for boolean algebra.\n\n#### Practice\n\nC.(D+B) = (C.D) + (C+B)\nC.D.(B+A.E) = (C.D.B) + (C.D.A) + (C.D.E)\nA.(B+C+D)+A.\n\n### DeMorgan's Laws\n\n- Two **most important** laws.\n\n### DeMorgan's First Law\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230210123806.png]]\n*Law 1 and Law 2 in a Venn diagram*\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230210123833.png]]\n\nTherefore, N\nT A OR B is the same as NOT A AND NOT B\n\n\n### De Morgan's Second Law\n\nEssentially the inverse of the first law.\n\nTherefore, NOT A AND B is the same as NOT A OR NOT B\n\n[Binary Logic](sixth/CompSci/Theory/BinaryLogic/BinaryLogic)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":["compsci","theory","boolean"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/CharacterSets":{"title":"Character Sets","content":"## Recall\n- Convert 12 to bin\n\t- 0000 1100\n- -12 2s complement\n\t- 1111 0100\n- 12.5 to fixed point\n\t- 0000 1100.1\n- Normalize 12.5 to floating point\n\t- 0.11001 0100\n\n# What is a character?\nA character or a symbol that is present on a keyboard.\n\nA code is generated for each character or symbol while typing on a keyboard. This code is then converted to its character or symbol for displaying and printing purposes.\n\n## ASCII\nAmerican Standard Code for Information Interchange\n- 7-bit character set, can represent 128 different characters.\n- ASCII is English only\n\n### Error checking \u0026 Correction\n- The 8th bit of ASCII is a *parity check bit* which ensures that there is no data corruption. It indicates whether there should be an odd or even number of bits turned ON (binary 1s). If the check bit does not match the rest of the word, then the data is corrupted.\n- The sender and receiver must agree to use parity checking and whether this is to be odd or even. (The parity check could be for an odd number or an even number—usually even).\n\nA *checksum* is a number calculated (hashed) from a long message.\n\n## Extended ASCII\n- ASCII realised that there was an issue only being able to type in English graphemes, so they added more codes to support foreign languages.\n- Extended ASCII code consists of an 8-bit character set, and hence 256 different characters can be encoded.\n- Characters used in European languages can also be represented in this coding.\n\nIt added more characters, but still couldn't fit every character needed for every language. \n\n## Unicode\n- Unicode is the industrial standard for encoding characters in most of the world's writing systems.\n- Initially, this was a 16-bit system (UTF-16) that permitted over 65,000 characters.\n- The number of bits has now been extended up to 32 (UTF-32), permitting coding of several billions of characters.\n\n- The just wasn't enough character space to include all the combinations of graphemes and scripts particularly in far East Asian countries.\n- This system uses 8 to 32 bit per character\n- Because of a higher number of bits per character in Unicode, the files occupy more memory space.\n- A grapheme is a letter.\n- The ASCII character codes for the characters and symbols remained unchanged in Unicode.\n- Unicode is used online as users communicate in different languages.\n- It would not have been possible with older computer systems due to memory limitations.\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/ComputerArchitecture":{"title":"Computer Architecture","content":"\n## Von Neumann Architecture\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221215104812.png]]\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221215105033.png]]\n\n**ALU:** Arithmetic Logic Unit\n**Accumulator:** Does addition\n\n\n## Buses\n\n**Address Bus:** Transmits the address from the processor to the memory or I/O controller. Unidirectional: from the processor to memory and input-output devices.\n\n**Data Bus:** Sends data between the processor, memory and input-output devices. It is bidirectional.\n\n**Control bus:** Signals sent by the processor to control the memory and peripheral devices. Bidirectional: From the processor to the memory and input-output devices.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221215105539.png]]\n\n\n### Address Bus\n- Memory is divided into several fixed segments called words.\n- The words may be sized at 16,32 or 64 bits, depending on the processor.\n- The addresses of operands are sent via the address bus.\n- The results are calculated by the processor and stored in a particular memory location, the address of this is transmitted via address bus.\n\n### Data Bus\n- A bidirectional bus consisting of 8,16,32,64 parallel lines.\n- Transmits instructions and data between the processor and the, memory and I/O devices.\n\n### Control Bus\n- A bidirectional bus that transmits timing, status signals and commands between the processor, memory and I/O devices.\n- Makes sure that data is travelling to the correct place at the correct time. \n- Different control signals are:\n\t- Clock: Synchronise the operations of the computer.\n\t- Memory Read: The contents in the specified address are copied to the data bus.\n\t- Memory Write: The contents of the bus data bus are copied to the specified address.\n\n## Registers\n\n- Program Counters: Holds the address of the next instruction to execute.\n- Current Instruction Register: Holds the current instruction being executed.\n- Memory Address Register: Holds the data address of the register from which data is read, or to which data is to be written.\n- Memory or Data Register: Temporarily stores the data being read from or written to the memory.\n- Status Register: Holds the bits that are set or cleared based on the results of an instruction.\n\n---\n\nStored program concept: Machine code instructions stored in main memory are fetched and executed serially.\n\nGeneral purpose registers are named R0-R12\n\n## Memory Unit\n\n- A memory unit consists of a number of partitions\n- Each partition consists of data and and address\n\n## Read Operation\n\n- To read the contents from any location, the registers MAR (memory address register) and MDR (memory data register) are used.\n- A read signal is sent by the processor to the memory. The contents are then copied to the MDR.\n\n## Write Operation\n\n- To write data into a particular address, the data is first written to the MDR.\n- The address is then written to the MAR.\n- A write signal is sent by the processor to the memory unit through the control bus and the location is written to with the data in the MDR.\n\n## Processor ALU \u0026 CU\n\n- The processor contains ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and CU (Control Unit).\n- The ALU is responsible for arithmetic functions such as addition, subtraction, multiplication etc and logic operations such as AND, OR, NOT etc.\n- The Accumulator (ACC) is the register that stores the result of arithmetic and logical operations performed by a processor.\n\n## Processor: CU\n\n- The control unit (CU) is responsible for controlling the memory, processor and input-output devices. \n- It contains the CIR (Current Instruction Register) and PC (Program Counter).\n- The CIR contains the current instruction carried out by the processor.\n- The PC contains the location of the instruction that is to be executed next.\n- The control unit reads the instruction from the memory, decodes it and sends control signals to the memory and I/O devices.\n\n## I/O Controller\n\n- Each device has its own controller which is connected to a control bus. I/O controller is responsible for receiving the requests from the processor and sending control signals to the device specified for that operation. \n\n- it consists of:\n - An interface to connect it to the system or I/O bus.\n - a set of data, command and status registers/\n - an interface \n\n## Assembly Language\n\n- Assembly is a low level programming language equivalent to machine code or binary instructions on a 1:1 basis.\n- It uses some word like structures to represent the instructions given to the CPU.\n- Mainly used in embedded systems because it is time consuming specialist work.\n- Assemblers translate it into machine code.\n\n- Different CPUs have different different machine and assembly codes.\n- Assembly operations are split into an opcode and an operand—LDR 2A\n\n- Opcodes are instructions. Ie, LDR = Load\n- Operands are locations or data values. Ie, 2A = 42 in Hexadecimal\n\n\n### Assembly Language Addressing\n\nImmediate addressing:\n- The operand is the data\n- LDR R1, #42 = Load 42 into register 1\n- Hash specifies a decimal value\n\nDirect addressing:\n- The operand is the address of the data\n- LDR R0, 103 = Load the data at memory address 103 to register 0\n- This can be a main memory address or one of the registers\n\nOther forms of addressing do exist, but are not relevant for A Level.\n\nAssembly instructions are provided in an exam, you do not need to learn them.\n\n## RISC vs CISC\n\nRISC:\n\n- complex instruction set processors have more and more of the commands at assembly level\n- they can interpret high level languages more directly\n- they run complex algorithms more effectively\n- this leads to more complex chip designs and higher energy use but simpler code conversion\n\nCISC:\n\n- reduced instruction set processors can't directly translate the high level instructions\n- this leads to more lines of code at the assembly level\n- they are more simply designed processors and run simple commands faster\n- RISC processors can use pipelining, simple commands can be run simultaneously\n\n---\n\n## Control Bus Signals\n\n- The different control signals transmitted by the control bus are:\n- Clock: Synchronise operations of the computer\n- Memory Read: The contents in the specified address is copied to the data bus\n- Memory Write: The contents of the data bus is copied to the specified address\n- Bus Request: A device requests to use the data bus, so it can perform a read/write operation\n- Bus Grant: Signal from the processor indicating that the device is granted access to use the data bus.\n- Interrupt Request: An interrupt is a signal sent by a device requesting access to the processor.\n\n### CBS questions\n\na) 9D needs reading. \n- Increment PC\n- MAR 9D\n- Bus request sent to request a read operation.\n- Control Unit approves read operation.\n- Bus Grant returned to authorize bus usage.\n- Memory Read performed to copy the contents of address 9D into the data bus.\n- Data saved to the MDR (memory data register)\n\nb) To write the data 76 to address 99, you would need to:\n- Increment PC\n- Bus request for write operation\n- Control Unit approves write operation.\n- Bus Grant returned to approve write operation\n- Memory Write to store the literal #76 in the address 99\n- Data bus moves data to address and saves it\n\n## Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle\n\n### Fetch\n- The program counter contains the location of the instruction that is to be executed next. This address is copied to the MAR.\n- The instruction is fetched from the memory and copied to the MDR.\n- Then the contents of the MDR is copied into the CIR.\n- The value in the PC is incremented by 1 and the instruction in the next memory location is processed.\n\n### Decode\n- The instructions are decoded so that it can be executed.\n\n### Execute\n\n- The processor sends appropriate control signals to the memory unit and input-output devices in the computer system according to the decoded instruction.\n\n## Registers (RECAP)\n\n**PC:** Program counter contains the allocation of the instruction which has to be fetched.\n**MAR:** Using the address bus, the contents of the PC is copied to the MAR\n**MDR:** The instruction at that particular location is copied to the MDR temporarily\n**CIR:** Stores the currently processing instruction\n\n## Interrupts\n\n- Interrupts allow the computer to carry out many tasks at the same time\n- When the interrupt is serviced, the status of the current job is saved. The contents of registers PC and CIR are saved onto the system stack.\n- Once the interrupt is serviced using the interrupt service routine, the current job is serviced according to its status when it was saved before the interrupt service.\n\n### Vectored Interrupt Mechanism\n\n- Each interrupt is associated with a vector, which points to the code associated with that interrupt\n- When an interrupt occurs, the current values of the registers are saved to a stack memory structure and the processor identifies the type of interrupt.\n- Then the processor points to the vector and processes the interrupt service routine. This technique is called vectored interrupt mechanism.\n\n### Interrupted Interrupt\n\n- Sometimes, when an interrupt is being serviced, another interrupt occurs.\n- The processor may save the status of the current interrupt processing and proceed to service the new interrupt.\n- Another methodology that can be used is priorities. In this methodology, we prioritise the most important interrupts first.\n\n---\n## End of Topic\n\n1) What are the three types of bus and their functions? \nData bus -\u003e Transports data between components\nControl bus -\u003e Carries control signals and instructions\nAddress bus -\u003e Allows referencing of memory locations\n\n2) How are memory locations addressed? Each memory location has a unique ID which allows for it to be referenced through a memory address bus.\n3) The ALU is responsible for various arithmetic and logical functions within the processor. \n4) The control unit controls the memory and peripheral devices through control signals sent over the control bus (lots of control). It also receives interrupts over the bus.\n5) List different registers\n- CIR - Current Instruction Register\n- PC - Program Counter\n- MBR - Memory Buffer Register\n- MDR - Memory Data Register\n- MAR - Memory Address Register\n- SR - Status Register\n- ACC - Accumulator\n\n---\n\n## Processing Speed\n\n- Depends on the speed of the CPU, memory and bus speed.\n\n### CPU Performance\n- Four impacting factors are:\n\t- Cores\n\t- Clock rate\n\t- Cache size \n\t- Processor type\n\n### Cores\n\n- A CPU consists of multiple processing units. Each processing unit is known as a *core*.\n- A core consists of a processor (ALU and CU) and registers.\n- Computers may be dual, quad or higher core counts.\n- As the number of cores increases, the computer has more power to execute multiple programs at once.\n\n### Cores Linked\n\n- As more cores are used, communication channels between cores increase exponentially.\n- These communication channels drain some performance from each core, as every core must communicate with every other core.\n\n### Clock Rate\n\n- Clock rate indicates the number of instructions processed by a CPU in a second.\n- It is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)\n- A 4GHz processor handles around 4 billion instructions a second\n- A faster CPU requires more power and produces more heat\n\n\n### Overclocking\n\n- The speed of a computer can be overridden by the BIOS,\n- Increasing the clock speed of your CPU is called over-clocking\n- There are circuitry limitations regarding the speed. If a computer is forced to work at a higher speed, more than its limit, the instructions might not get executed completely. This leads to data corruption and overheating.\n\n### Cache\n\n- Cache is a small memory part located closer to CPU when compared to RAM\n- Cache temporarirly holds the data and instructions that the CPU is likely to use more frequently\n- To reduce the access time, the control unit checks cache first before requesting any instructions from RAM or main memory.\n- Cache is located directly on the CPU chip.\n\n- Due to the presence of cache, the speed of CPU increases.\n\n### Cache Types\n\nLevel 1:\n- 8KB to 64KB\n- On the CPU chip\n- Fastest access time\n- Smallest cache in the CPU\nLevel 2:\n- Bigger than L1\n- Between CPU and RAM\n- Slightly slower than L1\nLevel 3:\n- Further from the CPU but still closer than the RAM\n- More storage than L2 cache\n\nL1 and L2 cache are dedicated to each core, however L3 cache is shared between all cores.\n\n### Cache Size\n\n- It is important to note that cache occupies only a small space compared to RAM\n- Cache is also expensive when compared to RAM.\n- L3 cache is typically around 4MB\n\n### Data Word Size\n\n- Each word has its own specific address\n- In case of read and write operation it is important for us to know the address of the memory location.\n- The larger the data word size, the more RAM you can use, the more operations you can handle at once, the larger the number of available opcodes on the instruction set etc\n- Typical sizes: 32-bit,64-bit,128-bit\n\n### Embedded Systems\n\n- Programmed during manufacturing stage\n- Users operate these using interfaces such as buttons or touch screens\n- The software cannot be modified, it is typically bult into the physical chip\n\n## Input devices\n\n### 2D Scanners\n\n- Read head moves over the page, detects light and converts dark and light patches into a digital image.\n\n### 3D Scanners\n\n- Similar to a 2D scanner, but also using lasers and building a three dimensional model of the object—creating an asset that can be used in games, movies or any other purpose.\n\n### Barcode Reader\n\n- Read by a laser\n- Light reflected back into the sensor\n- Light and dark areas can be distinguished\n- This is then used to distinguish between different products and communicate what product is being purchased to a PoS system.\n\n### QR Codes\n\n- A binary pattern encoded into an image\n- QR Codes are up to 7000 digits whereas normal barcodes can only store 30 digits\n- With Internet access, QR codes can be scanned anywhere.\n- They are widely used for advertising products on public transport in public areas.\n\n### Digital Cameras\n\n- Microprocessor automatically adjusts shutter speeds, focus the image, operate the flash, adjust the aperture etc etc\n\n\n### Microphone, Keyboard and Mouse\n\n- Not noted, basic.\n\n### Voice Recognition System\n\n- Used in security systems\n- It has software to compare the wave pattern of the sound from the user to the wave pattern stored in its memory.\n- If the two wave patterns match, then the user is identifies.\n\n- Breaks different sounds into *phonemes*.\n\n### Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)\n\n- A technology to identify and track tags attached to items such as cars, animals, bank cards etc\n- Identified using electromagnetic fields without a line of sight\n- Consists of a transponder and an antenna\n\n#### Passive tags\n\n- Powered by the energy from the RFID reader's radio waves.\n- Cheaper compared to active tags\n- Used when reader is less than one meter away\n\n#### Active tags\n- Powered by batteries and can send signals at a greater distance from the reader.\n- Used for tracking catds etc\n\n\n### Sensors\n\n- Read physical information and produce a digital output that cna be used by a computer\n\n## Output\n\n### Inkjet Printer\n\n- Sprays ink onto a page to convert a digital file to a physical document.\n\n#### Piezoelectric\n\n- A crystal at the back of the ink reservoir is given an electric charge and a vibration is created.\n- This vibration forces the ink to be ejected onto the paper.\n\n#### Thermal Bubble\n\n- Tiny resistors produce localised heat that vaporises ink.\n\n\n### Laser Printer\n\n- Uses powder instead of ink.\n- Uses static electricity to print.\n- Prints the whole page in one go.\n- Carries large print jobs out at higher speeds than inkjet.\n\n### 3D Printers\n\n- Layer plastics on a base in a specific way to result in a model being produced.\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":["compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/DataRepFundamentals":{"title":"Data Representation Fundamentals and Maths","content":"\n## Types of numbers\n\n### Natural Numbers\nWhole, integer numbers used for counting. It is an infinite set of numbers - including zero. \n\n𝑵 = {0,1,2,3}\n\n### Integers\nNatural numbers, including negatives.\n\n𝐙= {-3,-2,0,1}\n\n### Rational Numbers\n\nAny value that can be represented as a fraction or ratio is called a rational number.\n\nRecurring numbers like 0.333333.... are also rational, as they can be represented as a fraction (1/3)\n\nIncludes integers.\n\nThey are represented with Q.\n\n### Irrational Numbers\n\nCannot be represented using a finite number of digits or fractions.\n\n### Real Numbers\n\nDenote the set of natural numbers, irrational numbers and rational numbers.\n\nRepresented using the letter R.\n\nImaginary numbers such as infinity are not real numbers.\n\nReal numbers are used for measurement.\n\n### Ordinal Numbers\nUsed to indicate the position of an item.\n\nFor example: first, second, third etc etc\n\nThey are used in array pointers.\n\nCharacters in a string can be numbered using ordinal numbers.\n\n### Sets (Finite)\nAn unordered collection of values and symbols where no value or symbol occurs more than once. \n\nA set is denoted using A \n\nA finite set consists of a number of elements that can be counted using natural numbers.\n\nCardinality denotes the number of elements in a set.\n\nFor example, chess pieces are a set.\n\n### Sets (Infinite)\n\nAn infinite set may be countable or uncountable.\n\n\n#### Solving a set \n\nA = {2,4,6,8,10,12}\nB = {3,6,9,12}\nC = {4,8,12}\n\nA∪B∪C = {2,3,4,6,8,9,10,12}\n\n`∪` is the symbol for union.\n\n### Empty Set\nConsidering sets A = {1,3,5,7} and B = {2,4}\n\nThe intersection of two sets represents the common elements in both the sets.\n\nIn this case, there are no common elements, therefore the intersection of sets A and B is represeted as A N B = ɸ\n\nɸ = null\nɸ is phi\n\n### Defining sets\n A set can be represented using set comprehension.\nThe vertical bar (|) represents \"such that\" and the symbol 𝐸 denoted \"belongs to\" or \"is a member of\". The symbol ^ denotes and operation.\n\n### Cardinality of sets\n\nA = {𝑥 𝐸 𝐙 | -2 \u003c 𝑥 \u003c 7}\n\n### Subsets and Supersets\nIf every member of A is also present in B, then A is a subset of B. This relationship is also represented as:\n\nA ⊆ B\n\nA super set would be \n\nA ⊃ B\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20220915111406.png]]\n\nThink of substrings, sublists etc\n\n### Cartesian Products\n\nThe cartesian product of two sets (P and Q) is written as P x Q and consists of ordered pairs (p,q) where p is a member of set P and q is a member of set Q.\n\nFor example, P = {1,3,5,7} and Q = {2,4}, then P x Q = {(1,2), (1,4), (3,2), (3,4), (5,2), (5,4), (7,2), (7,4)}\n\nUsed in substrings where there is a set of rules to give the total number of combinations possible. Useful for choosing a scheme for a billion user social site.\n\n### Union\n\nAn OR operation between two sets results in the union (∪) of both sets.\n\n### Intersection\n\nThe similarities between two sets\n\n### Difference\n\nA / B represents the difference between A and B\n\n### Symmetric Difference/ Disjunctive Union\n\nThe resulting set consists of elements that are in either set but not in their intersection. \n\nA Δ B\n\n\n[Storing this as binary](sixth/CompSci/Theory/NumberBases)\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/ConcurrentAccess":{"title":"Concurrent Access","content":"\n## The Problem\n\n- Concurrent access is concerned with how we deal with multiple changes to the database happening at the same time.\n\t- This usually hapens because multiple client processes are making changes.\n\t\t- Amazon order processing. Multiple clients are placing orders at the same time. These orders need to update the same piece of information (such as current stock level).\n\n\n## The Solution(s)\n\n### Record Locks\n\n- Each record that needs to be updated is locked by the updating process.\n\t- A lock means that only that process can change the locked process\n- Lock all records needed for the transaction **before** any changes are made.\n\t- Downside: you may need to lock hundreds of records before you can proceed\n- Lock each record as it is updated but always process records in the same order.\n\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Deadlocks\n\t\t- Process A locks record 1\n\t\t- Process B locks record 2\n\t\t- Process A tried to lock record 2 but cannot because it is locked by Process B. Process B tried to lock record 1 but cannot because it is locked by Process A. Both processes wait for the record to become unlocked, causing the program to hang.\n\t\t\t- If a process crashes, then when should records be unlocked? Will they be unlocked?\n\n### Timestamp Ordering\n\n- Each record in the system has a timestamp that indicates the last time it was updated.\n- All changes are similarly timestamped to show when they were issued.\n- Rules to determine if the transaction can proceed:\n\t- If a change arrives that has a timestamp before the current record timestamp, it is discarded.\n\t- If a read is requested that has a timestamp before the current record timestamp, it is discarded.\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Important changes might be lost\n\t- Clocks must be effectively synchronised\n\n### Serialisation\n\n- Only allow the DBMS to process one transaction at a time.\n- Each transaction is processed in the order they arrive.\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Performance\n\t\t- If lots of transactions occur in a short time period then a long queue can build up and it may be some time before the changes are made.\n\n### Commitment Ordering\n\n- A minor tweak to serialisation.\n- Each update is given a priority.\n\t- Stock updates should happen before stock queries for example.\n- The system can also be made aware of invalid sequences of updates and programmed to avoid these.\n\t- For example, a stock check might be given a high priority. Other stock updates that have a lower priority but that happened before the stock stock check may exist and be blocked.\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Performance\n\n\n\n\n[Databases](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases":{"title":"Databases","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Design":{"title":"Databases: Design","content":"\n## Setting up\n\n- You need to understand the purpose of the database\n\n- This means knowing\n - What data it needs to store\n - How the data is going to be used\n - What the relationships are between different pieces of data\n\n- We start by talking to the customer to get as complete a picture as we can\n\n## Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)\n\n- Once we've spoken to our customer, or even as we speak to our customer, we make an ERD.\n\n- This shows which entities the system needs to model.\n - It also shows the relationships between these entities.\n\n**Example:** *A school has classes that are taught by a single teacher and attended by one or more students. Each class is taught in a single room. Students can study more than one subject but teachers can only teach one subject.*\n\n\u003e Identify the entities.\n \n- What is an entity is a discussion, not a given. Things that the database needs to track are entities.\n- Some entities may be physical—such as a teacher—whilst some are just concepts—such as a subject.\n\n\n**Entities:** school, classes, teacher, room, students, subject\n\nThe school may want additional entities, such as reports, registers, books, invoices etc. It simply depends upon the use case for the database and what the school wishes to track/do with the database.\n\nSome entities may not be needed. So for instance a school would not be required in this database as all data is stored solely for the school—if multiple schools needed to use this database then the school entity might make sense. So we can exclude **school** from our entity list.\n\nNext, we take **all** of the entities and think about how they are related to **all other** entities.\n\n### Naming conventions\n\nEntities should be named in a uniform way. The convention is to be consistent, and people typically name everything in the singular. \n\nSo we would store *classes* as *class* and *students* as *student*.\n\nThis does not technically matter in terms of database performance or functionality, it's just something that makes it easier for humans to understand.\n\n### Relationships\n\nThere are 3 types of relationship possible between entities.\n\n#### One-to-one\n\n- For each single item a link exists to another single item. \n- So one alarm links to one house. An alarm cannot be installed in multiple houses, and the imaginary security company only installs one alarm per house.\n\n#### One-to-many\n\n- For one single item, a link exists to multiple other items. \n- For example, a supplier may have mutliple products.\n\nHeinz is the supplier of baked beans and ketchup. However ketchup and baked beans only have 1 supplier, whilst Heinz has 2 products in this scenario.\n\n*Each product can only have 1 supplier.*\n\n#### Many-to-many\n\n- For each single instance, there are links to and from multiple other instances of a different entity.\n- A subject can be taught by many teachers, and teachers can teach many subjects.\n\n![Relationship Types](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/img/relationshiptypes.png)\n\n\u003e [!caution]\n\u003e Avoid any relationship except one-to-many.\n\u003e It is significantly easier to work with one-to-many and it makes your database more flexible.\n\n---\n\nMany-to-many relationships are difficult to model.\n\nSo we break up the relationship and make a link entity\n\nSo instead of having a many-to-many link between *subject* and *teacher*, we have a one-to-many relationship between *teacher* and *subject teacher* and *subject* and *subject teacher*. This reduces wasted space to 0 in our model and also makes queries easier to manage.\n\nWith a one-to-one relationship, there is exactly one instance of each entity for each instance of another entity. Although this is OK and does provide the possibility to expand the system in future, it might make sense to combine the two.\n\nSo *House* and *Alarm* (with a one-to-one relationship) could be replaced with a single entity called *Alarm Installation*.\n\n\n\nNormalization is required to ensure that data is stored in the most proper way. So for any one data point, there is only one way it should be stored.\n\nIf the same type of information is stored more than once - ie, product details for an order, then this is a **repeating group**. It should NOT be stored in the same entity as the order. So you would make a new entity to store the repeating group.\n\nAn instance of the repeating group entity will be created for every new line required.\n\n\n---\n\n## Data Dictionary\n\n- Once we know what the entities are, we need to identify their attributes.\n- This means working out what information we need to store about each entity and what data type we need to store this as.\n- We would also need to consider, at this stage, what validation rules would be needed for each attribute.\n\n### Primary Key Fields\n\n- For each instance of an entity we need some way of identifying it\n\t- Each pupil needs an ID\n\t- Each car needs an ID\n\t- etc\n- The information we use to identify a single instance of the entity must be unique\n- Sometimes there exists some attribute that fulfils this requirement.\n\t- The VIN on a car for example\n- But often, and sometimes even if an attribute could be used, we want to make our own unique ID.\n\n- The ID value when seen in the entity that is identifying is called the **Primary key**.\n- When used in another entity, it is used to link two things together and is called a **Foreign key**.\n\n\n- Sometimes we can't use a single attribute to uniquely identify an instance of an entity.\n- In this case we might need to use two or more attributes.\n- This is called a **Composite Key** (sometimes a *Compound Key*).\n\n- A key can be a primary key **and** a foreign key.\n\nKeys are how we create relationships in a relational database.\n\n## Normalization\n\n- We've identified the entities and the data that we think should be stored in them.\n- Normalization is the process of ensuring that the data is stored in the most efficient way possible.\n- When we're finished, the data is said to be in Third Normal Form.\n\t- First and Second Normal form are not relevant.\n\n\u003e [!tip] Important\n\u003e\n\u003e A database is in third normal form if every attribute in every entity is dependant on the key, the whole key, and nothing but the key.\n\n*Reference to the key is primary or composite key.*\n\n### Third Normal Form\n\n- We make sure that each entity only has attributes that depend on the whole key.\n- Remove any repeating groups.\n- We make sure that we have no many-to-many relationships.\n- All data is atomic\n\t- Atomic meaning that no attribute contains more than one piece of information\n\nA name is not atomic because it contains at least 2 pieces of information \"FirstName\" and \"LastName\". Storing it just as \"Name\" would be possible, but would greatly complicate things later on. \n\nIt is also possible to break information into more pieces of information than necessary. For example, if your address was “23 Chester Close\"” you might try and break it down into \"23\" and \"Chester Close\". However as it is the first line of their address, it is a single piece of information. This does depend upon use case of course, because if you just want to find people living on a certain street, then you might wish to collect street names as seperate entities.\n\n## Reasons for normalization\n\n- Eliminate duplication\n\t- Make sure each piece of information is only stored once\n\t\t- Only store the customer details once\n\t\t- Don't store the same details in another table\n\t\t- Link back to the customer entity with a foreign key\n- Eliminate redundancy\n\t- Storing the same information twice but in different forms\n\t\t- Storing an engine power in horsepower and torques\n\t\t- Storing a length in meters and feet\n- Eliminate anomalies (insertion, update or delete)\n\t- If there are no duplications, we can't get anomalies\n\t\t- I have a customer's address stored twice in two entities\n\t\t- When I update this information I only update one instance\n- Eliminate inconsistencies\n\t- An inconsistency is the result of an anomaly.\n\t\t- Having had the anomaly mentioned above I now have two addresses for the same customer\n\t\t- How would I determine which one is correct?\n\n- To improve database performance\n\t- Reduce storage requirements\n\t\t- No duplication means less data\n\t- Increase operation speed (lookup, update, delete)\n\t\t- No duplication or redundancy makes operations simpler and use less resources\n\n\n\n[Databases](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":["compsci","theory","databases"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Overview":{"title":"Databases: Overview","content":"\n## Data vs Information\n\n### Data\n\n- Values from a source where there is no context.\n - 16.7\n - True\n - Baker\n\n### Information\n\n- Values given context and therefore meaning.\n - Today's maximum temperature is 16.7 celcius\n - Are you passing your course? true\n - Customer's Last Name: Baker\n\nBecause of this, it would make more sense to describe a database as an \"informationbase\".\n\n\n\u003e Knowledge is power.\n\n\n\n## What is a database?\n\n- Put simply it is\n - persistent - it's not volatile\n - organised - we know where things are and where things go\n - information - it has context so we can make sense of it\n\n## Why are databases used?\n\n- Provide a centralised store for all of our information.\n - Making sure that all users can see the same data.\n- Allow fast and accurate access to the information.\n - For analysis and reporting.\n- Allow multi-user access.\n - From different locations and devices.\n- Keep the data accurate.\n - Validating the inputs and only storing each piece of information once.\n- Keeping the data secure.\n - Authenticating users and only showing them data they're allowed to see.\n\n\n---\n\n## Legalities\n\n- The law says that data must be secure and accurate\n - Data Protection Act (DPA)\n - General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)\n\n- We must ensure that they stay accurate, not just because the law says so. \n - If you move house, it is important that your bank knows this.\n - If I delete a supplier from my system, what about products that they sold us and that we sold onto our customers?\n\nResponsibility for the safety of information relies partially on the organisation to set and enforce policies, but the individual can be liable if they go against their organisation's policies. \n\nIf someone has information stored about you, then they are legally required to give it all to you upon request within a reasonable amount of time. Some organisations are exempt from this, such as the police and various security services. Information may be withheld if the usecase of the requester is suspected to be malicious, however this becomes more complex as anyone you have data on still has their rights. \n\nOrphaned data is information that has been disconnected from linked data points. So if you have a product from a supplier and you delete the supplier from your database, then the product has no supplier. This means that the product would be orphaned.\n\n\n\n## Worksheet\n\n### Farm\n\nA databse may be used on a farm to keep track of the status of various crops, equipment and balances. This data would be useful to help the farm analyse where their money comes from by identifying the most profitable crops - and then linking this to the equipment used for those crops. Later this may lead to the farm making different decisions based on how they want to operate, for instance they may not want to grow certain crops or use certain equipment if they have identified any potential issues with it. Automatic management of different stock levels (fertilisers etc) could also be enabled through the use of a database combined with automation.\n\n### Website\n\nA website may wish to track visitors to the site and store this information in a database. If, for example, the website was providing a media sharing service, then this analytical data could be used to find out what media is most popular in different regions. This could help the website target their advertising to these regions, and ensure that any local languages are supported. Additionally, it may be possible for the website to decide where to focus development efforts when they see that 70% of their traffic comes from users on mobile devices. This means it would be a good idea for them to put resources into improving their website experience on mobile form factors.\n\n### Restaurant\n\nIf a restaurant serves 60 different dishes, there will likely be dishes that are more popular than others. If every time somebody orders something it is recorded in a database, then it would be possible for the restaurant to ensure that they always have the correct ingredients avaliable to provide customers with their favourite dinner dishes on Thursdays. Additionally, it would allow the restaurant to review the performance of different dishes and remove less popular ones from their menu. Another datapoint that the restaurant could get from collecting this information is populatirty based on time and day. They could look at when the most orders are coming in and ensure that they always have enough staff on shift on a Saturday morning whilst also making sure that on a Monday morning they have a much more minimal staff, optimising both costs and customer experience.\n\n\n### The Law\n\n1) Describe the nature of content and purpose\n2) Assess the necessity and compliance measures\n3) Identify and evaluate potential risks to data subjects\n4) Identify any additional actions that could mitigate those risks\n\n### Database Management Systems\n\n- Provides additional security\n- Sharing of data and multi user transaction processing becomes possible\n\n- Allow remote access of data\n - Enables applications and employees to work across the world\n\n- Greatly simplified bulk operations and queries\n - Runs queries and operations much faster due to a dedicated design\n\n\n- DBMS are more complex than flat files - a standard user cannot directly interface with it.\n\n[Databases](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases)\n\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":["compsci","theory","databases"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/SQL":{"title":"Databases: SQL","content":"\n## What is SQL?\n\n- Structured Query Language\n\t- A fourth generation programming language\n\t\t- The programmer expresses the problem, not the solution\n\t\t- The system already knows how to solve the problem\n\t- Used to manage databases\n\t- Used to manipulate the data in databases\n\t\t- Add, edit, delete.\n\t- Can be pronounced S-Q-L or sequel.\n\n\u003e [!info] Recap - Programming Language Hierarchy\n\u003e\n\u003e **1st generation:** Binary/machine code\n\u003e \n\u003e **2nd generation:** Assembly\n\u003e \n\u003e **3rd generation:** Python/C/Java etc (most languages are here)\n\u003e \n\u003e **4th generation:** SQL, HTML\n\n4th generation languages expect you to describe a problem, and the language will deal with finding the solution to solve the problem. Whereas 3rd generation languages require you to describe the solution to a problem.\n\n## Terminology Changes\n\nWhen you move from the design phase to the actual database phase, some terminology needs to be changed.\n\n| Design Phase | Actual Database |\n|--------------|----------------------|\n| Entity | Table or relation |\n| Attribute | Field or column |\n| Instance | Record, tuple or row |\n\nThe most commonly used words for each term are: *table, field and record*. Some people may use other terms.\n\nAny terminology not listed in the above table will stay the same regardless.\n\n## Using SQL\n\n- SQL has two subsets of the language\n\t- A data definition language or DDL\n\t\t- This is a subset of SQL that is concerned with making and managing the database\n\t\t\t- Creating, modifying and deleting databases and tables\n\t\t\t- Creating users and assigning their rights\n\t- A data manipulation language or DML\n\t\t- This is the other subset of SQL that is concerned with managing the data in the database\n\t\t\t- Adding, modifying and deleting individual records\n\t\t\t- Searching for data according to specific criteria\n\nDDL is more for administrative purposes, whereas DML is more designed for users.\n\nDDL contains very dangerous commands, such as `DROP *` in SQL, which would immediately delete everything.\n\nMultiple databases may be hosted on the same DBMS, a hosting company may even host multiple different company's data on a single DBMS. Therefore, giving DDL permissions to anyone who doesn't **absolutely require** them and **completely understand** what they are doing is a **very bad idea**.\n\nDDL commands will typically need to be tested on staging environments thoroughly before being run on live/production environments.\n\n\n## Database Management Systems (DBMS)\n\n- This is the name given to the software that we use to:\n\t- Create a database\n\t- Add information to a database\n\t- Query the database\n\t- Update the database\n\t- Delete information from the database\n- Your programs send messages to and receive responses from the DBMS.\n- The DBMS interfaces directly with the data (stored on a HDD or other secondary storage device.)\n\n\n[Databases](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":["compsci","theory","databases"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/SQLAndPython":{"title":"SQL And Python","content":"\n## The Basics\n\n- Python is the language you use to define how to solve a problem\n- In solving the problem, it is very common to need to access a database\n- SQL is the language that we use to define the database problem that needs solving\n- Python and most other languages provide modules to allow you to issue SQL commands to a database and read the results back\n- This means having one source file with two programming languages in it (Python and SQL)\n\n- Python supports many DBMS\n\n*Some* examples include:\n\n- SQLite\n\t- Very basic, single access, limited data types. Included with Python.\n- MySQL\n\t- Very popular, very sophisticated DBMS. Free and used on lots of web servers.\n- MS SQL\n\t- Very popular, very sophisticated. Has a free express version. Used by many businesses and some webservers. Produced by Microsoft.\n- Access\n\t- A graphical database system produced by Microsoft. Highly unrecommended for most use cases. Does not stick to Microsoft standards.\n\n\n## Connecting to a database with Python\n\n- Connect to the DBMS\n- Issue SQL commands or queries\n- Read and process results\n\t- You only need to do this for commands that return a result\n- Disconnect from the DBMS\n\n- In some instances it might be more efficient to connect once do lots of commands and then disconnect.\n\n\n\n\n\n[Databases](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.615521318Z","tags":["compsci","theory","databases"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/DecimalPoints":{"title":"Decimal Points","content":"\nDecimal points separate whole numbers from their fractional part.\n\nConsider a binary number as 1001 . 1010\nthe first part, 1001 is equivalent to 9 \nwhilst the second part is equal to 0.625 (0.5 + 0.125), making the whole number 9.625\n\n\n\n## Converting denary to binary\n\n11.75 -\u003e 11 | 0.75\n11 = 1011\n0.75 = 0.11\n\n11.75 -\u003e 1011.11\n\n\n\nFixed point binary system:\n\n\n- It can be noted that using this method, only certain fractional parts can be represented.\n- In other words, only the fractional numbers that can be written as a sum of those numbers specified in the table can be converted to binary using this method accurately.\n- Consider an 8-bit register, using two bits for the fractional part means there will be only 6 bits to store the whole number. \n\n\n17.5\n\n-\u003e 17 | 0.5\n\n16 8 4 2 1 \n1 0 0 0 1\n\n0.5\n0.1\n\n10001.10\n\n(correct, use longer word length)\n\n-17.5 \n01110.01\n\n\n32.015625\n32 | 0.015625\n\n32 16 8 4 2 1\n1 0 0 0 0 0\n\n0.15625\n\n0.5 -\u003e 0.25 -\u003e 0.125 -\u003e 0.0625 -\u003e 0.03125 -\u003e0.015625\n0.00001\n\n100000.00001\n\n## Floating-point numbers\n\n1.3x10^7\n\n^7 is an *exponent*\n\n1.3 is the mantissa\n\n\n1234 = 0.1234 x 10^4\n\n\nStep 1 ) Find exponent and check sign bit\n\nStep 2 ) Modulate the mantissa by the exponent\n\n\nMantissa is the actual number\nThe exponent is the modifier to be applied to the mantissa.\n\nFPB: 001010.01\n\n 32 16 8 4 2 1 . 1/2 1/4\n\n10.25\n\n1001.0010\n\n17.125\n\t(Incorrect, negative due to sign bit)\n\n-17.5 to bin\n\n1001.1\n\n---\n\n0.111 010\n\nExponent = 2\n011.1010\n3 + 1/2 + 1/8 = 3.625\nMantissa = 3.625\n\n0.110111 0100\nExponent = 4\nMantissa = \n\n-32 16 8 4 2 1\n1 1 0 1 1 1\n\n-32 + 16 + 4 + 2 +1 = -9 \n\nAct: 13.75\n\n## Rounding Errors\n- Binary hits some issues when we deal with some numbers that aren't factors of 2.\n- It can't be done accurately, we have to settle on being as close as possible.\n\n### Absolute Error\n- The difference between the number you're trying to calculate and the number you've managed to store.\n\n### Relative Error\n- Essentially the same as a relative error, but it is expressed as a percentage.\n- It gives us an idea of the scale of the error that we're dealing with and how much we can trust the numbers.\n\n- Divide the absolute error by the number that we're trying to represent, and times the result by 100 to get a percentage.\n- So 0% is entirely accurate, and 100% is completely inaccurate.\n- The closer the percentage value is to 0, the greater the accuracy of the number.\n\n\n\nTarget Number: 25000\nAbsolute Error: 0.5\nRelative Error: 0.002%\n\nTarget Number: 100\nAbsolute Error: 0.5\nRelative Error: 0.5%\n\nTarget Number: 5000\nAbsolute Error: 0.5\nRelative Error: 0.01%\n\nTarget Number: 10\nAbsolute Error: 0.00000005\nRelative Error: 0.0000005%\n\n---\n\n#### FLOP to Denary\n\n0.010 0110\n\nExponent: 6\n\n0.010\n\n0.100\n1.0000\n10\n100\n1000\n10000\n 16 8 4 2 1\n\n16\n\n0.1101 011\n\nExponent: 3\n\n0110.1\n 4 2. 1/2 \n\n6.5\n\n---\n## Normalisation\n\nThe process of improving the accuracy of a number with decimal points.\n\n46321 (denary) can be represented as 0.46321x10^4\n0.00463x10^6 ( less accurate)\n\nOut of these representations, the first is the most precise.\n\nThis same logic can be applied to **binary numbers**. \n\nAn unormalised positive number consists of a sign bit (0) and one or more zeros after the decimal point.\n\nFor a normalised positive binary number, the sign bit is 0 and the bit after the sign bit is *always* 1.\n\nTo normalise a binary number, there must be a 1 after the decimal point. The mantissa may be lessened and the exponent will be directly increased.\n\nTo normalised a negative binary number, the first bit of both the mantissa and the exponent is 1.\n\nThe exponent may also be lessened and the mantissa increased.\n\n`01`\n`10` \n\n+ + left\n+ - right\n\n3.5 = 00011.100 \n \n0.1110 010\n\n### Standard Form\n\n In standard form, binary numbers must start with:\n\nPos: 0.1\nNeg: 1.0\n\n## Arithmetic Operations\nIf you need to add two numbers together, they must be converted into the same form. \n``\nSo 4.63x10^6 cannot be added to 4.63x10^8 until the power is normalised.\n\n### Underflow error\nAn underflow error occurs when a number is too small for your register to hold. “There isn't enough space to store a number with any accuracy, so 0 is stored.”\n\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.619521314Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Encryption":{"title":"Compression, encryption and hashing","content":"\n## File Handling\n- File handling is one of the most important functions of a computer system.\n- Different file formats exist to optimise data storage and interpretation.\n- Each file format occupies a different amount of space, varied further by the content of the file.\n\n## Compressing Files\n- Lossy compression\n\t- File size is decreased significantly, but quality is sacrificed.\n\t- The image cannot be reconstructed into its original form.\n\t- Removes any necessary information, stuff that is unlikely to be noticed by a human, but is stored in the file.\n- Lossless compression\n\t- No change in the quality of the image.\n\t- File size is decreased, but less so than lossy.\n\t- The image can be reconstructed into its original form.\n\t- Useful if all information is vital, but storage or bandwidth is limited.\n\t- In a text file, you could created a dictionary, where you replace certain recurring strings in the file with a single symbol that references the string in the dictionary. This allows for reduced storage size.\n\t\t- ![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221111133942.png]]\n\n### Uncompressed Image Files\n- TIFF (.tif) and bitmap (.bmp) are examples of uncompressed image files.\n\n## Different types of image files\n- PNG—Lossless - Used for transferring images over the internet\n- JPEG—Lossy - Higher compression rate than a PNG. Used in digital cameras and webpages.\n- GIF—Lossy - A sequence of frames that can be replayed to produce a short animation.\n\n## Compressing video files\n- A typical HD video has a frame rate of 60 fps. The sampling rate of the video is given in frames per second.\n- Video files also have a bit rate that defines the quality of video and audio.\n- Compressing video files allows you to do more with less bandwidth when streaming videos.\n\n## Streaming audio files : MP3\n- Compression is very helpful when streaming audio and video files.\n- MP3 file format is used for audio compression.\n- MP3 allows for up to 90% compression.\n- Even though MP3 files cannot match original CD quality, they provide a satisfactory experience.\n- Mp3 is lossy compression for an audio file.\n- A user does not hear a difference between MP3 and CD because only a few parts of the file are removed.\n- FLAC and ALAC are examples of open source lossless compression. Up to 50% size reduction with no noticable difference to quality.\n\n## Streaming video files : MP4\n- MP4 files allow the storage of audio and video.\n- Video files are compressed into MP4 format to stream online. This file is used for transmission over digital channels, cables and satellites. \n- DVD movies are also available in this format, coming over from MP2.\n\n## Run-length encoding (RLE)\n\nA form of lossless compression where repeated bits are stored together. Good if there is high repetition, but it can sometimes be inefficient.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221111135354.png]]\n\nIn video files, RLE works between frames, allowing for unchanging colours to stay as they are without using additional bandwidth.\n\nThis can cause screen tearing when it isn't working properly.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221111135830.png]]\n\n## Huffman coding\n- A compression technique used to reduce the number of bits that represent each letter.\n- A binary tree is used to encode letters.\n- A binary tree is a data structure made of nodes and is constructed based on a hierarchy. A parent node in a binary tree has up to 2 child nodes.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221111140114.png]]\nSo to say AB in this tree, you would use:\n`1110`\n\nIn Huffman coding, the more frequently used characters require less bits to represent.\n\nAnother, more complex tree, as an example:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221111140336.png]]\n\n### How to build a binary tree\n- We need the lowest number of bits for letters with a higher frequency\n- So start with the least frequent characters, and work upwards.\n- When two nodes are close together, create a root node above to link them together.\n- When following a tree down, each possible path should terminate at a valid \"leaf\".\n\n## Encryption\n\n- The process of changing data into another form or code so that only people with access to a secret key can read it. For others, the message would be unreadable.\n\n### Caesar Cypher\n- A very simple substitution cypher. Each letter of the alphabet is shifted by a certain number of characters. A shift left of 2, would make \"abc\" become \"cde\".\n- A shift of 5 on the message \"INITIATE PLAN A\" would become \"NSNYFJ UQFS F.\"\n- Easy to decrypt, as it is vulnerable to brute force attacks and frequency analysis.\n- Longer messages are easier to decode than shorter ones.\n\n### The Vernam cypher\n- The Vernam cypher uses a one-time pad or an encryption key.\n- Encryption key: its length is equal to the length of characters, or greater than that. They keys are only used once.\n- Sender and receiver meet in person to exchange the keys and destroy them after the exchange of messages.\n- The sole mathematically unbreakable code found so far: RSA, PGP etc can be broken given enough time and computing power.\n\n- Keys can also be called salts\n- Vernam cypher works with the ASCII codes of characters. Each ASCII code is taken in binary form.\n- The one-time key is also taken in binary form.\n- An XOR operation is performed between the key and the data to produce cypher text. An XOR operation is reversible, and therefore the same method can be used to decrypt the message.\n\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.619521314Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/ComputerRelatedLegislation":{"title":"Computing related legislation","content":"\n### Recall\n\n- A computer will one day be more intelligent than a human being\n\t- The rate of acceleration in computing technology is high, and computers are already capable of achieving things that are, by some, considered human or more than human.\n\t- AI and related technologies are advancing exponentially, and technology typically develops in a sigmoid curve. This suggests AI has not reached its peak yet and will continue to advance. Therefore, it is feasible that AI will exceed human intelligence before it peaks.\n\n### Legal issues\n\n- Computer technology is used in various applications, and computers have become an essential part of our daily lives\n- This dependence on computer technology has also created many problems such as cybercrimes, data theft, etc\n- Legal issues include: data theft, corruption of data, identity theft, use of pirated software, fraud and harrassment.\n- These are punishable by law\n\n\n### Computer Misuse Act (1990)\n\n- It is illegal to make any unauthorised use to computer material:\n\t- with the intent to commit further offences such as blackmailing\n\t- with the intent to modify computer material such as distributing malware\n\n- Computers can be protected from these threats by:\n\t- using anti-malware software\n\t- using a firewall to protect from external threats\n\t- authenticating users with strong credential-based security and using zero-trust permissions\n\t- Digital signatures or certificates to confirm the identity of the other party during communications\n\t- SSL to secure connections over networks\n\n### Freedom of Information Act (2000)\n\n- This act ensures that the public receives information held by public authorities such as government departments, local authorities, state schools and police when requested.\n- This act is very useful for journalists and members of the public to scrutinise the work of these public authorities.\n\n- Public authorities are obliged by this act to publish certain data about what they do\n- Members of the public can request information about the activities of public bodies\n- Secret security information can still be withheld.\n\n### Communications Act (2003)\n\n- It is a crime to\n\t- Access an internet connection without paying for it\n\t- Using offensive language in any communication systems such as social media\n- This act aims to protect from stalking and trolling\n- Repeating messages with offensive language such as retweeting offensive messages is also a crime\n\n\n### Data Protection Act (1984,1998,2018)\n\n- This act protects personal data stored in computer systems. Organisations often collect personal information from users.\n- It is the right of the individual to protect his/her data from unauthorised distribution.\n- This data controller of an organisation is responsible for protecting the personal data of all users.\n\n- Under the provisions of the Data Protection Act:\n\t- Data must be obtained fairly and lawfully\n\t- Data should only be used for the purpose specified to the data protection agency and should not be disclosed to other parties without the necessary permission.\n\t- Data should be relevant and not excessive\n\t- Data should be accurate and up to date\n\t- Data should only be kept for as long as necessary\n\n#### Exemptions\n\n- National security, crime, taxation and domestic purposes\n- Any data can be processed in relation to national security, prevent or detect crimes and collection of taxes\n- Data used for individual and household purposes are also exempted from this list\n\n### Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, CPDA (1988)\n\n- Under provisions of this act, intellectual property of an individual or organisation is protected from being copied, modified or distributed.\n- This act provides protection for audio, video, and software intellectual property\n- Peer-to-peer distribution of these files affects the income of copyright owners.\n- CPDA is referred to as “all rights reserved”.\n\n- Commercial software comes with a license agreement and a license key\n- License agreement defines the terms and conditions on the use of the software\n- License key is essential for accessing the software. This is incorporated to prevent the illegal distribution of software.\n\n- Although software applications are protected, algorithms are not.\n- If an advanced form of the search algorithm is found, anyone can use it without asking permission.\n\n### Creative Commons (CC)\n\n- Creative Commons, an organisation, issues licenses to owners where the holder may choose to reserve copyrights to some part of work while allowing dew parts to be copyright free.\n\n### The Regulations of Investigatory Powers Act (2000) - R.I.P.A\n\n- This act provides a framework based on which public bodies may intercept communications, get access to communications data and surveillance.\n- This act also regulates the use of undercover agents and informers.\n- Due to advancements in encryption of communications data, giving public authorities power to communications data and surveillance helps to avoid and solve crimes.\n\n- Based on this act, public authorities have powers to:\n\t- Access communications data of any ISP's customer in secret in the interest of national security, detecting crimes and safeguarding economic interests of the country.\n\t- Monitor people's Internet activities and perform mass surveillance of communications.\n\t- May demand someone to submit the keys to access protected information.\n\t- Prevent the existence of interception warrants and any data collected with them being revealed in court.\n\n\n\n[Ethics](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/Ethics)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.619521314Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/EnvironmentalImpact":{"title":"Environmental Impact","content":"\n### CO2\n\n- Carbon footprint\n\t- The amount of CO2 required to produce a device AND during its lifetime disposal\n- Anthropogenic CO2 is a contributor to rapid climate change\n\n- Datacenters make up 2% of global energy use\n- Using Google services for a month produces the same amount of carbon emission as driving your car for a mile.\n- A Google search releases about 1g of carbon dioxide, and they receive about 99,000 searches per second as of 2022\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/img/Pasted image 20230912110616.png]]\n\n- Mining of metals causes massive environmental destruction\n\n\n### Resources required to make tech devices\n\n- Gold - Printed Circuit Boards, CPU connectors/fingers\n- Silver - PCBs, CPUs, keyboard membranes\n- Platinum - HDDs, circuit board components\n- Palladium - HDDs, Circuit board components\n- Copper - CPU heat sinks, wiring and cables, computer chips\n- Nickel - circuit board components\n- Cobalt - HDDs, batteries\n- Tantalum - Circuit board components and capacitors\n- Aluminium \n- Tin\n- Zinc\n- Neodymium\n\n\n\n[Ethics](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/Ethics)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.619521314Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/Ethics":{"title":"Ethics","content":"\n**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.619521314Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/LogicOfEthics":{"title":"Logic of ethics","content":"### Advantages/Disadvantages of self-driving cars\n\n#### Adv\n\n- Reduces human error\n- Sensors are more reliable than human senses\n- No learners\n- Doesn't get tired\n- Roads could be narrower\n- No road signs needed\n- Can safely travel much faster\n- No windshield needed, could be designed for efficiency rather than including things like mirrors.\n- Less congestion\n- More efficient routing\n- Can't break road laws\n- Can all be fully electric\n#### Disadv\n\n- Ethical issues – can AI pick life or death\n- Who is at fault in the event of an accident\n- Disaster responses or unknown events might be handled poorly compared to a human driver\n- Will take away human jobs (drivers)\n- Reduces human freedoms\n- Fail safe systems must be very good\n\n### Ethical Bias\n\n- People have biases towards and against certain characteristics\n- These biases could easily be passed onto machines\n- How should machines make tough ethical decisions\n\n#### Algorithmic Bias\n- If a system is taught to always assume a cyclist wears a helmet, how should it manage a cyclist without a helmet? It wouldn't recognise the helmetless cyclist.\n\nDo these biases matter? How much?\n\n\n\n\n[Ethics](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/Ethics)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.619521314Z","tags":["theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/ExamFeedback":{"title":"Exam Feedback - April 2023","content":"\n## Trace tables\n\n- Only ever move down the table never up\n- Never erase a value, if a value is changed, move down a row\n- If a loop is entered, move down a row\n- Follow the program based on the values in the trace table once relevant\n\n\u003e [!info] Feedback\n\u003e\n\u003eMostly done on test\n\n\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.623521309Z","tags":["compsci","theory","feedback"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/Backus-NaurForm":{"title":"Backus-Naur Form","content":"\nSometimes just BNF.\n\n- A recursive way to express context free grammars\n\n`\u003cdigit\u003e ::= 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9`\n\n`\u003ctype\u003e ::= int | float | bool | char | string`\n\n`\u003cforloop\u003e ::= FOR \u003cvariable\u003e = \u003cinteger\u003e TO \u003cinteger\u003e`\n\n`\u003cint\u003e ::= \u003cdigit\u003e | \u003cdigit\u003e\u003cint\u003e`\n\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.623521309Z","tags":["compsci","theory","generalconcepts"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/CheckDigitsAndHashing":{"title":"Check Digits and Hashing","content":"### Hashing Algorithm\n\n- A hash in computer science is an algorithm that performs a complex calculation on some source data.\n- The intention is to produce a much smaller value.\n- **The final value can only be produced from a limited number of inputs.**\n\n\n### Pigeon Hole Principle\n\n- Because the hash is smaller than the original data it should be clear that there are more possible sources than there are possible hashes.\n- This idea is known as the pigeonhole principle.\n\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.623521309Z","tags":["compsci","theory","generalconcepts"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/FunctionalProgramming":{"title":"Functional Programming","content":"### Functional Programming\n\n- Code that is declarative\n\t- The program is a series of declarations\n\t- There is no changing of state or mutable data\n- Functional programming is a subset of declarative programming\n- It sees the world as a collection of mathematical functions\n\t- The result of a function depends only on its arguments\n\n\n#### What is a function?\n\n- A function is a mathematical expression that will always give the same output when presented with the same inputs.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20231010120418.png]]\n\n\n#### Why functional programming?\n\n- It is more robust\n- It is easier to reason about\n- Less prone to errors\n- Has no side effects, even as the code base increases\n\n#### Features of functional programming\n\n- Concurrency\n- Lazy evaluation\n- Recursion\n- Data is immutable\n\n### Partial Evaluation\n\n- This is an optimisation method used to improve the performance of a program\n- Consider a function with two inputs\n\t- `find name scores`\n\t\t- This is intended to find the scores from the list scores for the person named by the variable name in a database of names\n\t\t- The link between them might be candidate_id\n- With a partial evaluation this can be converted into two function calls, the total processing effort for the two calls is less than the time to process the single, more complicated call.\n\t- So, in our example we might break this down into two stages - the first where we find the name in the database, and the second where we find the scores.\n\t- The performance boost comes because we might be able to pre-process the first stage - partial evaluation of the whole expression.\n\n- This works best if one of the inputs can be fixed.\n\t- At run time we might know one of the values and it will not change during this execution.\n\t\t- Think about a date, for example.\n\t- So, before we get the command, we can do the required processing that the \"date\" part of the operation depends on.\n- Consider the command `add 2 age`\n- We know that the function always adds 2.\n- So lets create a temporary function called `add2`.\n- When we get to this command in the code we don't run it, we run:\n\t- `add2 age`\n\n\t\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.623521309Z","tags":["generalconcepts","theory","compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/General-Concepts":{"title":"General Concepts","content":"\n### Static and dynamic data structures\n\n- This refers to the memory requirements of a data structure.\n- For a static data structure the memory requirements are known in advance and will not change over the lifetime of the program.\n- Dynamic data structures, by contrast, have varying memory requirements.\n\t- This requirement might change between executions of the code\n\t- But the requirement can also change during a particular execution.\n- Mission critical systems frequently forbid the use of dynamic data structures.\n\n### The heap\n\n- When a program is executed it is allocated a block of memory to run in.\n- The memory will be allocated as a multiple of a fixed size:\n\t- An operating system might allocate memory in 32KB blocks\n\t- So a program that needs 38KB will be allocated 64KB\n- The extra space is described as a heap\n- As the memory requirement for dynamic data structures increases, the extra space is allocated from the heap for that program.\n\n### Pointer\n\n- A pointer is simply a variable that can be used to point to something\n- A pointer could contain a number that is an index in a list.\n\t- It is pointing to that position.\n- It could contain a number that is:\n\t- A memory location (perhaps the return address in a stack frame)\n\t- A position in a file\n\t- A record in a table\n\t- A function in a memory\n\t- An element in a list/array\n\n### Passing by value or by reference\n\n- When calling a subroutine we can pass it some values.\n\n- We can pass them by value.\n\t- We gave the subroutine a copy of the variable.\n\t- The subroutine works on its own copy, the original is left unchanged.\n- We can pass them by reference.\n\t- We give the subroutine a pointer to the variable.\n\t- The subroutine works on the value in the same memory location as the original value.\n\t- The memory location will have the most recent value from the subroutine so when control is returned to the calling program it sees the value that subroutine finished with.\n\n## Data Structures\n\n### Arrays\n\n- Many programming languages have a data structure called an array.\n- An array is a single identifier with many values.\n- You reference the specific value by using the identifier and an index.\n- For example:\n\t- `myArray[3]`\n- In an array all elements must be of the same data type. \n\t- Therefore, they take up the same amount of memory.\n\t- Which means finding a particular element is easy.\n\t\t- `address of array + (size of element * index)`\n\n### Linked Lists\n\n- List elements can be any data type\n\t- This makes them more flexible than arrays\n- List elements can be of any size\n\t- So they can take up different amounts of memory\n- Finding a particular element means following links starting from the first item in the list until you find the item you want.\n\n- A linked list does not have to be stored continuously in RAM, whilst an array must be.\n\n### Stacks and Queues\n\n- Stacks and queues are special uses for arrays and lists\n- Stacks are LIFO\n- Queues are FIFO\n\n### The Stack Frame\n\n- Computers can only do one thing at a time.\n\t- Multiprocessor systems can only do one thing on each processor.\n\t- Multitasking systems give multiple tasks a small amount of attention.\n- Also they cannot keep track of more than one subroutine at a time.\n- So we push some data, which we call a stack frame, onto a call stack as each new subroutine is called.\n- It is used to restore the state of the computer to what it was before it began executing the subroutine once it has finished.\n\t- We pop the last stack frame from the call stack\n\t- The information in the stack frame allows us to restore all the registers.\n\n### Recursion\n\n- Put simply, recursion is when you write a subroutine in terms of itself.\n\t- That means the subroutine calls itself.\n\t- The call will be a sub set of the data to be processed or a partially complete result\n\t- Once the subroutine has been called with a simple enough piece of data it can perform the calculation and the call stack begins to unwind.\n- The stack grows in size with recursion, whilst a loop maintains the stack size as it creates a stack frame. Put simply, a loop is iteration, whilst recursion is not.\n\n```py\n# Example of recursion\n\ndef recursion(n):\n\tprint(n)\n\tif n \u003e 1:\n\t\trecursion(n//2) # On calling this line, we suspend the subroutine and add it to the stack frame\n\tprint(n) # Once n !\u003e 1, we process the stack frame, causing the program to spit out the inverse of what it previously printed.\n\nrecursion(1024)\n```\n\nExpected output:\n```py\n1024\n512\n256\n128\n64\n32\n16\n8\n4\n2\n1\n1\n2\n4\n8\n16\n32\n64\n128\n256\n512\n1024\n\u003e\u003e\u003e\n```\n\n### Graphs\n\n- A graph is a simplified way to represent connection data\n- The graph represents physical or logical connections\n- A graph is a form of abstraction\n\n#### Edges and Vertices\n\n- Vertices are the things being connected\n- Edges are the connections\n- Vertices are occasionally called nodes\n- Edges are occasionally called connections\n\n#### Representing a graph\n\n- Adjacency Matrix\n\t- ![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20230912123506.png]]\n- Adjacency List\n\t- ![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20230912123652.png]]\n\n#### Edges\n- Edges can be:\n\t- Weighted\n\t\t- Indicates some kind of cost\n\t\t\t- Distance, cost, difficulty etc\n\t- Directed\n\t\t- Shows which way you can travel along an edge\n\t\t\t- One way street, winner in competition etc\n- Graphs can be:\n\t- Unweighted and undirected\n\t- Weighted\n\t- Directed\n\t- Weighted and Directed\n\n#### Trees\n\n- A tree is a special kind of graph\n\n- Trees\n\t- Have no cycles\n\t- Are NOT directed\n\t- Are connected\n\n#### Binary Trees\n\n- Binary trees are a specific kind of tree\n\n- A-level spec requires the ability to construct and traverse a binary tree in 3 ways:\n\t- Pre-order\n\t- In-order\n\t- Post-order\n\n- Different types of traversal get used for different reasons\n- Pre-order: Copying a tree. You need to create the parent before you can create its children.\n- In-order: Sort the contents.\n- Post-order: Deleting a tree. You need to delete the children before you can delete the parent.\n\n#### Representing trees\n\n- When we represent a tree we usually use a linked list.\n- To store a binary tree we need two links for each data item:\n\t- Left\n\t- Right\n\n\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.623521309Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts":{"title":"General Concepts","content":"\n\n**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.623521309Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/ObjectOrientation":{"title":"Object Orientation","content":"### Properties and Methods\n\n- Inside a class the names we give to things are changed.\n\n- Code that has an object scope is called a method.\n\t- The code looks like a subroutine\n\t- We can call the code from inside the object using self notation.\n\t\t- `self.DoSomething()`\n\t- We can call the code from outside the object by using the object identifier\n\t\t- `myInstance.DoSomething()`\n- Methods can also have local variables that work in exactly the same way as local variables in normal subroutines\n\t- They are destroyed when the method finishes executing\n\t- They cannot be seen from other methods in the same object or from subroutines somewhere in the code.\n\n### Overriding\n\n- When a class is inherited all its properties and methods become available in the subclass\n- Often the methods and properties behave differently in the subclass\n- Rather than having to redefine the whole class, we can override the properties and methods that behave differently in the subclass.\n\n### Polymorphism\n\n- Overriding is a form of polymorphism\n\t- We have a base class that is being modified by the use of extra methods and properties or by overriding existing methods (to do something different) and properties (to be different data types or structures)\n- Another type of polymorphism is where a single method could take, as a parameter, data of different types of structures and still function effectively.\n- For example, an Add method could take an integer, float or a string\n\t- When receiving numbers the method adds them, when receiving strings it concatenates them\n\t- Or the method could convert all values it receives to floats and then add them.\n- Coding our classes polymorphically makes them more robust\n\n\n### Aggregation\n\n- Aggregation is all about what happens when objects are destroyed\n\n- There are two types of aggregation that you need to know about\n\t- Composition: strong aggregation, there is a death relationship\n\t- Association: weak aggregation, there is no death relationship\n\n```py\nclass Table(object):\n\nclass Chair(object):\n\nclass Suite(object):\n\tdef __init__(self):\n\t\ttable = Table()\n\t\tchair = Chair()\n\nsuite = Suite()\n\ndel suite\n```\n\nWhen destroying `suite`, it deletes the `table` and the `chair` that were created in the `__init__` method of `Suite`. This is an example of composition, as the table and chair are \"part of\" the suite in this instance.\n\n```py\nclass Suite(object):\n\nclass Table(object):\n\nclass Chair(object):\n\nsuite = Suite()\ntable = Table()\nchair = Chair()\n\ndel suite\n```\nIn this example of association, deleting the suite does not destroy the table or chair. This is good if the destroying the suite shouldn't get rid of the table or chair, but many would consider it inefficient if this is not the case.\n\n### Design Principles\n\n- Object orientation encourages certain principles when we are designing and coding our classes\n- Encapsulate what varies\n\t- You're trying to describe how objects differ\n- Program to interfaces not implementations\n\t- Make your code as generic as possible, then the classes can be reused\n\t- Don't make the \"School Name Student\" class, make the \"Student\" class\n- Favour composition over inheritance\n\n\n\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.623521309Z","tags":["compsci","theory","generalconcepts"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/ProgrammingParadigms":{"title":"Programming Paradigms","content":"### What is it?\n\n- A paradigm is simply the way you look at and make sense of the world\n\n- So a programming paradigm is a way of thinking about and expressing a computer program.\n\n- There are quite a few paradigms and some are related\n\t- Imperative: structured, procedural and object-oriented are examples\n\t\t- As a general rule, imperative languages explain how to do something step by step\n\t- Declarative: functional database (SQL) and mark-up languages (HTML)\n\t\t- As a rule, declarative languages describe the problem and the system knows how to deal with it\n\n### Structured Programming\n\n- Code that is imperative\n\t- That is, it defines a series of steps that must be performed to complete a task\n\n- Structured programming is a subset of imperative programming.\n\n- Structured programming sees the world as a sequence of tasks that can be broken down into small, easy to manage chunks \n\t- These chunks can be reused\n\n### Hierarchy or Structure Charts\n\n- A structure chart shows us the calling structure of a program \n\t- Which subroutines get called from where and what information is passed and returned.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20230919095106.png]]\n\n\n*By Pluke - Own work based on: Structured Chart Example.jpg by ‍Sandia National Laboratories, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16283788 *\n\n\n### Pseudo Code\n\n- Pseudo means not genuine\n- Pseudo code allows you to think like a programmer while not needing to worry about the syntax of any given programming language\n\n### Finite State Machines\n\n- FSMs allow you to plan the states for a control system and what causes the transition from one state to another and any output.\n- A Mealy machine's outputs are determined by it's state and input: you label the output on the transition.\n- A Moore machine's outputs are determined only by the current state: the output is labelled in the state.\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20230919143234.png]]\n\n\n\n### Comments\n\n- Comments should enhance the readers understanding of the code\n- You can assume the reader can already understand code in the language it is written in.\n- Avoid in line comments where possible\n- Be consistent in terms of comment use\n- Comments are especially useful for:\n\t- Module headers\n\t- Subroutine headers\n\t- Explaining the logic behind changes\n\t- Logging code changes\n\n\n### What is “Object Orientated Programming”?\n\n- Code that is imperative\n- Object oriented programming is a subset of imperative programming\n- It sees the world as a collection of objects or things\n\t- You define a generalised example of a thing which includes all the programs and data that it needs to function\n\t\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.623521309Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/RegularLanguages":{"title":"Regular Languages","content":"\n### Languages\n\n\n#### Natural languages\n\n- We use natural languages to communicate with each other.\n\t- Syntax and grammar rules determine valid word order.\n\t- Semantics determine what a group of words 'means'.\n- Syntax can be fine, but the semantics can be bad.\n\t- The petrol ate the car\n- One statement could be ambiguous—have multiple meanings\n\t- Bath the dog wearing an apron.\n\n#### Formal Languages\n\n- Formal languages are much more carefully defined than a natural language.\n- As a result, ambiguity is not possible.\n\n- Some formal languages include:\n\t- Chemical formulae\n\t- Maths\n\t- Programming languages\n\n### Reverse Polish Notation (RPN)\n\n#### Infix Notation\n\n- When we look at mathematical expression the operands are placed on either side of the operator.\n\t- 3+4\n\t- The operand being the data we want to use and the operator being what we want to do with it\n- This is infix notation\n- The problem is that we often need brackets to alter the order of operations.\n\t- (5+7) x 3\n#### RPN\n\n- Polish mathematician Jan Łukasiewicz devised a way to represent mathematical expressions so that we don't need to use brackets\n- This uses postfix notation so the operator is shown after the items we need to operate on\n\t- 3 4 +\n- The result of an operation replaces the items that caused it to happen in the expression.\n\t- 5 7 + 3 x =\u003e 12 3 x =\u003e 36\n\n\n- Representing calculations in reverse polish makes it easier for machines to interpret.\n- In particular, calculations express in RPN take less steps to process on a computer.\n- To perform an RPN calculation, we use a stack.\n\n#### RPN and the Stack\n\n- Here's an infix notation:\n\t- 5 x ( 1 + 2)\n- Represented as RPN it looks like\n\t- 1 2 + 5 x\n\n- In operation\n\t- Push 1 and 2\n\t- Pop 2, 1 and add.\n\t- Push 3 (result of add)\n\t- Pop 3,5 and multiply.\n\t- Push 15 (result of multiply)\n- Stack now contains the result\n\n#### RPN as a Tree\n\n- You can also represent RPN as a tree.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20231017145220.png]]\n \n- The tree can be reversed post order with each calculation replacing the operator.\n\n\n### Regular Expressions\n\n- A regular expression provides a way to define sequences of characters\n- The regular expression can then be used to pattern match\n\t- To find examples in a bigger body of characters\n\t- To determine if an input matches an allowed pattern\n- The regular expression defines the whole set\n\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.623521309Z","tags":["compsci","theory","generalconcepts"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/SyntaxDiagrams":{"title":"Syntax Diagrams","content":"Sometimes **railroad diagrams**\n\n- Very similar to Backus-Naur but represented as an image\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20231024123227.png]]\n\n- In the image\n\t- Anything that is a rectangle can be expanded further\n\t\t- Like anything inside \u003c\u003e for BNF\n\t- Anything that is a circle should be matched directly\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.623521309Z","tags":["compsci","theory","generalconcepts"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/HardwareAndSoftware":{"title":"Hardware And Software","content":"## Memory\n- The space where programs and data are stored. Data in memory is accessed through instructions from the CPU.\n- Classified into primary and secondary.\n\n### Primary Memory\n- Directly accessed by the CPU, ie RAM, ROM, Cache\n\nPrimary memory types listed in order of closeness to the CPU:\n\n- Registers\n- Cache\n- RAM\n- Virtual Memory\n\nThe closer to the chip, the faster the memory, however the more expensive the memory is.\n\n### Secondary memory\n- External devices such as hard drives, SSDs, flash drives\n\n\n## Latency\n\n- Latency is the time taken by components to respond to the request.\n- To avoid short delays between the CPU's request for data and finding the data in memory some instructions and data are copied to the cache.\n\n## Random Access Memory (RAM)\n\n- Temporary memory which stores data, files and parts of the operating system\n- All data is loaded from secondary storage into RAM.\n- Is volatile.\n\n### Dynamic RAM (DRAM)\n- DRAM consists of transistors that act as switches and capacitors that hold binary data.\n- DRAM has to be constantly refreshed (every 15microseconds) to maintain capacitor charge.\n- DRAM is used for main RAM memory.\n- Is volatile\n\n### Static RAM (SRAM)\n- SRAM uses \"flip-flops\" which hold each bit of memory.\n- SRAM need not to be refreshed constantly.\n- SRAM is faster than DRAM.\n- SRAM is used in cache memory.\n- SRAM is more complex to build and therefore more expensive than DRAM.\n- Comes in smaller capacities than SRAM.\n- Non-volatile\n\n## Read-Only Memory (ROM)\n\n- Read only memory is a permanent memory that is used to store the instructions that are executed once a computer is switched ON. This set of instructions is called a boot process.\n- This is responsible for initializing the hardware and operating system soon after the power is switched ON.\n- The contents of ROM are not erased, even when the power is switched OFF.\n- The contents of ROM can only be read and cannot be changed.\n- ROM is made by interconnecting several transistors. It is an example of non-volatile memory.\n\n## Flash memory\n- A type of ROM\n- Programmed by applying a slightly larger electric current that forces an electron through a barrier.\n- Can be rewritten\n\n## Hard disk drives (HDD)\n\n- Also called magnetic disk drives, used in computers and laptops.\n- It provides high storage capacity and is cost-effective.\n- Large storage facilities also use this technology.\n- In a computer, it can store operating systems, user data and programs.\n\n- The disk is made of a magnetic surface, known as a platter\n- Digital data is stored in these magnetic platters\n- The disk can spin at around 7000 revolutions per second\n- Data can be accessed by a number of read-write heads on the surface\n\n- Moves from centre of disk to edge and back\n\n### Latency of HDD\n\n- Relatively high \n- Latency is defined as the time taken for a specific block of data to rotate around to the read-write head.\n- High latency leads to “not responding” and “please wait” messages increasing in frequency.\n\n## Solid State Drives (SSD)\n\n- The latency is reduced in SSD compared to HDD as there is no read/write head that needs to be moved.\n- Data is stored and retrieved using the electronic properties of NAND chips.\n- This type of memory is used in USB devices to transfer information from one device to another.\n- Data stored in millions of transistors within the chip.\n\n## HDD vs SSD\n\n- SSD have faster speeds but cost more\n- A combination of both can be used, with frequently needed data store on an SSD and less frequently loaded data stored on an HDD.\n\n## Optical Storage Systems\n\n- CD, DVD, Blu-ray discs use optics to store data.\n- The surface of CDs and DVDs are made of light-sensitive organic dyes or metal alloys.\n- Data is read and written using a laser light.\n- DVDs (4.7 GB) can store large amounts of data compared to CDs (800 MB).\n- Blu-ray discs use blue laser light and can hold up to 50 GB. Used to store music, movies, and games.\n- The time taken to transfer information to these devices is comparatively higher than HDD.\n\n- After data is stored, it cannot be overwritten. Some do support being overwritten, however it is very limited.\n- The clear plastic layer on the surface allows the laser light to pass through.\n- The colour changes in the dye layer when light falls on it.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/th-1967184248.jpg]]\n\n\n## Types of memory access\n\n- Memory can be accessed sequentially or directly. Different devices work in different ways.\n\n### Sequential Memory Access\n\n- Allows user to access data one by one in a sequence.\n- Sequential memory access is slower than direct memory access.\n- Eg, film reel\n\n### Direct (Random) Memory Access\n\n- Any storage location can be accessed at any moment—such as a DVD.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/th-858488670.jpg]]\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Hex":{"title":"Hex","content":"\n#### Recall: Two's Complement\n-20\n10100\n\n010100\n101011\n\n_101100_\n\n\n-32\n100000\n0100000\n1011111\n110000\n\n-20 + 16\n101100c\n\n+\n\n10000\n010000\n\n1011111\n\n| 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |\n|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |\n1\t0\t1\t*1*\t0\t*1*\t0\t\t1\t1\t\n\n1010011\n\n\n\n-39 -83\n\n39\n\n101001\n\n83\n\n101011\n\n0101001\n0101011\n\n1010110\n1010100\n\n| 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 |\n|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |\n| *0* | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |\n| Carries: | 1 | | 1 | | | |\n\n0001010\n\n-21 + 37\n\n21\n\n010101\n\n37\n\n100101\n\n\n0010101\n0100101\n\n# Hexadecimal\n\nHex is a base 16 system, each nibble is can be represented with 1 digit.\n\nIt is easier to use for humans than basic binary.\n\nThe memory location in a computer is stated in hexadecimal form. This makes memory addresses much easier to read.\n\n## Binary to Hexadecimal\n\nLeft -\u003e Right\nNumbers are split into 4 bits (nibbles)\nReplace each nibble with a hex equivalent\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20220929105851.png]]\n\n214\n\n128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1\n1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0\n\n11010110\n\n1101 0110\nD 6\n\n\n10010100\n\n1001 0100\n9 4\n\n 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1\n 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 \n128 + 16 + 4 = 148\n\n## Applications of Hexadecimal\n- Colour representation (#RRGGBB)\n- Errors\n\t- Error messages can contain a hex number that contains a memory location to the error\n\t- Very beneficial to programmers\n\t- Errors can be easily rectified by looking at the code in the particular memory location.\n\t- The process in which the contents of the memory is displayed or stored in a specific drive in case of a system crash is called a memory dump.\n\t- Programmers must have knowledge of computer architecture\n- MAC addresses\n\t- A Media Access Control address refers to the number that the internet that uniquely identifies a device on the Internet.\n\t- The address is for the NIC (Network Interface Card)\n\t- A MAC address is 48 bits long.\n\t- The first half represents an identification number of the manufacturer, and the second half represents the serial number of the device.\n\t- There are 2 types of MAC address, UAA and LAA. UAA is set by the manufacturer and the LAA can be set by an individual. UAA is most commonly used.\n\t- It is crucial that a UAA is unique.\n\t- Occasionally represented in different formats, but always the same actual data.\n- URLs\n\t- Used to represent URLs with ASCII.\n\t- % is used to denote that hex is being used\n\t- Improves security\n- Assembly code and machine code\n\t- Hex can refer to memory locations directly\n\t- Hex makes low-level programming easier as it reduces the chance of a mistake.\n- HTML\n\n\n### Recall\n\n\nSIGN 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 \n00011001\n16+8+1 = 25\n\n\n+32\n\n00100000\n\n10000110\n\nSIGN+2+4 = -6\n\n01111111\n64+32+16+8+4+2+1\n127\n\n-16\n\n1001000\n\n\n12^10 = 0xC\n\n128^10 = 0x80\n\n250^10 = FA\n\n20^16 = 32\n\n\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Images":{"title":"Images","content":"\nImages consist of tiny pixels (picture elements). The higher the number of pixels, the higher the resolution of the image and the higher the storage space.\n\n## Vector Image\n- Coordinate based, mathematical\n- Does not lose resolution when scaled\n- Does not store a binary value for each pixel, much more efficient than a bitmap\n- Geometrical shapes such as lines and curves are used to represent an image\n- A representation of mathematical data—not a direct mapping\n- Consists of a drawing list in the file header including:\n\t- A command that describes the shape of the object\n\t- Attributes of each object (e.g. position)\n\t- Line colour\n\t- Line thickness\n\t- Fill colour\n\t- etc\n- Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) is an example of a vector image. It is an open standard.\n- Vector graphics are widely used in animated movies, PDFs, etc.\n- Vector images are more efficient with larger images, with very small images a bitmap may be more efficient.\n- Example:\n\t- `Circle(centre = 0,0; radius= 5; fill = green; bordercolour = black; weight = 2px;``)\n\t- `Rectangle(position= 3,10;width = 10;height= 5;fill = blue;bordercolour = None)`\n- An vector image cannot be printed, so must be converted to a bitmap before printing\n\n\n## Bitmap Image\n- Raster Images or Pixel Maps\n- Each pixel is stored on a grid—directly representing each element.\n- Blurs when zoomed into\n- JPG, PNG, GIF are examples of bitmap images\n- Used by digital cameras and smartphones\n- Each pixel colour is stored as a binary value\n- More realistic than a vector image\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017094913.png]]\n\n## Storing a black and white image\n\nA simple 2 colour image can be stored using 1 bit per pixel. So a 0 could be black and a 1 could be white.\n\n## Colour Depth\n\n1 bit =\u003e 2 possible colours (42K)\n2 bits =\u003e 4 possible colours\n4 bits =\u003e 16 possible colours\n8 bits =\u003e 256 possible colours (420KB)\n\n24 bits =\u003e 16 million possible colours (1.2MB)\n\nAs the number of bits increases, more colours can be used.\n\nAn image with colour depth `n` can represent `2^n` colours.\n\n## RGB\n\nLuminosity: \nRed: 24 bits\nGreen: 24 bits\nBlue: 24 bits\n\nEach **channel** has 24 bits, to allow very precise colours.\n\nScreen resolution is horizontal pixels * vertical pixels.\n\n## Resolution\n- The pixel density of an image is measured in dots per inch or pixels per inch. It is the number of pixels or dots in a unit.\n- Magazines and books have higher resolution compared to the images on computer screen.\n- An image on a website is usually 72dpi. An image in a book has a resolution of 300 or even up to 600 dpi.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017100016.png]]\n\n## Pixel Density\n- Pixel density for a screen is calculated using the following steps.\n- Calculating the pixel density of a Samsung Galaxy S10 phone which has a resolution of 1440 x 3040 pixels and a 6.1 inch display.\n\t- Add the squares of resolution sizes, 1440^2 + 3040^2 = 11315200\n\t- Take the square root of the result = 3363.81\n\t- Divide by the screen size, 3363.81 / 6.1 = 551ppi (pixels per square inch)\n\n## Estimating the size of an image file\n- Multiply the width and height of the image by the colour depth.\n- Example:\n\t- 1010 x 562px\n\t- Colour Depth = 8\n\t- 1010 x 562 x 8 = 45409060 bits\n\t- 45409060 / 8 = 567620 bytes\n\t- 567620 / 8 = 0.568 megabytes\n\n### Practice\n600 x 800 pixels\n16 bit colour\n\n 600 x 800 = 567620\n x 16 = 9081920 bits\n = 0.96 MB\n\n\n## Run Length Encoding (RLE)\n- RLE is lossless compression\n- We count the number of bits in a row that have the same value, and then store them as one entry rather than by storing each pixel individually. \n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017101124.png]]\n\n## Metadata\n“Data about data”\n\n- Some examples of metadata for an image include:\n\t- Filename, format\n\t- Dimensions resolution, and colour depth of the image\n\t- Date and place the photo was taken\n\t- Time and date when the photo was changed\n\t- Camera settings when the photo was taken\n\nNext: [Sound](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Sound)\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/CloudComputingAndWebApplication":{"title":"Cloud Computing And Web Applications","content":"\n## Client-to-server network model\n\n- Clients are computers that request information\n- Servers are computers that provide information\n- A client depends on the server for information\n\n- For example, the client-side of a web application is a web browser. The web server provides the information.\n\n### Types of servers\n\n- Web servers\n- Application servers\n- Network Attached Storage (NAS)\n- Print servers\n- Mail servers\n\n- etc\n\n## Peer-to-peer model\n\n- In a P2P network, each and every computer in a network is responsible for providing data equally.\n- Each computer can provide data requested by other computers in the network.\n- At the same time, any computer can request data from any computer.\n\n- This type of network is not suitable for systems where there is a single source of truth (ie, databases, online ticketing systems etc)\n- Due to a lack of servers, this type of network may lead to difficulty in storing backups.\n- Known best for file sharing\n\n## Cloud Computing\n\n- The use of hardware and software to deliver a service over a network such as the internet is called cloud computing. \n- A webpage displays these services to a client\n\n### Traditional computing vs cloud computing\n\n#### Traditional computing\n\n- Files are stored in the hard drive of a computer and processed using the same computer.\n\n#### Cloud computing\n\n- Files are stored online and processed using services that are available online.\n\n### Pros and Cons\n\n#### Pros\n\n- More cost effective\n- More reliable\n- Can be accessed from any computer with an Internet connection. \n- Web applications are updated more frequently than traditional software.\n\n#### Cons\n\n- Requires an internet connection\n- Working in online application may lead to cyber attacks\n- Documents shared in web applications may be accessed by unauthorised users.\n\n### Webpages\n\n- A webpage is a document that can be viewed in web browsers.\n\n## Back-end/server-side\n\n- A server-side script is processed on the server when a user requests information\n- The processed script returns the result to the user's request\n- Widely used in websites and apps that store a large amount of information\n- SQL, PHP, Python, Ruby, Java and many more are used as backend languages\n- The validation of data is also carried out on the server-side by comparing the data entered by the user with the existing data in the server.\n- Hackers may try to enter malicious JavaScript in the front-end.\n\nFunctions of server-side processing are:\n- Processing client's queries\n- Provides data security\n- Encryption of data\n- Updating server database\n\n### Application Programming Interface (API)\n\n- API is a set of protocols that governs how two applications interact with each other\n- Websites often embed functions such as maps, spreadsheets etc\n- Websites typically do not create these functions independently\n- Instead, an API is used to include these functionalities within a website\n- For example, Google has an API, which various websites use to include their address in the \"contact us\" menu\n- A web application that uses API from various sources is called a mashup.\n\n- API also defines the protocols that will be used in the web service.\n- An example of such a protocol is a WebSocket which creates a connection between two computers\n\t- It provides a bidirectional communication channel between client and webserver over a single line.\n\n### WebSocket protocol\n\n- Firstly, the client sends a handshake request\n- Then, the server responds with a bidirectional channel on a single socket\n- Both client and server can send messages to each other simultaneously. In HTTP, the webpage need not be refreshed. The connection closes when one of them ends it.\n\n- The packets are also accepted without the usual security checks. As a result, this protocol helps us achieve fast and real-time communication.\n- This is widely used in online gaming and instant communication.\n- When this protocol is used, fewer webservers are required, saving transmission time, bandwidth, cost of hardware and cost of mobile communication.\n\n### Thick vs thin client computing\n\n- The term thickness refers to the independent processing and storage of a client in a client-server model.\n\n#### Thick client \n\n- A thick client processes most of its data and requires little help from the server\n\n###### Pros\n\n- Operates without server connection\n- Robust and reliable\n- Used for powerful software applications\n\n##### Cons\n\n- Expensive to install as it requires highly specialised computers at the client side.\n- Software has to be installed at each client computer and maintained regularly.\n- Data is distributed, so data integrity issues may arise.\n\n#### Thin client\n\n- A thin client is highly dependent on the server for data processing and storage\n- Without a server, the functionality of a thin client will be affected\n- The thinnest client that requires a server for most of its operations will only require minimum processing power and no storage.\n- This type of client system is often referred to as a dumb terminal.\n\n\n##### Pros\n\n- Easy and inexpensive to set up\n- Easy to update and maintain the client systems\n- Data is secured at a centralised location\n\n###### Cons\n\n- Client computers are affected when a server malfunctions\n- Setting up a highly efficient server is expensive\n- Highly reliable network connections are required\n- When the number of client computers increased, the performance of this model may be affected\n\n\n### CRUD\n\n- CRUD stands for Create, Retrieve, Update, Delete\n- CRUD explains the main functions of a database. Without the four functions denoted by CRUD, it is not possible to have a complete database.\n- It also specifies how data is obtained and presented to the user.\n\n### REST\n\n- Representational State Transfer\n- REST is a system design concept in which the HTTP request methods are used to interact with a database server through a webserver.\n- The client does not know how the data is received and processed by the database.\n- In this type of system, client and server systems can be developed independently. \n\n\n### JSON and XML\n\n- JSON and XML are methods used to format data objects transferred across servers and web applications.\n- When a user places a GET request, the values in the table are returned\n\n#### JSON\n\n- Based on objects and values, easy to read\n- Less number of lines of code generated\n- The syntax is simpler\n- Arrays are supported\n- Data is clearly defined and easier to parse\n- Due to limited number of data types, JSON is not suitable for all applications\n\n#### XML\n\n- Use markup tags to make it comparatively easier to read\n- Comparatively more lines of code\n- Complicated syntax, harder to make\n- Data is extracted from tags, harder to parse\n- Wide range of available data types\n\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/DNSAndPacketSwitching":{"title":"DNS \u0026 Packet Switching","content":"\n### Domain Name Server (DNS)\n\n- Each computer in a TCP/IP network is uniquely identified by its IP address.\n- So when a user wants to access another computer they have to know the IP address of that computer. It is hard to remember every IP you need.\n- Hence, domain names are mapped to IPs.\n\n- So sethmb.xyz is a domain name, which is mapped to the IP address of GitHub Pages. When you go to sethmb.xyz, you get a GitHub webserver's IP and when you request a page, it serves the content you're seeing now.\n\n#### Each domain name ends with a suffix\n\n- A suffix represents a TLD (top level domain)\n- .com, .co.uk, .org are common tlds, but many exist\n- Some domains \n\n#### Domain levels\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230605115309.png]]\n\n##### root\n- right at the top\n\n##### Top-level examples\nuk, com, edu\n\n##### 2nd level domains\n\ngov, co,nhs\n\n##### 3rd level (TLDs)\n\ndata, education, amazon\n\n\nThey are arranged hierarchically.\n\n\nFor instance ocr.org.uk\n\nocr is the domain name\norg is the second level domain\nand uk is the top level domain\n\n### Fully-qualified Domain Names (FQDN)\n\n- The website domain name along with the host server name is called a fully qualified domain name\n- www, mail and ftp are some examples of host server names. (any subdomain)\n- Root\n\t- .\n- TLD\n\t- com\n- Domain\n\t- ionos\n- Hostname\n\t- www\n\n\nwww.ionos.com\n\n### Internet Registrars\n\n- The companies that hold domain name rights and can register a domain for you\n- Registrars are accredited by a governing entity\n- Internet registrars are responsible for storing the details of domain names along with the companies they are registered to.\n\n\n### Transport over the internet\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230605102340.png]]\n\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/DataTransmission":{"title":"Data Transmission","content":"\n\n- Technologies that allow users to transmit data from one point to another\n\n## Serial Data Transmission\n\n- Well suited for long distance communication, but the speed of the transmission is lower as there is only one channel used.\n- There is no need for data synchronisation as bits are sent in one channel.\n- USB is a common example\n\n## Parallel data transmission\n\n- Parallel transmission is faster than serial transmission as multiple channels are used.\n- Used internally within a computer\n- An internal timer synchronises the data on different channels\n- 8-64 bit data buses are used\n\n## Asynchronous data transmission\n\n- In async data transmissions, the data is sent in groups in an agreed bit pattern. Bits are combined with a start and a stop bit.\n\n\n## Synchronous data transmission\n\n- A synchronous data transmission sends data as a stream of bits.\n- The data also contains timing signals that are generated by an internal clock.\n\n\n\n## Universal Serial Bus\n\n- A USB device has four pins\n- Two pins are responsible for connecting wires, which carry the power and ground connection\n- The two other pins connect the wires that transfer data\n- Hence the cable used to connect two USB ports is a four-wire shielded cable.\n\n- USB devices are detected by a computer due to a small change in voltage from the device being connected.\n- Computer determines the specifications of the USB device\n- Computer loads the appropriate driver to communicate with the device\n\n---\n\n### Error-checking methods\n\n- When data is transmitted through a channel, it could get corrupted or changed by electric fields or dirty equipment\n- Hence, it is very important to implement error checking method sin computer technology.\n- These methods are used to detect and correct errors:\n\t- Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)\n\t- Parity Checking\n\t- Majority Voting\n\t- Checksum\n\t- Echo check\n\t- Check digits\n\n\n### Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)\n\n- In Automatic Repeat Request, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT and TIMEOUT ensure that error-free messages are received at the destination.\n- ACK is a message sent by the receiver to confirm that they have received the data correctly.\n- TIMEOUT is the time allowed to elapse before an ACK is received\n- If the ACK is not received within the TIMEOUT, the message is automatically resent.\n\n### Parity Checking\n\n- Parity checking uses a parity bit in each byte of data. This bit is allocated before transmission. \n- An even parity has an even number of bits 1s in a byte. An odd parity has an odd number of bit 1s in a byte.\n- Systems may use even or odd parity.\n- The sender and receiver make an agreement prior to the transmission about the type of parity.\n\n- To find the exact location of the bit changed, a block of data is sent. The parity is checked both horizontally and vertically. \n\n### Checksum\n\n- A value called a checksum is attached to the end of the block of data. This value can indicate transmission errors.\n- Checksum = the sum of all the digits, if the sum of all digits is less than or equal to 255\n- Else, the following algorithm is used:\n\t- Divide the sum X by 256\n\t- Round down to the nearest whole number, Y\n\t- Multiply Y by 256 and denote this number as Z\n\t- Checksum = X-Z\n\n- The sender transmits the block of data with checksum\n- When received at the receiver end, the checksum of the block of data is calculated.\n- If the calculated checksum is equal to the checksum transmitted by sender, then there are no transmission errors\n- If both the checksums are not equal, the sender is requested to resend the data.\n\n\n### Echo check\n\n- In this the data received is sent back to the sender \n- The sender compares the two sets of data for transmission errors\n- This method is not very reliable because it cannot be decided in which transmission the data was corrupted.\n- An error-free echo check would prove that no data has changed or been corrupted.\n\n### Check digits\n\n- Check digits is another method that is used to detect errors.\n- In this method, an additional digit is added to the end of a string of numbers\n- This bit is calculated using a standard algorithm and is called a check digit\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/HardwareAndWiFi":{"title":"Hardware and Wi-Fi","content":"\n## Wired Connections\n\n### Copper Cables\n\n#### Coaxial \n\n- Cables need to be replaced from time to time as the insulation may degrade.\n\n#### Unshielded twisted pair\n\n- Copper cables are twisted around each other.\n\n### Fibre-optic cable\n\n- Made of glass\n- The digital data is transmitted in the form of light signals using the principle of total internal reflection.\n\n### Ethernet\n\n- Ethernet is one of the most used technologies in LANs since the 1980s.\n- LAN is used to interconnect devices using a wired medium such as UTP copper cables or fibre-optic cables, hubs and switches.\n- This technology supports transmission rates of up to 100Gb/s\n\n#### Ethernet Network\n\n- An ethernet network is divided into various segments\n- Network interface card and routers segment data into frames\n- An error-checking mechanism is applied to the frames\n- The receiver checks for errors in the frames, and in case of error, the sender is requested to resend the data packet.\n\n\n#### Disadvantages of Ethernet\n\n- Length of cabling is limited\n- Limited size of segments results in more data packets, hence more collisions\n- CSMA/CD is not optimal when a large number of devices are present in a network. Therefore, a network is segmented and more switches are used.\n\n### CSMA/CD\n\n- In an Ethernet network, if two data frames are transmitted at the same time, both frames may collide with each other resulting in errors\n- CSMA/CD is a technology incorporated into LANs to overcome this issue\n- In CSMA/CD the sender senses the channel before sending data frames. The data frames are only sent if the channel is sensed to be silent. \n\n- In case two senders transmit at the same time, collision occurs and the data corrupts. \n- In CSMA, the problem with the scenario is solved as the senders receive a corrupted form of data frame sent by them. \n- Then the senders wait for a random amount of time and resend the data\n- As the waiting time is different for both senders, data collision is avoided\n\n## Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)\n\n- A mechanism to detect errors in a data packet\n- Extra information is generated from the data using an algorithm such as a checksum\n- This checksum is added to the packet before transmission by the sender\n- When this packet is received by the receiver, it calculates the checksum using the same algorithm.\n\n- If the expected number is returned, there are no errors. If different numbers are returned, the packet will be resent.\n\n# Wireless Connectivity\n\n- A wireless network uses radio signals to connect devices\n\n## Radio Transmission \n\n- Radio signals are identified using their frequency\n- Wi-Fi uses 2.4GHz and 5GHz\n- The range of this signal is up to 20 metres. This range can vary with the thickness of a wall as the signal needs to pass through it.\n\n### Wi-Fi\n\n- A computer requires a wireless network adaptor to connect to a wireless network\n- A computer a long with a network interface controller is referred to as a station.\n- All stations within a WAP share the same channel and are tuned to the frequency of a channel to receive transmissions.\n\n### 2.4GHz waveband\n\n- This waveband can be separated into different channels\n- A channel is a communication link to send and receive data\n- Many channels are adjacent to each other\n- Adjacent channels may cause interference which leads to data corruption.\n- There are typically only 4 “clear” bands on 2.4GHz\n\n### Performance of Wi-Fi systems\n\n- A Wi-Fi access point shares its bandwidth among several devices. This might lead to poor performance.\n- Performance of this system depends on the number of users and usage data.\n\n### CSMA/CA in Wireless Networks\n\n- Wireless networks use CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) to allow nodes to transmit data at high speed and avoiding the collision of data frames at the same time.\n- Wireless stations are not capable of transmitting and receiving at the same time and hence, if a collision occurs during a transmission, it cannot be detected.\n\n- When a wireless node tries to send a data frame, it checks whether the channel is idle or not using CSMA/CA.\n- If the channel is idle, the data is sent. If the channel is busy, the node waits a random amount of time before checking the channel again. The mechanism is called a back-off mechanism and reduces the chances of collision.\n- The data frame is sent when the channel is sensed to be free.\n- After receiving the data frame, an acknowledgement is sent back to confirm that the data is received without any errors.\n- If the acknowledgement is not received within a specified amount of time, the data frame is sent again by the user.\n\n#### Hidden Nodes Problem\n\n- Hidden nodes problem is a scenario in which a node can communicate with the wireless access point, but cannot communicate directly with other nodes that are communicating with the access point.\n- As a result, multiple nodes may send data to the access point at the same time leading to interference \n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230525110546.png]]\n\n- In the example given, nodes A and C communicate with B (WAP) but are unable to communicate with each other.\n\n### Security in Wi-Fi systems\n\n- Wireless networks are preferred for their ease of installation\n- Security of data cannot be assured in this network\n- Any device with a Wi-Fi facility will be able to receive data packets in that range of 20m.\n- Therefore, it is important to secure data using encryption techniques.\n\n#### WPA 2\n\n- Uses AES to secure data.\n- Password protection is enabled on the network.\n- An SSID (Service Set Identifier) is used to identify an individual network (not WPA specific), disabling broadcasting can improve security.\n\n### Circuit Switching\n\n- This type of connection is used in traditional telephone networks. This type of switching does not allow other data packets to be transmitted during a connection session.\n- In case of circuit failure, the communication is disrupted. These disadvantages are overcome in packet switching.\n\n- An advantage of this is that data packets are sent serially. \n- Bandwidth is wasted if it isn't being used\n- Sender and transmitter must talk at the same rate\n- If it breaks, a whole line needs replacing\n\n### Packet Switching\n\n- A routing table contains information about the topology of the network. Using this information, a router forwards the packets to the next router using certain algorithms.\n- In case a router is not available, the data packet is sent through another router.\n\n\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Layering":{"title":"Layering","content":"\n## Concept of layering\n\n- Layering is the process of breaking a complex process into several processes or layers in a particular order.\n- Layers help to solve a complex problem by dividing into a set of simple layers.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230320095439.png]]\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230320095507.png]]\n\n- Now, a group of developers can work together to solve each layer. \n\n## Network Layers\n\n### Application Layer\n\n- This layer is responsible for ensuring that the data supplied by the sender from their application can be viewed by the receiver's application.\n- These applications allow the user to access emails, websites and perform file transfers.\n\n### Transport Layer\n\n- The data from the application layer is divided into various segments in the transport layer at the sender's side.\n- The various segments are called packets.\n- Each packet also contains a header that denotes the total number of packets, packet number and port number. \n- The port number reflects the protocol\n- If any packets go missing during transmission, the transport layer is where a resend will be handled (TCP only).\n- Windowing happens at this point\n- TCP/UDP exist at this layer.\n\n### Internet Layer\n\n- Internet layer adds the sender's and receiver's addresses in the data packet.\n- Using the information, this layer routes the data packet from the sender to receiver.\n- A socket specifies to which device the data packet must be sent to and to what application it was sent from.\n\n### Link Layer\n\n- Link layer deals with the physical connectivity between sender and receiver.\n- The Network Interface Card (NIC) of any device is uniquely identified using its MAC address.\n- Link layer adds the MAC address of the sender and the receiver to the network address.\n- Now the data is streamed to the correct hardware device.\n- This layer is also responsible for error detection, hardware addressing, media access control and defining physical layer standards.\n\n## Encapsulation of data\n\n- Each layer of the TCP/IP stack adds information to the data. This is called encapsulation.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230320101342.png]]\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworkProtocols":{"title":"Network protocols","content":"\n- Networking protocols define the rules and conventions for communication across a network.\n- Protocols define speed of transmission, error checking, async/sync etc.\n\n## Handshaking\n\n- The protocols are established between sender and receiver before starting communication.\n- This is done via a handshake.\n- Data packets are exchanged between various routers.\n\n### TCP 3-way handshake\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230310135158.png]]\n\n## IP vs Mac address\n\n- A Mac address is provided by the NIC manufacturer and cannot be changed, but can be spoofed.\n- An IP address is typically assigned by a router, and allows for easier communication across the internet and within your local network.\n\n- IP addresses are more commonly used in networking applications.\n\n### IPs\n\n#### IPv4\n\n- 32-bit IP addresses\n- Around 4 billion possible IPs\n- 8 bits form an octet. Each octet may represent any number between 0 to 255.\n- 192.123.45.94\n\n#### Reserved IP Ranges\n\nA -\u003e 10.x.x.x /8\nB -\u003e 172.16.0.1 - 172.31.255.255.255 / 16\nC -\u003e 192.168.x.x /24\n\nLink local 127.0.0.1\n\nx.x.x.0 is a network address rather than a device address\n\nBroadcast address x.x.x.255\n\n\n\n#### IPv6\n\n- 128-bit IP addresses\n- fc00:bbbb:bbbb:bb01::34:4e8e\n\n\n## Classful Addressing\n\n- Initially, a network consisted of different classes\n- Each class has a different structure of addressing\n- Consider a large organisation; it will require class A addressing. In a single network, 2^24 hosts can be used. In total, only 2^7 such organisations can be addressed.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230316105337.png]]\n\n## Classless Addressing\n\n- In classless addressing, an IP address has an 8-bit suffix that specifies the number of bits allocated for network ID.\n- For example, if the 8-bit suffix represents the number 14 and the remaining 18 bits represent the host ID.\n- For example, 172.45.9.3/14 is represented in binary as given. \n\n## Subnet masking\n\n- A subnet mask is used to identify the two parts of an IP address.\n- For example, a subnet mask 255.0.0.0 represents a network ID of 8 bits and a host ID of 24 bits. This is equivalent to a suffix /8 in classless addressing. (CIDR)\n- When AND operation is performed between an IP address and its subnet mask, its network ID is obtained.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230316110106.png]]\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230316110304.png]]\n\n\n## Public and private\n\n### Private\n- These addresses need not be registered on the internet registry.\n- Private addressing for internal networks saves unique IPv4 addresses that can be used for routers and web servers that connect to the internet daily.\n\n### Public\n\n- Some public IP addresses are also identified using domin names.\n- A DNS server translates the domain name to an IP address.\n\n## Static and Dynamic addressing\n\n\n### Static Addressing\n\n- Static IP addresses are assigned by the network administrator. When the device is in use, this address remains unused.\n\n### Dynamic IP Addressing\n\n- An IP addressing can be used when the device is not used.\n- The protocol responsible for this is dynamic host control protocol (DHCP)\n\n## Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP)\n\n- DHCP also provides subnet masks and other automatic configuration details. This eliminates the problem of manual configuration.\n- Takes care of frequent changes in an IP address\n- Allocates private addresses within an internal network\n\n\n- Broadcast to all DHCP servers requesting an IP\n- A DHCP server offers an IP for a particular duration\n- Broadcasts a message confirming the request for IP\n- DHCP server that offered the IP address sends an acknowledgement and assigns the DHCP client the IP address.\n\n## Port Numbers\n\n- A port number is a 16-bit number attached to the IP address that is used to identify a process or application on a computer\n- Using this number, an application running in the client system is accessed.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230317121301.png]]\n\n*I am familiar with ports, so some information has been omitted.*\n\n## NAT—Network Address Translation\n\n- A network address translator provides external access to a privately addressed network as shown in the figure.\n- 1 public IP is shared between all private IPs.\n- Adds a layer of security \n- Private IP addresses are not available to external servers\n- Router tracks requests and reassigns them to the appropriate host\n- Port numbers are assigned with a specific time frame\n\n## Port Forwarding\n\n- Port forwarding is an application of NAT where port mappings are explicitly defined, allowing you to talk to services behind non-standard ports.\n\n\n## TCP/IP \n\n- TCP/IP is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices of different manufacturers on the internet.\n\n- Source -\u003e Sender of the message\n- Destination -\u003e Receiver of the message\n- Packet sequence -\u003e The order of the message in which it should be reassembled\n- Data -\u003e Contents of the message\n- Error checking -\u003e Bits to make sure that the message has been received correctly\n\n\n## User Datagram Protocol (UDP)\n\n- A protocol similar to TCP but operates at a faster rate\n- UDP: message is sent in the form of chunks or called datagrams\n- TCP: message is sent as segments\n- Used for gaming and video calling over the internet\n\n## HTTP\n\n### CRUD\n\nC -\u003e Create -\u003e POST\nR -\u003e Read -\u003e GET\nU -\u003e Update -\u003e PUT\nD -\u003e Delete -\u003e DELETE\n\n## Email Communications: SMTP, POP3, IMAP\n\n### SMTP\n\n- Send emails\n\n### POP3\n\n- Retrieve mail from server\n- Delete mail from server\n\n### IMAP\n\n- Retrieve message from server\n- Leave mail on the remote server\n\n\n## SSH (Secure Shell Protocol)\n\n- Remotely access a terminal on another computer through a text interface\n- SSH is used by network administrators and developers\n\n- Typically runs on port 22\n\n## FTP (File Transfer Protocol)\n\n- FTP defines the set of rules for transferring large files on the Internet\n- The files required for a website are organised on a web server using this protocol.\n- Users may have private access to upload the files. Other users may be given access to download these files.\n\n## VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)\n\n- A set of protocols that enable you to make voice calls over the internet using UDP.\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworkSecurity":{"title":"Network Security","content":"\n### Why is computer security important?\n\n- Valuable data or infrastructure is held on internet-connected devices\n- Hacking can be used to exploit vulnerabilities in computer systems and extract data, hold infrastructure ransom or cause other disruptions.\n\n### Network Managers\n\n- Responsible for network security\n- Various methods are used to prevent network threats and used to keep networks secure, however there are always vulnerabilities that can be exploited\n\n### Threats to networks\n\n#### Malware\n\n- Malware is a type of program that can replicate itself and cause a computer to malfunction.\n- It can cause the computer to stop, misbehave or become unresponsive.\n- May delete or corrupt files\n\n##### Examples of malware\n\n- Virus\n\t- Replicates\n\t- Causes damage\n- Worms\n\t- Replicates without user intervention\n\t- Type of virus\n- Trojans\n\t- User is tricked to install malware \n\t- The Trojan pretends to be something else\n\n##### Virus\n\n- Copied to memory when the host file is executed. Once the virus resides in the memory, any file copied to the memory can be infected.\n- Viruses may reside in macro files:\n\t- Usually attached to a word processing or spreadsheet file\n\t- It infects the template when the data file is opened\n\t- These viruses tend to be less harmful\n\n##### Worms\n\n- Worms trick the user to open an infected file or email attachment\n- Worms self-replicate without user action and spread to other users by sending emails to them from the infected computer's address book.\n- Worms affect the speed of the computer, server and and network by occupying bandwidth\n\n##### Virus vs Worms\n\n- Both self replicate\n- Viruses only replicate when the host file is opened or executed\n- Alternatively worms do not require any user action to self-replicate\n\n##### Trojans\n\n- Trick the user into opening or executing an infected file by camouflaging in the form of a program.\n- Trojans infect the computer and give access to the trojan creator via a backdoor\n- Backdoors allow outsiders to bypass security checks by opening an access channel.\n- Some actions of a trojan creators are stealing personal information and sending spam email via infected network resources\n- Groups of computers that function like this are called botnets\n- Unlike viruses and worms, trojans do not self-replicate\n\n\n##### Malware: Preventative Measures\n\n- Malware can be prevented by installing antivirus software and avoiding software from unknown sources. Must be updated regularly to avoid becoming vulnerable to new attacks.\n- Backing up a system in an off-site mode will help to retrieve the corrupted data is attacked by malware.\n- Updating the operating system and browser also helps in fixing security vulnerabilities. Browsers identify harmful sites.\n\n##### Phishing\n\n- A user might receive emails to gain personal banking details which could be misused\n- The emails look as though they are sent by their bank\n- The user clicks on a link and enters their personal information into a fake banking website, giving the attacker their credentials\n\n- Not always easily identifiable, some are much better than others\n- It is always important to check the URL and email address before interacting\n- Many email providers filter out a lot of phishing emails using automatic filters\n\n### Denial of Service (DoS)\n\n- Denial of service attacks prevent a user from accessing part of a network such as an Internet server.\n- A user can be prevented from accessing websites, emails and banking applications.\n- Aims to overwhelm the server, does not really work against modern hardware.\n\n\n### Data interception and theft\n\n- Data packets travelling across a network can be intercepted and read by a third-party\n- This can be prevented by ensuring the communications are encrypted with a secure algorithm\n- Packet sniffing software such as Wireshark can be used to examine packets moving across a network that you are currently connected to. \n- Some protocols such as VoIP can be reconstructed through this method\n- Sometimes it is legitimate to use this software to analyse network trends and detect intrusion attempts. This is done by organisations.\n- In wireless LAN, this is done by using special Wi-Fi adapters\n- It is easy for an attacker to intrude a wireless signal as this can be done from a range of 300m\n- It is important to encrypt data using WPA (Wi-Fi protected access) that uses a key of at least 128 bits.\n- Keys are often regenerated for each packet to avoid intrusion.\n\n### Brute force attack\n\n- An attacker tries many passwords with the hope that he will guess it correctly.\n- The attacker tries all the possible passwords systematically until the correct one is found. \n- Short passwords can be easily determined\n#### Preventative measures\n\n- A brute force attack is delayed by using a CAPTCHA\n- This requires a user to answer a different question between successive attempts\n- Users are advised to use long, alphanumeric passwords as a measure to improve security.\n\n### SQL injection\n\n- SQL injection is a type of attack in which an attacker executes a malicious SQL statement in a web server's database\n- Hence, an unauthenticated user may gain access to sensitive information \n- An example would be typing `DROP *` into a search box (destructive) or something like `SELECT *` to return the information\n\n### Pharming\n\n- Pharming is a type of attack in which malicious code is installed on the user's computer or the web server that they access without their knowledge\n- This would then redirect the user to a fake website\n\n#### Preventative measures\n\n- A user should ensure that a proper SSL connection is active as this will highlight an issue\n- Ensure relevant anti-spyware software is running \n- Check that the URL matches what is expected\n\n### Unpatched software\n\n- Software applications are constantly upgraded by developers to improve security\n- Users receive patches that update the software\n- Unpatched software may expose you to unnecessary risk\n\n### Shoulder Surfing\n\n- Shoulder surfing is an attack where the password or pin numbers of a user are obtained by the attacker just by observing them.\n\n\n### Blagging\n\n- The attacker creates a situation to trick the user into providing sensitive information or perform actions that are not usually permitted.\n\n\n### Buffer overflow attack\n\n- Malware uses a buffer overflow attack to write values to memory locations that are larger than it can handle\n- As a result, neighbouring locations are overwritten\n- In this way, an attacker gains access to locations they do not have\n- Now the processor thinks that there are new instructions to execute, and will perform actions as defined by attackers. \n\n\n### Preventing Network Threats\n\n\u003e “One single vulnerability is all an attacker needs. - Window Snyder”\n\n\n#### Penetration Testing\n\n- Penetration testing is a testing method to analyse a computer system or network for possible vulnerabilities that an attacker may take advantage of.\n- Penetration testing can be automated by software and involves the following steps:\n\t- Identifying a vulnerability in the system\n\t- Setting up an attack to check the vulnerability\n\t- Carrying out the attack\n\t- Testing the ability of the system to recover any lost or corrupted data after the attack\n\n#### Firewalls\n\n- Hardware and/or software placed between the user's computer and an external network, such as the internet, to filter data in and out of the computer.\n- Firewalls are installed on servers, computers, or routers depending upon the network requirements\n- A hardware firewall is a computer that consists of two network interface cards, one connected to the internal network and the other connected to the external network.\n- Checks whether the incoming and outgoing data meet the set of requirements imposed by the network administrator.\n\n- Preventing malware and hackers from accessing the internal network.\n- Prevent Denial of Service attacks.\n- A user is notified when the software in a system tries to access an external source. \n- When a firewall is software based, it is usually integrated into the operating system.\n\n#### Packet filtering or static filtering\n\n- A firewall examines the source and destination IP address in a packet\n- Only the data packets with permitted IP addresses are allowed\n- Packets may be filtered based on the protocol being used o the port number it is trying to access\n- If data fails to meet these requirements a warning is issued or the data is dropped and not allowed to pass through\n\n#### Stateful inspection or dynamic filtering\n\n- The process of filtering data packets by examining the payload is called stateful inspection or packet filtering\n- Based on the recent conversations, packets will be filtered\n- A data packet is rejected if it does not form a part of a registered communication.\n\n#### Limitations of firewalls\n\n- The use of modems by an internal computer to bypass a firewall cannot be prevented\n- Does not take care of password strength and carelessness of an internal user.\n- Firewalls can also be disabled in stand-alone computers according to a user's choice, the computer is not safe\n- In an organisation, it is important for a network manager to control the firewall.\n\n#### Proxy server\n\n- A proxy server installed between a user's computer and the web server acts as a firewall.\n\n- Access to certain websites can be blocked\n- Response time for a web browser's request can be reduced by using a cache\n- During the first visit to a website, its home page is stored in a proxy server cache\n- During the next visit, certain features of the website are loaded from this cache, speeding up access\n- A proxy server hides the IP address of a user, enhancing security\n\n#### Authentication\n\n- Authentication is used to provide access to trusted parties. The security is further strengthened using encryption.\n- To login to systems each user is provided with sets of usernames and passwords\n- The various sets of usernames and passwords are stored in a security file. If the user provides the correct set of usernames and passwords they are granted access. If they do not match, their access is refused.\n- Some systems may ask the user to enter only certain characters of the password to shield from potential keyloggers.\n\n\n##### Biometric Authentication\n\n- Biometrics refers to the authentication techniques that rely on measurable physical characteristics.\n- Some examples of such characteristics are fingerprint scans, retina scans, and face and voice recognition. \n\n\n#### Security protocols\n\n- SSL and TLS are two protocols that ensure communication between the user and the webserver is encrypted.\n- Browsers typically display a padlock when this kind of connection is active. \n\n- TLS is the newest protocol\n\n---\n\n\n#### Encryption\n\n- Encoding a message in such a way that only allows authorised users to decipher it.\n- When an unauthorised user receives an encrypted message, they cannot decipher it.\n- Public/Private key encryption is typically used here.\n\n#### Symmetric vs Asymmetric Ciphers\n\n- Symmetric ciphers use the same method in different directions to encrypt/decrypt\n- Asymmetric ciphers use clock arithmetic to perform a one way function.\n\n\n#### Keys\n\n##### Private keys\n\n- Only kept by the intended recipient \n- Used to decrypt the message\n- Never transmitted\n\n##### Public keys\n\n- Available to all users\n\n\n#### Encryption using keys\n\n- A key making algorithm is responsible for generating public and private keys of the receiver.\n- The public key can be found in a directory.\n- Sender encrypts the message using a public key in this directory.\n- Receiver receives this data and decrypts it using the private key.\n\n#### Digital signatures\n\n- Certificates run the same hashing algorithm against packets to assure that a packet has not been altered in transit\n- A hash can be produced by the sender and then encrypted with a private key before being transmitted by the sender. \n- If the receiver decrypts the packet and calculates a different hash, they know that something is wrong.\n- A certificate authority (CA) such as Let's Encrypt will issue a digital certificate \n\n\n### MAC Address Filtering\n\n- The router compares the MAC address of the device requesting a connection with a list of approved devices.\n- The list of approved devices is managed by a network administrator\n- MAC address filtering is not completely secure\n- MAC addresses can be filtered \n- A hacker could intercept packets and find the MAC address of an approved device and then imitate it.\n\n\n\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking":{"title":"Networking","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworksQs":{"title":"Networks Questions","content":"\n## Parallel vs Serial Communications\n\n### Parallel\n\n- Port has 8 data wires\n- Large series of ground and control wires\n- Examples\n\t- PCI expansion ports\n\t- Hard-disk connectors\n\n### Serial\n\n- Single data wire or single differential pair\n- Other wires are ground or control wires\n- Examples\n\t- USB\n\t- SATA\n\t- PCI Express\n\n\n## Network Definitions\n\n### Bandwidth\n\n- The amount of data that can be passed over a communication channel over a specific period of time\n\n### Bit-rate\n\n- The amount of data that is transferred in a second, measured in bits.\n\n### Baud rate\n\nThe rate at which the number of signal elements or changes to the signal occurs per second when it passes through a transmission medium.\n\nThe higher the baud rate the faster the data is sent/received.\n\n\n### Simplex\n\n- Communication channel that sends data in one direction only \n\n#### Half Duplex\n\n- Simplex\n- But the direction can be reversed\n\n### Duplex\n\n- A point to point system made of two or more devices in a network that can communicate in both directions\n\n## How changing x effects network performance\n\n### Bandwidth\n\n- The amount of data that can be transmitted through a communication channel.\n- Bandwidth = upper frequency - lower frequency\n\n### Bit rate\n\n- Higher bit rate results in faster speeds\n\n### Baud rate\n\n- Higher baud rate results in higher speeds.\n- The baud rate is the number of times per second that the electronic state of a channel can change.\n\n- Bit rate = baud rate x number of bits per signal\n\n### Simplex\n\n- Faster but less reliable\n- Simplex is one way transmission\n\n### Duplex\n\n- Slightly slower but more reliable\n- Data can flow in both directions at once\n- \n\n## ADSL—Why do you never get advertised speeds?\n\n- On an ADSL setup, you don't get a dedicated connection. The connection speed advertised is shared between multiple properties, so if you have several different people using the internet from different households, they all use some of the ADSL connection's resources.\n\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.6315213Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/NumberBases":{"title":"Number Bases","content":"\nA computer stores data in switches, represented as 1 or 0, on or off.\n\n## Size of computer memory\n\nA Binary digit is a bit.\n\nA nibble is 4 bits.\n\nA byte is 8 bits.\n\nA byte is the smallest unit of memory in a computer system.\n\nMemory sizes were originally base 2.\n\nIn this system, the prefixes kibi-, mebi-, gibi-, tebi- are used to avoid conflicts with the base 10 system.\n\nThis is now used for representing the size of RAM modules only.\n\n1 kibibyte (kiB) = 1024 bytes\n1 mebibyte (miB) = 1024^2 bytes\n1 gibibyte (GiB)= 1024^3 bytes\n1 tebibyte (TiB) = 1024^4 bytes\n\nAfter the standarisation of base 10 representation, memory sizes are now given as base 10.\n\n1 kilobyte (kB) = 1000 bytes\n1 megabyte (MB) = 1000 kilobytes\n1 gigabyte (GB) = 1000MB\n1 terabyte (TB) = 1000GB\n1 petabyte (PB) = 1000TB\n\n## Converting denary to binary\n\nDivide the number by 2, write down the remainder.\n\nContinue dividing the quotients by 2 and write down the remainder.\n\nList all the remainders in reverse order.\n\nSo if I have 10:\n\n```\n16 8 4 2 1 \nCannot take 16 from 10\nfirst column = 0\nCan take 8 from 10\nsecond column = 1\nremaining is 2\ncannot take 2 from 4\nthird column = 0\ncan take 2 from 2 \nfourth column = 1\nnothing left, final column = 0\n```\n\nBinary number = 01010\n\n## Binary combinations\n\nA one-bit system has a one-place value. And 3-bit has three place values, which allows for 8 possible combinations.\n\n## Representing numbers\n\nA 16-bit system can represent integers up to 2^16\n\n8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit are the most common bit lengths or word lengths.\n\n## 🎉 Quiz\n1) What is the difference between the binary and denary system?\n- The denary system has a base value of 10, whereas the binary system has a base value of 2. ✅\n2) Which of the following binary numbers represent the denary number 14?\n- 1101 ✅\n3) What is the denary equivalent of the binary number 0101?\n- 5 ✅\n4) How many number of bits is present in 1 GiB?\n- 8 x 20^30 bits ✅\n5) How many number of bytes is present in 1 TiB?\n- 1024^4 bytes ✅\n6) What is the binary equivalent of the denary number 47?\n- 00101111 ✅\n7) How many binary combinations are possible in a 5-bit system?\n- 2^5 (32) ✅\n8) What number does an odd number end with when represented in the binary system?\n- 1 ✅\n9) An 8-bit system can represent up to what integer?\n- 255 ✅\n10) What is the sum of 1011 and 0010?\n- 1101 ✅\n11) What is the denary equivalent for the binary number 1101?\n- 13 ✅\n12) What is denary equivalent for the binary number 11001?\n- 25 ✅\n13) What is the denary equivalent of the binary number 10111011?\n- 187 ✅\n\n## Overflow Errors\nA CPU with an 8-bit register has a capacity of up to 111111111 in binary. If an extra bit is added, we get an overflow error.\n\nThe number of bits a register can hold is called the word size. Exceeding the capacity of the word size will cause a failure with an overflow error.\n\nSometimes you will get a wrong number, or you may get a system issue where the computer fetches something else from RAM - issuing random commands. \n\n## Binary Shifts for Multiplication\nShifting the number 132 to the left is effectively multiplying it by 2, resulting in the value of 264.\n\n## Binary Shifts for Division\nShifting the number 171 right will divide to 85 - which is incorrect because 85.5 would be the exact answer. This is why we need floating point handling.\n\nCircular right shifts exist to maintain number length in binary representation. So when shifting right, a zero will be moved to the leftmost part of the number. \n\nA larger number can be stored across multiple numbers. So a 16-bit number can be stored across 2 8-bit registers.\n\nTo divide a 16-bit number by 2 in an 8-bit processor:\n\n- Shift the contents of Reg A to the right\n- Perform a circular right shift in Reg B\n\nThere is a Carry Bit - which is a seperate part of memory where we can hold a bit for carrying operations.\n\n---\n## Recall\n1) 2^5-1 = 31 (32 total numbers)\n2) 98 -\u003e 8 bit bin\n01100100\n3) 01100110 -\u003e den\n102\n4) 00100100 * 6 \n11011000\n5) 11001100/8\n00110011 *(inc)*\n\n\n## Bitwise Operations\nThe logic operations are:\n\n- NOT: Complements the binary value\n- AND: Produces the output '1' only when both inputs are '1'\n- OR: Produces output '1' when at least 1 of the outputs is '1'\n- XOR: Produces output '1' when both the outputs are different, otherwise produces '0'\n\n## Representing negative numbers in binary\nSign and magnitude are combined to make a binary number that can be positive (+) or negative (-).\n\n12:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |\n39:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 |\n96:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n85:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |\n127:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |\n\n-12:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |\n\n-39:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 |\n\n-96:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n\n-85:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |\n\n-127:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |\n\n## Finding Two's Complement\n- Finding two's complement is an alternative method to represent negative numbers\n- Most computers use this method to perform mathematical operations\n\n0101\n˯\n1011\n\n- Work right to left\n\n- Leave first one untouched\n\n- Invert all additional characters\n\n+102\n\n011000000\n˯\n10000000\n\n+63\n0111111\n˯\n1100001\n\n+127\n1111111\n˯\n10000001\n\n-102\n\n\nWhen dealing with Two's Complement, the overflow bit should always be discarded.\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.639521291Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/NumberSystems":{"title":"Number Systems","content":"\n## Number Systems\nWe typically use the denary number system, where everything is based on 10, but computers work in binary, where everything is base 2.\n\nSo denary looks like:\n\n1 -\u003e 10 -\u003e 100 -\u003e 1000\n\nAnd binary digits represent:\n\n1 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 64 -\u003e 128 -\u003e 256\n\n\nThe binary number 10100 is equivalent to denary 20.\n\nAnd 01111111 is 127\n\n## Conversion Practice\n\n64 -\u003e Binary\n\n=01000000\n\n\n130 -\u003e Binary\n\n\n= 10000010\n\n\n255 -\u003e Binary\n\n= 11111111\n\n\n196 -\u003e Binary\n\n= 0110000100\n\n\n## Handling negatives\n\nBCD is a primitive method for handling negatives, but it is unused because it is slow and inefficient in terms of resource utilization.\n\nSo instead we use a **sign bit**, where we make the largest column in the binary pattern an indicator for whether or not the number is *positive* or *negative*.\n\nSo you would replace the heading:\n\n128 - 64 - 32 - 16 - 8 - 4 - 2 - 1\n\nWith:\n\nSign - 64 - 32 - 16 - 8 - 4 - 2 - 1\n\nThis limits the range of numbers that can be stored, but can be applied to larger binary patterns too.\n\nThe main method used is [Two's Complement](sixth/CompSci/Theory/TwosComplement)\n\n## Binary Task\n\n### Converting binary to denary\n\n14 -\u003e Bin\n\n64 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 1\n0 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 0\n\n= 0001110\n\n60 -\u003e Bin\n\n64 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 1\n0 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0\n\n= 0111100\n\n200 -\u003e Bin\n\n128 -\u003e 64 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 1\n1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0\n\n= 11001000\n\n### Binary Arithmetic\n\n56 + 32 = 88\n\n64 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 1\n0 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0\n\n56 = 0111000\n\n64 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 1\n0100000\n\n0111000\n0100000\n\n+\n\n1111000\n\nAdvanced numbers and mathematical systems are explained [here](sixth/CompSci/Theory/DataRepFundamentals)\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.639521291Z","tags":["compsci","theory","datarep"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Security":{"title":"Security","content":"\n## Symmetric Encryption\n\n- Sender encrypts a message with a key\n- Receiver decrypts the message with a key\n- Both the sender's key and the receiver's key are the same\n- The sender must transmit the key securely. Otherwise it may be intercepted by a third-party\n\n## Asymmetric Encryption\n\n- Symmetric key encryption can be easily cracked by unintended users.\n- Cannot be used for highly confidential information.\n- Therefore, algorithms with stronger keys are used\n- The bigger a key, the better the security.\n- More than one key is used to improve encryption.\n\n## Keys\n\n### Public keys\n\n- Public keys are kept available to all users and are used to encrypt a message\n\n### Private keys\n\n- Private keys, which are different from public keys, are only available (although not transmitted directly, used in a mathematical calculation) to the intended recipient. These keys are used to decrypt the message.\n\n### Encryption using keys\n\n- A key making algorithm is responsible for generating public and private keys\n\n## Security in WiFi: WPA 2\n\n- The methods used to secure a wireless network are WiFi Protected Access (WPA) and WiFi Protected Access II (WPA2).\n- WPA2 replaced WPA. WPA2 uses AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) to secure data. In AES, for every data packet, a new 128-bit key is generated.\n- Each network is identified by a 32-character code called Service Set Identifier (SSID).\n- A computer may be within range of several wireless networks and SSID helps us to identify the correct network. SSIDs are locally unique. Wireless networks are protected with passwords or security keys which is an identifier of up to 32 bytes.\n\n### Whitelists\n\n- A network administrator sets up a list of computers to control access to the network.\n- The list is based on the MAC addresses of the computer that are allowed to access the network called MAC address whitelists.\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.639521291Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Sound":{"title":"Sound","content":"\nSound is stored the same way as other digital files. However, a soundwave is a continuous signal, that isn't directly digital. \n\nAn ADC (Analogue Digital Converter) is required to convert a soundwave to a digital sound file. It requires thousands of samples to be taken per second.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017102136.png]]\n\nA sample is a snapshot of what sound was detected at a specific point in time. If samples are played together at a high enough rate, sound that is close to the original can be played.\n\n## Factors Impacting Audio Quality\n- Sampling Rate: Number of samples per second\n- Bit depth: Number of bits used to represent each clip\n- Bit rate: Number of bit used per second of audio\n\n## Sampling Rate\n- Number of samples taken per second\n- The higher the rate, the greater the detail of the sound\n- Unit of sampling is represented in Hz\n- Each sample represents the amplitude of the wave at a certain point in time.\n- The most common sampling rate for music is 44,100 samples per second which is 44,100Hz (44.1kHz)\n- A VOIP typically has a sampling rate of 8kHz, which is enough for a human voice to be heard quickly, but the quality is reduced to a certain extent.\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017102345.png]]\n\n## Frequency\n- The number of oscillations per second is called frequency\n- It is measured in Hz and controls the pitch of the sound\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017102533.png]]\n\n## Nyquist's Theorem\n- The theorem states that:\n\t- For accurate sampling, the sampling rate must be at least twice the frequency of the highest frequency in the original sound signal.\n\t- When sampling rate is less than the frequency suggested by the theorem, the recording will not be accurate to the original sound.\n\n## Bit Depth\n- Bit depth is the number of bits available for each sample\n- The higher the bit depth, the higher the quality of the audio\n- A CD has a bit depth of 16 bits, and a DVD has a bit depth of 24 bits\n- An n bit system can have 2^n different values.\n\n### PCM\n- High-quality audio files are created as pulse-code modulation (PCM)\n- WAV or AIFF are uncompressed examples\n- The pulses of the induced electrical signal in the microphone\n\n## Bit Rates\n- The amount of data sampled per second (kbps)\n- **Bit rate = sampling rate x bit depth x channels**\n- Typically, stereo is the minimum channel count (2 channels)\n\n### Audio Quality\n- A reasonable music audio must have a minimum bit rate of 128bkps.\n- The greater the bit rate, the higher the quality.\n- This is why the audio quality of a CD is higher than that of Spotify.\n- Tidal is a music streaming solution that provides the highest streaming quality over the internet.\n\n## Analogue to Digital conversion\n\n- An analogue signal is a continuous signal which represents physical measurements.\n- A signal from a microphone is an example of an analogue signal.\n- However, a digital signal is a discrete signal that uses discontinuous data.\n\n## File size check\n- 24 bit depth\n- 2 channel - L \u0026 R\n- Sample rate 16kHz\n- 2.5 minutes long\nsample rate * bit depth * channels \n\n24 x 16000 x 2 = 768kbps\n768000 x 150= 115200000 bits\n/ 8 = 14.4 MB\n\n## (Musical Instrument Device Interface) MIDI\n\n- A communication protocol that enables electronic musical instruments to interact with each other using information and control signals.\n- Asynchronous serial 8-bit transmission\n- MIDI file instructs device on how to produce a musical note using several commands.\n- A command is identified by its specific sequence of bits.\n- You can think of it as the musical equivalent of an `SVG` file.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221107101325.png]]\n\n### Types of bytes\n- Status bytes\n\t- Indicates instruments about the type of action to be performed\n\t- The action of 16 channels are represented in this byte\n\t- Notes are ON or OFF\n\t- Key pressure—how hard a key is pressed\n- Data bytes\n\t- Information to status bytes\n\t- Pitch byte: denotes note to be played\n\t- Velocity note: denotes the loudness of the note.\n\n- Using a MIDI file, music identical to the original can be played every time.\n- A sequence program is required so that commands can be recognised.\n- Smaller in size than MP3\n- MIDI does not contain any audio track\n- Used in web pages, ringtones etc\n- Used for creating electronic orchestras.\n\n---\n1) Bit depth of 8 bits, what value range can be represented?\n2^n = 2^8 = 256\n2) Calculate the bit rate of a 32-bit system with a sampling rate of 44,100 samples per second and 2 channels.\n32 * 44100 * 2 = 2822400 bits\n \n2822.4kbps\n\n3) What is the file size of a 4-minute song with bit rate of question 2/\n2,822,400 * 240 = 677,376,600 bits = 84.67MB\n\n---\n1) Analogue sound is converted to digital using a DAC to sample.\n2) Sound files from the internet are typically lower quality than a CD sound file, because online services tend to use lower bit rates and higher compression to reduce hosting costs and increase speed.\n3) If the bit depth is increased, then there is a greater range of sound possible. The file size will also be increased.\n4) VoIP uses a sampling rate of 8kHZ because it is enough for you to understand a human voice. Anything higher would be inefficient.\n5) Factors affecting audio quality: sample rate, bit depth \u0026 bit rate.\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.639521291Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/SystemsSoftware":{"title":"Systems software","content":"\n## Hardware vs Software\n\n- The physical components of the computer are hardware.\n- Programs that run on a computer are software.\n- Software and hardware must be compatible with each other\n- All components communicate using inputs and outputs\n\n### System Software\n- Responsible for hardware management\n- Managing computer systems\n- Window Management and Device Drivers\n\n### Application Software\n- Games, office tools, the things you use your computer for.\n\n## Operating Systems\n\n- Manage software **and** hardware\n- Handles I/O from/to user\n- Runs in the background\n- Linux, Windows, MacOS, Android, iOS etc are all examples of operating systems.\n- Acts as an interface between applications and physical hardware—usually providing APIs.\n\nOperating System Functionalities:\n\n- Memory Allocation (including SWAP)\n- Window Management\n- Kernel and Security of hardware access (including sandboxing)\n- Process Management\n- Hardware Management (device drivers, connectivity etc)\n- Failure Handling \u0026 Recovery\n- System Monitoring\n- Disk Management (defragmentation, filesystems)\n- User input handling, and output handling\n- Provide baseline APIs for hardware and cross-software interactions\n\n### Layers in an operating system\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221118122250.png]]\n\n- User Interface\n\t- Applications\n\t\t- Kernel\n\t\t\t- CPU\n\t\t\t- Memory\n\t\t\t- Devices\n\nThe kernel is the component of the operating system that handles the interaction with physical hardware.\n\nActions are taken based on the priority of the request.\n\n\n## Human-computer interface\n\n### GUI\nA graphical environment where you can use a mouse or touchscreen to interact with UI objects.\n\n### CLI\nDirect text-based interface with the computer. Faster, more flexible and efficient than a GUI, but harder to use.\n\n### BIOS (basic input/output system)\n\n- A BIOS chip is present on the motherboard\n- It runs before the operating system, but typically only tests hardware and then starts the bootloader\n- Provides a usable interface (that varies in appearance and interaction style) to change basic device settings and select a boot device.\n\n- UEFI is taking over from BIOS as it can bypass some checks and is faster.\n\n## Managing the CPU\n\n- Software must be loaded into memory from secondary storage and then commands must pass through the CPU to be executed.\n\n- Program is found on the storage drive\n- Section of RAM is allocated for the program and its data\n- Program is copied from storage drive into RAM\n- Program counter is set to the memory location\n- The program is now executed\n\n## Multitasking\n\n- An OS can run multiple programs at the same time.\n- It has to anyway, as multiple daemons need to run simultaneously.\n- To do this it must copy all programs into RAM, but then only one can be processed at once.\n- CPUs are extremely fast and can swap very quickly.\n- When one process is running, there are other processes waiting to run in a queue. They will likely swap every few ticks allowing all processes to progress at a similar rate, although priority will be given to the more urgent requests.\n\n### Scheduling\n- When multiple tasks need to be done, they have to be scheduled in a queue. The operating system may choose how to schedule jobs based on:\n- length\n- time waiting to run\n- priority\n\nThe \"scheduler\" is the module that manages this process\n\n### Scheduling Algorithms\n\n**First come, first served:** FCFS works simply by processing jobs in the order they are submitted.\n\n**Shortest Job First:** SJF always executes the shortest task first.\n\n**Round Robin:** Each job is allocated a time slice, which is a limited amount of CPU time. A job can also be put on hold if a high priority interrupt occurs.\n\n**Shortest remaining time:** Whichever job will be finished first will be done next. Reducing the number of waiting jobs is one of the main benefits of this. It does need to calculate how long each job would take to finish, giving it some delays.\n\n**Multiple level feedback queues:** Processes are separated into categories based on their need for the processor. They can be moved between queues as needed.\n\n## Memory Management\n\n- Memory is shared efficiently between processes.\n- When multiple processes are being run, the OS makes sure that each process has its data and instructions stored in a different memory location.\n- Hence, processes do not interfere with each other.\n- In the case where multiple processes require the same data, shared memory locations are used.\n\n### Segmentation\nThe memory required from process X is split into two parts.\n\nThis allows you to utilize all free memory.\n\n### Paging\nAlternatively, the memory can also be split into equally sized blocks called pages.\n\nThe information of which page is allocated to which process is maintained in a table.\n\n## Virtual memory\n- When too many processes are running and the RAM capacity is not enough, then a section of secondary storage drive is allocated for storing temporary data. This is called a swap file.\n- RAM is selected to be transferred to SWAP if it is not currently in use, to try and reduce friction and the frequency of reads/writes to the disk.\n\nUsing a swap file can be called **paging**.\n\n## Control of input-output devices\n\nThe peripheral devices are controlled using *protocols* and *device drivers*.\n\n### Protocols\n- Peripheral devices connected to the computer and programmed with machine code.\n- This describes the way that data is to be transferred between the device and the printer.\n\n### Device drivers\n\n- A device driver manages the connection with a peripheral device.\n- Handles the different requests between a computer and a device.\n- Defines the process to store outgoing data and incoming messages.\n\n- When a device is idle for more than a specific amount of time, a driver may put the device into sleep mode, to conserve power.\n- An OS comes equipped with various generic drivers, but some devices require the installation of specialized drivers.\n- A single driver is enough to control multiple peripherals.\n\t- Processes do not interfere in this case because the connection information for each device is isolated.\n\n## File Management Systems\n\n- To retrieve data from the file, an OS needs to know:\n\t- the organization structure\n\t- the amount of data needed in a structure\n\t- the protocol needed to communicate with the file system\n\n## Interrupts\n- Interrupts are signals sent from a device or application to the processor.\n- The processor will temporarily stop its current process and will service the interrupt signal.\n\n## Buffers\n\n- Hardware devices operate at a much lower speed compared to that of a processor\n- If the processor is sending data to an output device, it needs to wait for the hardware.\n- Buffers are temporary memory areas, which hold the data for the output hardware.\n\nBuffers and interrupts are used in conjunction.\n\n## Maintenance utilities: Disk defragmentation\n\n- When small files are deleted in, small parts of all clusters are free for usage. \n- If a large file needs to be stored, this file is fragmented into smaller parts and can then be stored in many small clusters.\n- When the large file is accessed, the read write head must move around lots, slowing the operation time.\n- Disk defragmentation allows for the rearrangement of data, placing all related data close to each other.\n\n## Types of OS\n\n**Distributed operating system:** Offers parallel processing system by sharing the load over multiple servers that are interlinked.\nA job is divided into simple tasks and each task is sent out over the network for the worker nodes to complete.\n\n**Multi-tasking system:** Are used in laptops and personal computers, where multiple processes run simultaneously.\nThe processor rapidly switches between processes, so it appears that multiple tasks are being completed simultaneously.\n\n**Multi-user multi-tasking system:** Based on time-sharing and implements efficient processor scheduling algorithms to divide the time between multiple users. In this system, numerous users are connected to one mainframe.\n\n**Embedded operating systems:** Are designed to perform a single task. Very limited resources. No permanent storage is provided. Accepts inputs from sensors and sends output to control devices.\n\nExamples include (certain): microwaves, missiles, automatic lights/doors, heating systems, many industrial systems.\n\n**Real time operating systems:** Mission critical systems that must be highly reliable, as their failure may have an impact on human lives. Meant to be fault tolerant with redundancy and fail safes.\n\nExamples include: ECGs, ATC, Nuclear reactors, elements of mobile phones, satellites. \n\nRTOS tend to duplicate critical infrastructure to allow for a backup to take over in the event of an emergency.\n\n**OS for mobile and handheld devices:** User interface, hardware operations and radio. \n\nEffectively two systems, one is real time and the other is mainly an interface.\n\n## Virtual Machines\n\n- A dedicated machine houses multiple guest operating systems from a hypervisor.\n- Core functionality is provided by the host operating system.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221125142347.png]]\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.639521291Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory":{"title":"Theory","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Computer Science](/ComputerScience)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.639521291Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/TwosComplement":{"title":"Two's Complement","content":"\n\nTwo's complement is a system that allows a binary number to be reversibly converted into a number with an equivalent value but negative.\n\n## The process\n\n1) Find the positive binary value for the negative number you are looking to represent.\n2) Add a leading `0` to the front of the number to show it is positive.\n3) Invert each bit in the number\n4) Add 1 to the number\n\n**Example:**\n\nDenary number: 10 \nBinary Equivalent: 1010\n\n01010\n\n10101\n\n10101\n\n*Result:* 10110\n\n## Python representation\nA fairly rudimentary representation of this algorithmically is as follows. It isn't perfect and has flaws - but it does the job a decent chunk of the time. Issues are included in the comments.\n\n```py\ndef FindComplement(inValue):\n # Expect the input to be a positive binary integer\n inValue = \"0\" + inValue\n #print(inValue)\n \n # Invert each bit\n inValue = list(inValue)\n outValue = []\n for bit in inValue:\n if bit == \"0\":\n bit = \"1\"\n elif bit == \"1\":\n bit = \"0\"\n outValue += bit\n #print(outValue)\n \n # Add 1 to the number\n if outValue[-1] == \"0\":\n outValue[-1] = \"1\"\n # Only works if the number is even. Not perfect.\n \n print(\"Two's complement is: \"+str(outValue)) \n\ninV = input(\"Enter binary number to complement: \")\nFindComplement(inV)\n```\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.639521291Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/TypesOfSoftware":{"title":"Types of Software","content":"\n## Recall\n- A real-time operating system is an operating system designed to perform functions in real-time, such as a missile. \n- Advantages of a virtual machine include it being able to isolate the guest operating system from the host, meaning that software running on the guest can be properly contained.\n- Multi-user, multi-tasking operating systems are designed to accommodate multiple connected users performing different operations simultaneously. \n\n## System Software\n\nResponsible for running hardware, providing vital infrastructure to the computer system. Examples include OS, drivers, utilities and protocols.\n\n## Application Software\n\nNon-vital software that the user is choosing to run, such as browsers or games.\n\n\n## Utilities\n\nApplications installed alongside the operating system that enable specific tasks to be performed easily to improve the operation of your system.\nSplit into maintenance and security options.\n\nExamples:\n\n- User accounts\n- Disk defragmentation\n- Backups\n\n## Backups\n\n**Full backup:** All system data is copied to an external backup system. It will take a relatively long time to create and restore, and will require a large amount of storage.\n\n**Incremental backup:** A full backup is taken once. And then only backing up changed data. It will take a relatively short amount of time to create and restore, and won't require much storage.\n\n**Differential backup:** Contains all the changed data since the last full backup. Takes a relatively short amount of time to create and restore and won't require much storage.\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:57:52.639521291Z","tags":["compsci"]}} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/indices/contentIndex.f928a388c129129aa178d0a48430e3ca.min.json b/indices/contentIndex.f928a388c129129aa178d0a48430e3ca.min.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..785eb51d31 --- /dev/null +++ b/indices/contentIndex.f928a388c129129aa178d0a48430e3ca.min.json @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +{"/":{"title":"Home","content":"\nThis site hosts various work I do openly, with the intention of creating an easily accessible, free knowledge base. Although please do keep in mind that this site is not intended to be used as an authoritative information source such as [📖 Wikipedia](https://wikipedia.org).\n\nMy biology work is not done here primarily, so it is copied up after being done in batches. This may result in significant delays or it **not being available here**.\n\nContent on this site may not all be owned or produced by me, and is hosted here under fair use. If you have the rights to any content here and wish to have it altered or removed, then please contact me to request this.\n\nThe accuracy of the information on the site cannot be fully guaranteed. I do my best but as I am learning these subjects some inaccuracies are inevitable and may not be corrected. If you notice something, please let me know or submit a correction on GitHub. I will appreciate any feedback.\n\nLots of computer science content such as code is not hosted here, but may appear on source control occasionally. If there is demand for algorithms or code to be explained here, then I may consider including it in future.\n\n\n# 🏫 Subjects\n\nYou can find all my subject work below\n\n### 💻[Computer Science](/tags/compsci)\n\n### 🦠[Biology](/tags/biology)\n\n### 💰[Business Studies](/tags/business)\n\nYou may also wish to search with [🏷️ tags](/tags)\n\nIf you notice an issue with the site or need help reach out to me on [👥 Mastodon](https://social.sethmb.xyz/@seth)\n\n\n## 📋FAQ\n\n### 🗺️ Does this website cover the whole A level spec for each subject?\n\nNo. Nor is it intended to. Chances are that by the time I have finished studying the course, it will cover *most* of the spec *for a specific exam board* per *subject*.\n\n### 🤝 Can I freely copy content from this website?\n\nAs the rights to content hosted here are not as straightforward as me being able to freely give everything away, I would strongly recommend you contact me before redistributing or modifying content.\n\n### 👨‍🎓 Can I use this to revise?\n\nYes, go for it. However, if something doesn't look right, challenge it. I would also strongly recommend combining this with other revision techniques, such as flash cards (see [🎴 Anki](https://ankiweb.net)). *I cannot guarantee the accuracy of any information provided here.*\n\n\n### ✅ Is this any good?\n\n[Yes.](http://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=3067434)\n\n### 🌐 The website doesn't look like it is in sync with GitHub. Why?\n\nGitHub changes are made in real time, however we only update the live website every hour. This can lead to some temporary discrepancies between the website and the source. This prevents the webserver from becoming overloaded if there are frequent changes. Source is built continuously on GitHub Actions and dropped into the `master` branch.\n\n### 🕵 Do you track me?\n\n**TLDR;** Yes, but I take as many measures as possible to respect your privacy. For more details, see [🛡️ privacy](/privacy)\n\n### 🖥️ What operating system is recommended for this website?\n\nAny works, but I'd strongly recommend [this one](https://biebian.sourceforge.net/)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.922712751Z","tags":[]},"/Biology":{"title":"Biology","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Home](/)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.922712751Z","tags":[]},"/Business":{"title":"Business","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Home](/)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.922712751Z","tags":[]},"/ComputerScience":{"title":"Computer Science","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Home](/)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.922712751Z","tags":[]},"/privacy":{"title":"Privacy Policy","content":"\n\u003e [!info] Disclaimer\n\u003e\n\u003e This website is built as a hobby project - it is intended mainly for personal use and is provided publicly free of charge. I go out of my way to try and reduce data gathered, keeping things fairly minimal, but due to the use of third-party tools I cannot guarantee this.\n\n**What data we collect**\n\nNo client side tracking is present on this site. Some analytics are collected by the webserver and some by Cloudflare.\n\n\nWhilst the source code for the site is hosted on GitHub and the static site is built by GitHub Actions, it is not hosted by GitHub. I am privately hosting the site with [Frantech Solutions](https://frantech.ca), who are strongly committed to privacy.\n\nDNS records are created and managed via [Cloudflare](https://cloudflare.com) and we do use Cloudflare as a proxy for this service. \n\nGoogle Ads are used to cover running costs of the site. If you are against the use of ads, we are okay with the use of an adblocker. Having ads shown does help us keep the lights on though. We use a very standard configuration for Google Ads so should not track you any more than the default for GAds. *If you notice Google trying to interfere with your ad-blocker, please take a screenshot and send it to me so I can try to ensure that an ad-free experience remains an option.* If you do use an adblocker, I would like to encourage you to consider donating.\n\n{{\u003c htmlsnippet \"layouts/partials/donate.html\" \u003e}}\n\nIf I can make a sufficient amount from donations, I will be able to remove ads from this site for good.\n\n**I am open to any questions or discussions regarding this policy and any changes you might want to see.\n\n\u003e [!success] Corporate affiliation\n\u003e\n\u003e This site holds no affiliation to any corporations or organisations. It is solely administrated and managed by Seth. Any changes to this will be reflected upon this page. \n\n\n[Go home](/)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.922712751Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity":{"title":"Biodiversity","content":"\n**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.930712728Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/BiodiversityOverview":{"title":"Biodiversity Overview","content":"\n### What is biodiversity?\n\n- Variety of organisms present in an area\n- Species: a group of organisms with a very similar appearance, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and genetics. Can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.\n- Habitat: a place where an organism lives\n- Community: all the living organisms in a habitat\n\n### Levels of Biodiversity\n\n- Habitat: number of habitats in an area\n- Species: \n\t- Species Richness: number of species in an area\n\t- Species Evenness: number of each species\n- Genetic Variety: variety of genes that make up a species (alleles)\n\n### Why measure biodiversity?\n\n- Important for conservation\n- Required before a major project such as housing development\n\n| **Habitat Feature** | **Low biodiversity** | **High Biodiversity** |\n|-----------------------------------|--------------------------------|------------------------------------------|\n| Number of species | few | many |\n| Ability to adapt to environment | little | greater |\n| Type of food webs | few links, each very important | many links, each with reduced importance |\n| Effect of a change in environment | Catastrophic | Negligible |\n\n\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.930712728Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/FactorsAffectingBiodiversity":{"title":"Factors affecting biodiversity","content":"\n### Factors affecting biodiversity\n\n- Deforestation: reduces the number of trees which in turn reduces the number of animals due to habitat and food loss. Some animals are forced to migrate.\n- Agriculture: clearing land to rear/grow animals \n\t- removal of hedgerows\n\t- use of pesticides/herbicides\n\t- monoculture\n- Climate: melting of polar ice caps\n\t- rising sea levels (flooding, salt water)\n\t- higher temperatures\n\t- less rainfall\n\t- insect lifecycles, pollination\n\n### Reasons to maintain biodiversity\n\n\n| **Reason** | **Explanation** |\n|------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| Aesthetic | - encriches life - allows faster recovery - provides inspiration |\n| Economic | - deforestation can lead to soil erosion, causing desertification and loss of fertile land - non-sustainable removal leads to industry collapse - massive destruction - leads to important species going extinct before discovery - high diversity leads to increased tourism |\n| Ecological | - all organisms are interdependent upon each other - some species are invoilved in maintaining the whole ecosystem |\n\n\n\n\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.930712728Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/GeneticBiodiversity":{"title":"Genetic Biodiversity","content":"\n- alleles - different versions of the same gene \n- genetic diversity—number of different alleles that exist in a species\n- species with a greater genetic diversity will better adapt to their environment and be more resistant to to environmental change and therefore less likely to become extinct\n\n\n### Factors affecting genetic biodiversity\n\n- to increase biodiversity the number of alleles within a species **must** increase. This can happen via:\n\t- mutations\n\t- gene flow: interbreeding between different populations leads to alleles crossing between distinct groups\n- genetic diversity can also decrease, this can happen via:\n\t- selective breeding: selected characteristics are bred for\n\t- captive breeding programmes: only a small number of individuals (and therefore alleles) available for breeding. \n\t- rare breeds: difficult to maintain high numbers of individuals but also meet requirements for that rare breed\n\t- artificial cloning: eg tissue cultures or cuttings in plants\n\t- natural selection: species evolve to only have beneficial alleles so less advantageous ones are lost\n\t- genetic bottlenecks: when only a few individuals survive environmental change such as a disease meaning the gene pool is reduced\n\t- founder effect: when a small number of individuals create a new colony and are isolated from the original population\n\t- genetic drift: due to random nature of which alleles do/don't get passed on during sexual reproduction\n\n### Measuring genetic biodiversity\n\n\n- polymorphic genes: genes that have more than one allele\n- monomorphic genes: a single allele exists\n- locus/loci: position of a gene/genes on a chromosome\n\n- the proportion of genes that are polymorphic can be calculated by:\n\t- (number of polymorphic gene loci/ total number of loci) x 100\n\n- the greater the proportion of polymorphic loci, the greater the genetic diversity\n\n\n\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.930712728Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/MaintainingBiodiversity":{"title":"Maintaining Biodiversity","content":"\n\n- Conservation, preservation and management of the environment and natural resources\n- Two types:\n\t- In situ\n\t- Ex situ\n\n### In-situ\n\n- maintains genetic diversity and ability to adapt\n- preserves interdependent relationships\n- cheaper\n- eg wildlife reserves, marine conservation zones\n\n### Ex-situ\n\n- normally used in conjunction with in-situ measures\n- eg, botanical gardens, seed banks, captive breeding programs\n\n\n## Conservation Agreements\n\n\n### International Union for Conservation of Nature\n\n- Publishes conservation status of threatened animals (RED list)\n- Establishment of CITES (Convention on Internal Trade of Endangered Species)\n\t- regulates international trade of plant/animal specimens and their products\n\n### The Rio Convention\n\n- Convention of Biological Diversity—strategies for sustainable development\n- United Nations framework convention on climate change—agreement to stabilise greenhouse gases.\n- United Nations Convention to combat desertification\n\t- prevents transformation of fertile land to desert\n\t- reduce the effects of drought\n\n### Countryside Stewardship Scheme\n\n- Enhance and conserve English landscape\n\t- sustain beauty and biodiversity \n\t- improve/extend/create habitats for wildlife \n\t- restoring neglected land, conserving archaeological/historic features\n\t- improve opportunities for countryside enjoyment\n\t- now replaced by the Environment Stewardship Scheme\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.930712728Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Sampling":{"title":"Sampling","content":"\n- We use sampling to gain insight into organisms in an area. Sampling is taking measurements of a limited number of organisms present within an area.\n- Random sampling is selecting individuals by chance.\n- You can perform random sampling by:\n\t- marking a grid on the surface\n\t- using random numbers to determine x and y coordinates\n\t- taking a sample at each coordinate pair\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624124956.png]]\n\n- Non-random sampling\n\t- Opportunistic—the weakest option. Uses organisms that are conveniently available \n\t- Stratified—some populations can be divided into strata based on specific characteristics such as gender\n- Sampling can never be entirely representative because you never measure the whole population. There is sampling bias, which may be deliberate or accidental. This can be reduced by using random sampling.\n- Chance based reliability issues cannot be mitigated, as they arise from chance alone. It is simply possible more snails will be present on one day by chance.\n\n### Plant Sampling\n\n- Generally involves a quadrat\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624125401.png]]\n- Visual survey: generates quantitative data\n- Estimate abundance using ACFOR scale\n\t- A—abundant\n\t- C—common\n\t- F—frequent\n\t- O—occasional\n\t- R—rare\n\n\n- Density = mean number of individuals per unit area\n- Frequency = number or % of sampling units in which a species occurs\n- % cover: number of quadrat squares occupied by a species \n- Point frame quadrat: each plant that touches a pin is counted\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624125953.png]]\n\n| **Abiotic Factor** | **Sensor used** | **Example unit measurement** |\n|-------------------------|------------------------|------------------------------|\n| Wind speed | anemometer | m s ⁻¹ |\n| Light intensity | Light meter | lux |\n| Relative humidity | humidity sensor | mg dm⁻³ |\n| pH | pH probe | pH |\n| temperature | temperature probe | ℃ |\n| oxygen content in water | dissolved oxygen probe | mg dm⁻³ |\n\n### Sampling animals\n\n- Calculate number of animals per unit area of habitat \n- large animals - count all individuals\n- small animals - sample and capture-recapture\n\n\n#### Pooter\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624130610.png]]\n\n- A pooter is used to catch insects. By sucking a mouthpiece, insects are drawn into a holding chamber. A mouthpiece filter prevents inhalation. \n\n#### Sweep net\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624130753.png]]\n\n- Sweep nets are used to catch insects in areas of long grass\n\n#### Pitfall trap\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624130853.png]]\n\n- Pitfall traps are used to catch small, crawling vertebrates such as beetles, spiders and slugs.\n\n\n#### Tree beating\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624131029.png]]\n- Tree beating is used to take samples of the invertebrates living in a tree or bush. A large white cloth is stretched out under the tree, the tree is then shaken or beaten.\n\n\n#### Kick Sampling\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/img/Pasted image 20230624131155.png]]\n\n- Kick sampling is used to study in organisms in river beds/banks. The river bank is kicked for a period of time and a net is used to collect samples downstream.\n\n\n### Capture—Recapture\n\n1) Capture sample and count—this is *c₁*\n2) Mark each individual\n3) Release all individuals and leave traps for a set period of time\n4) Number captured next time is *c₂* \n Number already marked is *c₃*\n Total population = (*c₁*x*c₂*)/*c₃*\n\n\n\n\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.930712728Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/SimpsonsDiversity":{"title":"Simpson's Diversity","content":"\n- Measure of diversity in a habitat\n- Accounts for species richness and eveness\n- *n* = number of individuals of each species\n- *N* = total number of individuals of all species\n\n- high value = diverse habitat \n\t- environmental change may only affect 1 or 2 species\n- low value = habitat dominated by a few species\n\t- small environmental change could affect whole habitat\n\n#### Example\n\n\n| **Species** | **n** | **n/N** | **n/N₂** |\n|-------------|-------|---------|----------|\n| woodlouse | 22 | 0.289 | 0.0838 |\n| mouse | 5 | 0.0658 | 0.004 |\n| shrew | 7 | 0.0131 | 0.0002 |\n| earthworm | 32 | 0.421 | 0.177 |\n| grasshopper | 15 | 0.197 | 0.039 |\n| owl | 1 | 0.0131 | 0.0002 |\n| **TOTAL** | N: 76 | - | 𝝨 0.304 |\n\nSimpson's Diversity = 1-0.304 = **0.696**\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Biodiversity](sixth/Biology/Biodiversity/Biodiversity)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.930712728Z","tags":["biology","biodiversity"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/CellMembranesFluidMosaicModel":{"title":"Cell Membranes: The Fluid Mosaic Model","content":"A cell membrane is roughly `7nm` wide\n\n### Biological Membranes\n- separate the contents of the cell from their environment and different cell areas\n- compartmentalization is vital to maintain conditions for particular cellular reactions\n- the cell surface membrane separates the cell from the external environment and is called the plasma membrane.\n\n### Phospholipids\n\nA phospholipid has a hydrophilic head and 2 hydrophobic tails.\n\nThe hydrophilic heads are in contact with the cytoplasm or the extracellular fluids, and the hydrophilic tails stay away from water in the centre of the membrane.\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Cells/img/Pasted image 20221019115534.png]]\n\n\n## Membrane Proteins\n\n### Glycoproteins\n- embedded in the cell surface, they maintain cell cohesion. They can also be used as receptors for signals.\n- carbohydrate chain\n### Glycolipid\n- similar to glycoproteins\n- lipids with attached carbohydrate chains\n- act as cell markers or antigens\n### Cholesterol\n- hydrophilic at one end and hydrophobic at the other, like a phospholipid\n- regulates membrane fluidity\n- add stability to membranes\n- stop membranes becoming too solid\n### Channel Proteins\n- provide a hydrophilic channel that allows passive movement of polar molecules into and out of the cell through the plasma membrane.\n- the hydrophobic core is held in place by R groups\n### Carrier Proteins\n- passive \u0026 active transport\n- involves shape changing\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Cells/img/Pasted image 20221019115621.png]]\n\n## More depth on Plasma Membrane Composition\n\nPhospholipids can have slightly different tails. Their tails are made from fatty acids, but not always the same. A straight tail is made of saturated fatty acids and a tail with a kink in it (caused by a C=C double bond) is an unsaturated fatty acid.\n\nThe purpose of a kinked tail is increased membrane stability. It separates phospholipids out and prevents them from becoming too tightly packed.\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Cells/img/Pasted image 20221019120603.png]]\n\nCholesterol fits in with the phospholipids and helps to regulate the fluidity of the membrane. It does this by increasing fluidity at low temperatures by keeping the phospholipids apart and preventing a cease in motion. At higher temperatures, they have the opposite effect and reduce the fluidity of the membrane by holding the phospholipids in place and stopping them from moving too much.\n\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/CellTheory":{"title":"Cell Theory","content":"\nCell theory is the basic foundation on which our understanding of cells is built.\n\n## The discovery of cell theory over time\n\n**Robert Hooke** - 1665\n\n- cork cells\n- \"tiny boxes\"\n\n**Anton van Leeuwenhoek** - 1673\n\n- \"Animacules\", later called bacteria\n\n**Robert Brown** - 1833\n\n- Discovered the [nucleus](Organelles.md#nucleus) in plant cells\n\n**Matthias Schleiden** - 1838\n\n- Every plant is made of cells\n\n**Theodor Schwann** - 1839\n\n- Every animal is made of cells\n\n**Albrecht von Roelliker** - 1840\n\n- Sperm + Egg are cells - life comes from cells.\n\n**Carl Heinrich Braun** - 1845\n\n- Reworks theory, names cells \"the basic unit of life\"\n\n**Rudolf Virchow** - 1855\n\n- Cells come from other cells\n\n\n## Modern cell theory\n\n- The cell contains hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on from cell to cell during division.\n- All cells are basically the same in terms of chemical composition and metabolic activities.\n- All basic chemical and physiological functions are carried out inside cells. (Movement, digestion etc)\n- Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures within the cell (organelles, nucleus, plasma membrane etc etc)\n\n\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells":{"title":"Cells","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/Cytoskeleton":{"title":"Cytoskeleton","content":"\n![http://cellstructure.pbworks.com/f/big_cytoskeletoncover.jpg](http://cellstructure.pbworks.com/f/big_cytoskeletoncover.jpg)\n\n## Microfilaments\n\nSize: 7nm\nMade from: polymers of actin\nRoles: Give support and mechanical strength, keep cell shape and enable movement\n\n## Intermediate filaments\n\nSize: 10nm\nMade from: variety of proteins\nRoles: Anchor nucleus, extend between membranes\n\n## Microtubules\nSize: 18-30nm\nMade from: tubulin\nRoles: Form tracks for motor proteins (dyein and kinesin) to walk and drag organelles.\n\n\nOverview in [Organelles](Organelles.md)\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology","cells"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/LightMicroscopy":{"title":"Light Microscopy","content":"\n**Maximum resolution: 200nm**\n\nAny objects closer than 200nm will appear as one object under the best light microscope.\n\n2 objects can only be seen if light is able to pass between them.\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019103647.png]]\n\n## Sectioning\n\n- Specimens can be embedded in wax (or dehydrated)\n- Thin sections are cut out without changing the structure\n- There is a risk of material distorting when sectioned\n\nWhen studying a section, structures may be seen differently depending on how the section was taken relative to the structure. So a mitochondria may have been cut vertically whilst you are looking for one cut horizontally. It is important to account for this.\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019104036.png]]\n\n## Microscope Terminology\n\nArtifacts are damaged specimens caused by mechanical or chemical damage during slide preparation.\n\nHere are a few examples of artifacts that could be misidentified as different objects.\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019104244.png]]\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/MeiosisQuestions":{"title":"Meiosis Questions","content":"\n6) Q,S,P,N,M,R\n- pairing of chromosomes: Q\n- centromeres divide: P\n- crossing over: Q\n- bivalents align on equator: S\n- nuclear membrane reforms: R\n\n7) 2 processes that occur during meiotic interphase:\n- DNA replication\n- Organelles divide\n\n8) Division types in Fig 1.1\n- meiosis\n- mitosis\n\n9)\n- interphase\n- cytokinesis\n\n- independent assortment: metaphase (both)\n- formation of spindle apparatus: prophase\n- separation of sister chromatids: anaphase (both)\n- formation of nuclear membranes: telophase\n- chromosomes pulled to opposite poles: anaphase (both)\n\n10) Why does meiosis have twice as many stages as mitosis?\nMeiosis requires two cell divisions to occur as it needs to make modifications to genetic material, whereas mitosis produces genetically identical cells. Meiosis needs to cross over chromosome segments to produce 4 genetically **different** haploid cells that have some genetic material from each parent.\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/Organelles":{"title":"Organelles","content":"![[Pasted image 20220908112443.png]]\n\n\n\n## Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER/Rough ER)\nThis is a system of membranes containing fluid filled cavities that are connected to the nuclear membrane. The distinguishing factor between rough and smooth ER is that rough ER is coated with ribosomes.\n\nrER is the cells internal transport system and creates channels that enable the transport of substances from one section of the cell to another. The rER provides a large surface area for ribosomes to attach. The ribosomes assemble proteins from amino acids , these proteins are then absorbed through the membrane and are transported by the rER to the Golgi Apparatus for modification and packaging. \n\n## Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (sER/Smooth ER)\nLike the rER, this is a system of membrances within the cell that contain fluid-filled cavities that link to the nuclear envelope. It DOES NOT have ribosomes on its surface.\n\nsER contains enzymes that catalyse reactions involved with the metabolism of lipids. This includes: \n\n- synthesis of cholesterol\n- synthesis of lipids/phospholids needed by the cell\n- synthesis of steroid hormones\n\nIt is involved with the absorption, synthesis and transport of lipids from the gut.\n\n## Golgi Apparatus\nThis consist of a stack of membrane bound flattened sacs. Secretory vesicles bring materials to and from the Golgi. \n\nProteins are modified here. Examples include:\n\n- adding sugar molecules to make glycoproteins\n- adding lipid molecules to make lipoproteins\n- folding proteins into their 3D shape\n\nThese proteins are then packaged into vesicles that are pinched off and then:\n\n- stored in the cell\n- moved to the plasma membrane, either to be incorporated into the plasma membrane or to be exported out of the cell.\n\n## Mitochondria\n\nThese are usually spherical, rod-shaped or branched structures and are typically 2-5μm long. They are enclosed in two membranes with a fluid-filled space between them. The inner membrane is highly folded into cristae. The inner-most section of the mitochondria is a fluid-filled matrix.\n\nMitochondria are the site of ATP production during aerobic respiration. They are also self-replicating, so more can be made to meet energy denand if the cell requires it. They are abundant in cells where any form of metabolic activity takes place. This includes cells in your liver and synapses.\n\n## Vacuole\nThe vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast and contains fluid. \n\nOnly plant cells have a large permanent vacuole. They are filled with water and various solutes to maintain the stability of the cell - as when they are full they exert force on the cell wall, causes the cell to become turgid. If all the plant cells are turgid, this helps to support non-woody plants.\n\n## Lysosomes\nThese are small bags formed from the Golgi apparatus. Each is enclosed within a single membrane. They contain powerful hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes. They are abundant in immune cells such as phagocytes, neutrophils and macrophages that can ingest and digest invading bacteria. \n\nLysosomes keep the dangerous enzymes seperate from the rest of the cell, preventing damage to organelles. Lysosomes can engulf dead cell organelles and foreign matter and return digested components for reuse. \n\n## Cilia and undulipodia\nThese are protrusions from the cell and are surrounded by the cell surface membrane. Each contains microtubules (see Cytoskeleton for more details). They are formed from centrioles.\n\nThe epitheal cells lining your airways have many hundreds of cilia that beat and move the band of mucus. Nearly all cell types in the body have one cilium that acts as an antenna. It contains receptors and allows cells to detect signals about their immediate environment. The only human cell to have an undulipodium (a lot of cillium) is a spermatozoon. The unulipodium allows the spermatozoon to move.\n\n## Ribosomes\nSmall, spherical and about 20nm in diameter they are constructed from ribosomal RNA. They are made in the nucleolus from two different subunits which pass through the nucelar envelope into the cell cytoplasm and then combine. Some remain free in the cytoplasm and some attach to the rER.\n\nRibosomes bound to the exterior of the rER are mainly for synthesising proteins that will be exported out of the cell. Ribosomes that are free in the cytoplasm - either singularly or in a cluster - are primarily a site for synthesising proteins that will be used in the cell. \n\n## Centrioles\nThe centrioles consist of two bundles of microtubles at right angles to each other. The microtubules are made of tublin protein subunits, and are arranged to form a cylinder.\n\nBefore a cell divides, the spindle, made of threads of tubulin, forms from the centrioles. Chromosomes attach to the middle part of the spindle and motor proteins walk along the tubin threads, pulling the chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell. Centrioles are involved in the formation of cilia and undulipodia:\n\n- Before the cilia form, the centrioles multiply and line up beneath the cell surface membrane.\n- Microtubules then sprout outwards from each centriole, forming a cilium or undulipodium.\n\nCentrioles are usually absent from unicellular green algae.\n\n## Cytoskeleton\nA network of protein structures within the cytoplasm. It consists of:\n\n- rod-like microfilaments made of subunits of the protein actin; they are polymers of actin and each microfilament is about 7nm in diameter.\n- intermmediate filaments about 10nm in diameter.\n- straight, cylindrical microtubules, made of protein subunits called tubulin, about 18-30nm in diameter. \n- The **cytoskeletal motor proteins**, myosins, kinesins and dyeins, are molecular motors. They are also enzymes and have a site that binds to and allows hydrolysis of ATP as their energy source.\n\nThe protein microfilaments within the cytoplasm give support and mechanical strength, keep the cell's shape stable and allow cell movement. They also:\n\n- form the spindle before cell division\n- form a track for motor proteins to walk along\n- make up the cilia, undulipodia and centrioles\n\nAnd intermediate filaments:\n\n- anchor the nucleus to the cytoplasm\n- extend between cells in certain tissues, enabling cell-cell signalling.\n\n## Cellulose cell wall\nThe cell wall of plants is outside the plasma membrane and is constructed from a bundle of cellulose fibres.\n\nThe cell wall is strong and and can prevent plant cells from bursting when turgid. The cell wall:\n\n- provides strength\n- maintain cell shape\n- contribute to strength and support of the whole plant\n- are permeable and allow solutions to pass through\n\nFungi have cell walls that contain chitin, not cellulose.\n\n## Chloroplasts\nThese are large organelles, 4-10µm long. They are only present in plants and some protoctists. They are surrounded by a double membrane or envelope. The inner membrane is continuous with flattened membrane sacs called thylakoids. The fluid-filled matrix is called the stroma.\n\nChloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis\nThe first stage of photosynthesis is when light energy is trapped by chlorophyll and used to make ATP. This occurs in the grana. Water is also split to provide hydrogen ions.\nThe second stage when hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide, using energy from ATP to make carbohydrates, occurs in the stroma. \n\nChloroplasts are abundant in leaf cells, particularly the pallisade mesophyll layer.\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology","cells"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/OrganellesWorkTogether":{"title":"How organelles work together","content":"**Exocytosis** is the process of exporting materials from the cell.\n\nAn example process of how organelles in a cell would work together to produce insulin would be:\n\n1) Genes are in DNA\n2) They are transcribed to mRNA\n3) The mRNA leaves the nuclear envelope via nuclear pores\n4) Ribosomes are made in the nucleolus\n5) Ribosomes translate the mRNA into a protein, which passes through the rough endoplasmic reticulum\n6) Vesicles containing insulin pass via the Golgi Body\n7) In the Gologi, the insulin is packaged and modified to be ready for use in the body\n8) Vesicles pinched off from Golgi pass to plasma membrane.\n9) Vesicles and the plasma membrane fuse and excrete insulin into the cell's surroundings via exocytosis.\n![[Pasted image 20221019104936.png]]\n\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/PlantCells":{"title":"Plant Cells","content":"\nSee Chloroplasts, Vacuole and Cell Wall from [Organelles](Organelles.md)\n\nCells are typically viewed under [Light Microscopes](UsingALightMicroscope.md)\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology","cells"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/ProkaryoticCells":{"title":"Prokaryotic Cells","content":"![[Pasted image 20221019105229.png]]\n\n\n| **Feature** | **Prokaryotic** | **Eukaryotic** |\n|-----------------------|--------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------|\n| Nucleus | Not present | Present |\n| DNA | Circular | Nucleus (linear) |\n| DNA Organisation | Proteins fold | Chromosomes |\n| Extra chroma DNA | Plasmid | Only present in certain organelles (chloroplast, mitochondria) |\n| Organelles | Non-membrane bound | Membrane Bound |\n| Cell Wall | Present | Present in some cases |\n| Ribosomes | Smaller | Larger |\n| Cytoskeleton | Present | Present |\n| Reproduction | Binary Fission | (a)sexual |\n| Cell Type | Unicellular | Multi-cellular |\n| Cell Surface-Membrane | Present | Present |\n\n\n## Endosymbiosis\n\nEndosymbiosis is the theory that a larger cell engulfed bacteria with energy producing capabilities—eventually becoming chloroplasts and mitochondria.\n\nEvidence includes mitochondria and chloroplasts dividing like bacteria; have individual DNA; dividing independently of the cell\n\n## Gram Staining\nMicroscopy stain to help identify different bacteria.\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019110126.png]]\n\n### Gram Positive Bacteria\n- Colour: blue\n- More peptidoglycan\n\n### Gram Negative Bacteria\n- Colour: red\n- Less peptidoglycan\n\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/SpecialisedAnimalTissues":{"title":"Specialised Animal Tissues","content":"\n## Squamous Epithelium\n\nMade up of specialized squamous epithelial cells, it has a squashed appearance. It is very smooth due to the flat cells that make it up and because it is only one cell thick. It is present when rapid exchange across a surface is essential.\n\n## Ciliated Epithelium\n\nMade up of ciliated epithelial cells. The cells have “hair like” structures called cilia on one surface that move in a synchronized, rhythmic manner. Ciliated epithelium lines the bronchus and causes mucus to be swept away from the lungs.\n\nGoblet cells are also present, releasing mucus to trap any unwanted particles present in the air. This prevents bacteria from reaching the alveoli in the lungs.\n\n## Cartilage\n\nConnective tissue found in the ear, nose and at the ends of bones. It contains fibres of proteins elastin and collagen. Cartilage is a firm, flexible connective tissue composed of chondrocyte cells embedded in a extracellular matrix. Cartilage prevents the ends of bones from rubbing together and causing frictional damage.\n\nMany fish have skeletons made of cartilage, not bone.\n\n\n## Muscle\n\nA tissue that needs to contract (shorten) to move bones, which in turn move the body. \n\nSkeletal muscle fibres are attached to bones. They contain myofibrils of contractile proteins.\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology","cells"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/StemCells":{"title":"Stem Cells","content":"\n## Stem Cells\n\n- A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell that can differentiate itself\n- Undifferentiated means that it currently performs no function in the body\n- Division of stem cells can cause tumours and cancers (in rare cases)\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123101802.png]]\n\n## Stem Cell Potency\n\n- **Potency:** The number of cells it can differentiate into\n- **Totipotent:** Can differentiate into any type of cell, able to form a whole organism \u0026 a placenta.\n- **Pluripotent:** Any tissue but not a whole organism.\n- **Multipotent:** A small range of cell types within a tissue.\n\n## Differentiation\n\n- A multicellular organism is able to evolve specialised tissues to optimise efficiency.\n- Blood cells have a different shape and less organelles, to improve their oxygen carrying capacity. This makes them highly specialised to their specific role.\n\n## Replacement of Blood Cells\n\n- Red blood cells must be produced by stem cells because they have no nucleus and few organelles, making self division impossible.\n- The stem cells that produce new red blood cells are located in the bone marrow.\n- A neutrophil (type of white blood cell) can live for up to 6 hours and you can produce 1.6 billion per kg of stem cell tissue per hour.\n\n## Sources of Animal Stem Cells\n\n- Embryonic \u0026 Tissue stem cells\n- Embryonic stem cells are totipotent whereas adult tissue stem cells are pluri or multipotent\n- A sample can be extracted and grown into tissues to help someone recover from an illness of injury\n\n## Sources of Plant Stem Cells\n\n- Meristem, roots, shoots, tips\n- Pluripotent (meristem)\n- Used for tissue growth and repair\n\n## Uses of Stem Cells\n\n- Diseases that they can already provide treatments that they can already provide:\n\t- Alzheimer's\n\t- Type 1 Diabetes\n\t- Spinal injuries\n\t- Many more\n\n## Stem Cell Ethics\n\n- Playing god\n- Religious objections\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology","cells"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/TypesOfMicroscope":{"title":"Types of Microscope","content":"\n## Super Resolved Fluorescence Microscope\n\n- Uses light\n- Very high resolution (0.2nm)\n- x1500 magnification\n\n\u003e [!success] Advantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Stains that flouresce reveal different structures\n\u003e - Good for viewing DNA + molecules\n\n\n\u003e [!danger] Disadvantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Some dyes interfere with cell parts\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019111849.png]]\n\n## Laser Scanning (Confocal) Microscope\n- Uses light\n- 500nm resolution\n- x1000 magnification\n- Parts are labelled with a fluorescent dye.\n\n\u003e [!success] Advantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Non-invasive clinical diagnosis\n\u003e - 3D image overlays\n\n\u003e [!danger] Disadvantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Resolution limited by wavelength of light\n\u003e - Dyes can interfere with cell function\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019112257.png]]\n\n\n## Atomic Force Microscope\n- \"Feels\" surface of specimen\n- Uses light via a laser diode\n- 0.1nm resolution\n- x100 000 000 magnification\n\n\u003e [!success] Advantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Normal cell conditions\n\u003e - Living systems\n\u003e - Drug interactions\n\n\u003e [!danger] Disadvantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Can't see inside cells, surface only\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019114841.png]]\n\n## Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)\n- Magnification up to x2000000\n- 2D greyscale image\n- Resolution of 0.5nm\n\n\u003e [!success] Advantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Seeing ultra structure\n\n\u003e [!danger] Disadvantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Expensive\n\u003e - Large\n\u003e - Prone to artifacts\n\u003e - Samples will be killed\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019114937.png]]\n\n## Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)\n- Magnification between `x15` and `x200000`\n- Resolution between `3nm` and `10nm`\n- Sample kept in vacuum\n\n\u003e [!success] Advantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - 3D image \n\u003e - Good for organism appearance\n\n\n\u003e [!danger] Disadvantages\n\u003e\n\u003e - Very large\n\u003e - Expensive\n\u003e - Samples dead\n\u003e - Salt stains are dangerous\n\u003e - Requires training\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019115017.png]]\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/UnitScales":{"title":"Unit Scales","content":"Centimeter (cm)\n\nDown: x10\nUp: /10\n\nMillimeter(mm)\n\nUp: /1000\nDown: x1000\n\nMicrometers(µm)\n\nUp: x1000\nDown: x1000\n\nNanometers (nm)\n\nUp: x1000\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Cells/UsingALightMicroscope":{"title":"Using a Light Microscope","content":"\n**Maximum light microscope magnification possible:** x1500 (x15 eyepiece, x100 objective lens)\n\nSpecimens can be dyed/stained.\n\n![[Pasted image 20220921104632.png]]\n\n## Staining\n\n- Many biological materials are not coloured\n- Some chemicals can bind to a specimen, giving it a colour\n- It produces a contrast between sample parts\n- Some stains are specific to cell structures, enabling for easily distinguishing between different cell parts.\n\n## Graticules\nThe stage micrometer is used to calibrate the value of eyepiece divisions at different magnifications.\n\nGraticule scale is arbitrary until calibrated.\n\n1000µm in 1mm\n100µm in 0.1mm\n10µm in 0.01mm\netc etc\n\n### Calibration\n\n1) Insert the eyepiece graticule. It has 10 divisions.\n2) Place stage micrometer on stage and focus using 4x objective lens. Total magnification = x40 (x10 due to other lens)\n3) Align graticule and stage micrometer.\n4) We know the stage micrometer is 1mm, or 1000µm - the same as 40 eyepiece divisions.\n5) Therefore, each eyepiece division = 1000µm / 40 = **25µm**\n\nSo each little epu (eyepiece unit) is 25µm long. Now you are able to measure cells at a 4x magnification with accuracy. \n\nLet's do the same for the x10 objective lens:\n\nUsing the above method, but substituting the numbers to work for the x10 lens gives us the following:\n\nTotal magnification = 100 (10x10)\n\n100 eyepiece divisions is stage micrometer length.\n\nTherefore each epu = **10µm** (1000µm / 100 = 10µm)\n\n\n[Cells](sixth/Biology/Cells/Cells)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.946712682Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Circulatory/Circulatory":{"title":"Circulatory","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Circulatory/HeartRevisionPack":{"title":"Heart Revision Pack","content":"\n## Order of cardiac cycle\n\nEvent -\u003e Immediately followed by\n\nAtrial walls start to relax -\u003e ventricle walls start to contract\n\nSinoatrial node generates electrical signals -\u003e electrical signals transmitted down septum\n\nAtrioventricular node receives electrical signals from SA node -\u003e Ventricle walls start to contract\n\nVentricle walls start to contract -\u003e Walls of atria contract\n\nVentricle walls relax -\u003e atrioventricular valves open\n\n = CEAB\n\n## Tachycardic ECG trace\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Circulatory/img/tachycardiac.png]]\n✔\n## Effect of tachycardia on blood flow from heart\n\n- More blood will exit the heart over any specific period of time\n- Blood pressure will be elevated due to more rapid movement\n- Each pump of the heart will move slightly less blood than normal because the heart does not have sufficient time to fill.\n\n## Foramen Ovale open in fetus before birth – why?\n\nThe blood is oxygenated by the mother rather than the fetus, meaning that the heart does not need to pump blood around the lungs with the same vigour as normal. The foramen ovale allows blood to travel around the body in a more natural way despite the lungs being non-functional.\n\n## Difference and reason for difference between adult and fetal haemoglobin\n\n- Affinity for oxygen is higher in fetal haemoglobin\n- Allows for fetus to obtain blood from the mother's placenta during pregnancy\n\n## Why does tissue fluid not contain erythrocytes but neutrophils?\n\n- Erythrocytes are too large to pass through openings in the capillary walls, meaning that they remain within the circulatory system and cannot enter the tissue fluid.\n- Neutrophils can enter the tissue fluid due to their multi-lobed nucleus, which allows them to squeeze through small gaps that cells with a more rigid structure like erythrocytes could not.\n\n## Erythrocytes are full of haemoglobin. Describe the role of haemoglobin in transporting oxygen around the body.\n\nHaemoglobin is responsible for binding to oxygen and disassociating from it at appropriate points around the body. Adult haemoglobin will pick oxygen up in an area where the ppO2 (partial pressure of oxygen)is HIGH. And will disassociate from it in areas where the partial pressure is LOW.\n\n## Describe how hydrogen carbonate ions are produced in erythrocytes\n\n- The Chloride Shift\n\n- Chloride ions move **into** red blood cells when hydrogen carbonate ions form. \n- Carbon dioxide diffuses into erythrocytes\n- Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the combination reaction between CO2 and water to form carbonic acid.\n- Carbonic acid disassociates to form hydrogen carbonate ions and hydrogen ions. \n- Hydrogen carbonate ions are transported out of the cell.\n- The chloride ions with a negative charge enter the erythrocyte. \n\n## High concentrations of carbon dioxide in the blood reduce the amount of oxygen transported by haemoglobin. Name and explain this effect.\n\n- Bohr Effect\n\n- Carbon dioxide levels increasing causes more positvely charged hydrogen ions to be produced, which decreases the PH level of the blood. In lower PH, the haemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is reduced, meaning less oxygen can be transported.\n\n\n\n\n[Circulatory](sixth/Biology/Circulatory/Circulatory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","revision","homework"]},"/sixth/Biology/Circulatory/NeedForTransportSystems":{"title":"The need for transport systems","content":"\n## Substances that require transport\n- Nutrients\n\t- glucose—provide energy\n\t- protein—growth and repair\n\t- amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol\n- Water\n- Carbon Dioxide—removal post respiration\n- Lactic acid—removal of waste\n- Urea—removal of waste\n- Hormones—chemical messaging\n- Enzymes\n\n## Open circulatory system\n- Haemolymph instead of blood\n- No veins, arteries or vessels, the haemolymph moves freely around the body\n- Haemocoel—a central cavity that handles digestive and circulatory functions\n- Organisms with an open circulatory system may still have a heart, or some form of pumping mechanism\n- Low pressure\n- Eg\n\t- ant\n\t- grasshopper\n\t- stick insect\n\n## Closed circulatory system\n- Structured with veins, arteries and capillaries.\n- High pressure\n- Eg\n\t- human\n\t- frog\n\t- bird\n\n## Single circulatory system\n- Blood passes the heart ONCE per cycle.\n- Flow rate/pressure falls when blood leaves the gills or lungs.\n- Low pressure blood inefficient for kidney function.\n\n## Double circulatory system\n- Blood passes the heart TWICE per cycle.\n- Higher pressure.\n- Kidney function is optimal.\n\n### Keywords\n\n- Systemic Circulation\n\t- heart to body\n- Pulmonary Circulation\n\t- heart to lungs\n\n\nSee [Structure of Heart](StructureOfTheHeart.md) for more details on transport\n\n[Circulatory](sixth/Biology/Circulatory/Circulatory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Circulatory/StructureOfTheHeart":{"title":"Structure of the Heart","content":"\n## Diagram of Heart Structure\n\n![[Pasted image 20221111111303.png]]\n\n## Cardiac Cycle\n*AV = Atrioventricular*\n*SL = Semi-Lunar*\n\n- This is the sequence of events in one heart beat\n\n- filling phase (diastole)\n\t- atria and ventricles are relaxed\n\t- blood enters heart via pulmonary vein and vena cava\n\t- blood flows passively from atria to ventricles (AV valves open)\n\t- SL valves are closed from previous contraction\n- atrial contraction (systole)\n\t- atria contract simultaneously\n\t- forces remaining blood from atria into ventricles\n\t- AV valves close\n- ventricular contraction (systole)\n\t- AV and SL valves are closed\n\t- ventricles contract from the apex (base) upwards\n\t- blood forced out of aorta and pulmonary artery, SL valves open\n- heart sounds\n\t- \"lub\": AV valves closing as ventricles contract\n\t- \"dub\": SL valves closing as ventricles contract\n\n## Control of the Cardiac Cycle\n![[Pasted image 20221111105956.png]]\n\n- sinoatrial node (SAN)\n\t- located in the right atrium\n\t- group of cells that can initiate their own impulse (cardiac muscle is *myogenic* because of this ability)\n\n1) Electrical activity from SAN spreads through both atria—triggering a contraction of the atria.\n2) Electrical activity can't pass through the atrioventricular septum, but can pass through the atrioventricular node (AVN).\n3) A short delay before AVN conducts electrical activity down to the base of the ventricles (ensures atria finish contracting and ventricles are full of blood).\n4) Electrical activity travels to base of ventricles (ensures atria finish contracting and ventricles are full of blood).\n5) Electrical activity travels to the base of ventricles via the bundle of His.\n6) Ventricles contract from the base upwards.\n\n[Circulatory](sixth/Biology/Circulatory/Circulatory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification":{"title":"Classification","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/ComparativeAnatomy":{"title":"Comparative Anatomy","content":"\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621100618.png]]\n\n- This “homology” of structures suggests a relationship between the organisms\n- Mammalian limbs are homologous structures\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/ComparativeBiochemistry":{"title":"Comparative Biochemistry","content":"\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621101235.png]]\n\n- The study of similarities and differences in the proteins and molecules that control life processes.\n- Some important molecules are highly conserved among species, so slight changes can cause death.\n- If variations occur outside of these molecules functional region they are called neutral. \n- So their accumulation is not affected by natural selection and occur at a fairly regular rat.\n- Scientists can study the DNA base sequence or order of amino acids in a protein and estimate the time at which the 2 species last shared a common ancestor.\n\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/ConvergentDivergentEvoluton":{"title":"Convergent and Divergent Evolution","content":"\n### Convergent Evolution\n\n- 2 unrelated species in similar environments evolve similar adaptations\n- These are analogous features\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621102628.png]]\n\n### Divergent Evolution\n\n- The accumulation of differences between similar species. \n- Can lead to speciation - or the formation of different species\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621102820.png]]\n\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/DarwinsTheory":{"title":"Darwin's Theory","content":"\n- Offspring are similar to parents\n- No two individuals are identical\n- Organisms can produce large numbers of offspring\n- Populations remain stable in size\n\nDarwin concluded:\n\n- There is a struggle to survive\n- This is selection pressure\n- Better adapted individuals survive and pass on their genes \n- Over time a number of changes giving rise to a new species\n- Organisms in species show variation, differences in the genes\n- Those best adapted have increased chance of survival and successful reproduction\n- Repeated for many generations and so proportions of individuals with the adaptation increases\n- Repeated over multiple generations, this leads to evolution.\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621104959.png]]\n*Darwin's notebook*\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/EvolutionaryEmbryology":{"title":"Evolutionary Embryology","content":"\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621100941.png]]\n\n- Darwin's theory of evolution noted that all vertebrates have gill slits and tails in the early stages of embryo formation even though these features may be lost or modified in the adult-form phenotype. \n- This pattern indicates that all vertebrates stem from a common ancestor that developed that way, and everything diverged from there.\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/EvolutionaryTimeline":{"title":"Evolutionary Timeline","content":"\n**Late 1700s:** British farmers begin using selective breeding.\n\n**1798:** Thomas Malthus argued human population always increases faster than food supply.\n\n**1809:** Lamrack proposed that species change over time.\n\n**Early 1800s:** George Cuvier produced fossil bone evidence, thinking it resulted from catastrophes.\n\n**1825-1835:** Charles Lyell showed how rock and fossil evidence formed continuously. \n\n**1859:** Darwin proposed natural selection.\n\n**1860:** Wallace and Darwin thought natural selection would take a long time.\n\n**1900:** Age of Earth estimates between 3 million and 2300 million years old.\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/Hierarchies":{"title":"Hierarchies","content":"\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230619105006.png]]\n\n- The organisation of living things into groups according to their similarities\n- This is the **[phylogenetic hierarchy](sixth/Biology/Classification/Phylogeny)**\n\n### Domain (below kingdom)\n\n- Highest taxonomic rank\n- 3 domains\n\t- Archea\n\t- Eubacteria\n\t- Eukaryote\n\n### Kingdom\n\n- Generally six or four kingdoms:\n\t- Bacteria\n\t- Archaea\n\t- Protista\n\t- Plantae\n\t- Fungi\n\t- Animalia\n\n### Phyla\n\n- Such as: mollusks, arthropods\n\n- All the groups in a phylum have the same body plan\n\n### Class\n\n- Such as: birds, mammals, reptiles\n\n\n### Order\n\n- Such as: carnivora, lepidoptera, rodenta\n- Smaller groups within different classes\n\n### Family\n\n- Such as: dogs are canidae\n- Some disagreement \n\n### Genus\n\n- Animals in the same genus are very closely related. Some may appear identical.\n- Such as dogs and wolves being in the same genus\n\n### Species\n\n- Latin name is Genus + Species\n- If animals can breed and produce fertile offspring, they are the same species\n\n### Binomial System\n\n- *Genus species*\n\n\n\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/Phylogeny":{"title":"Phylogeny (evolutionary trees)","content":"\n- The study of evolutionary relationships between species. Involves studying how closely different species are related.\n- Any 2 living organisms have a common ancestor at some point in the past.\n- The more recent the common ancestor, the more closely related they are.\n\n- Natural classification places similar species in a group\n- Any two living organisms have a common ancestor\n- When species started to evolve differently there are branch points or nodes on the tree\n- More recent common ancestors mean closer relations.\n\n### Example tree\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230619110541.png]]\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/ProblemWithTheFossilRecord":{"title":"Problems with the fossil record","content":"\n- Some organisms are too soft bodied and decompose quickly\n- Certain conditions are needed for fossils to form\n- Fossils get destroyed by geological activity\n- May lie undiscovered\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/SpearmanRankCorrelation":{"title":"Spearman's Rank Correlation","content":"\n- If 2 sets of data are related, they are said to be correlated\n- There can be:\n\t- no correlation\n\t- negative correlation\n\t- positive correlation\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621103419.png]]\n\n**rₛ** = rank coefficient\n**n** = number of pairs\n**D** = difference between ranks\n\n- the result must be between -1 and 1\n- rₛ value of +1 shows a perfect positive correlation\n- -1 shows a perfect negative correlation\n- 0 shows no correlation\n\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/TypesOfAdaptation":{"title":"Types of Adaptation","content":"\n- An adaptation is a characteristic that enhances survival in a habitat\n\n- They can be divided into\n\t- Anatomical adaptations\n\t- Behavioural adaptations\n\t\t- Which can be\n\t\t\t- Innate\n\t\t\t- Learned\n\t- Physiological adaptations\n\t\t- such as poison production\n\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621101955.png]]\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/Variation":{"title":"Variation","content":"\n### Genetic Causes of Variation\n\n| **Genetic cause of variation** | **What happens?** | **Why does it cause variation?** | **Example?** |\n|--------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------|\n| Alleles | Different versions of genes | Produces different proteins and therefore different structures and effects | Blood group |\n| Mutations | Mistake in DNA | Changes in protein that are coded for | Cystic fibrosis |\n| Meiosis | Gametes form which have half the genetic material of parent cells. Crossing over and independent assortment also occur to make every gamete genetically different. | Different gametes have different mix of alleles | Variation in gametes |\n| Sexual reproduction | Inherit genes from both parents | Individual produced is genetically different from parents | Children |\n| Chance | Chance which gametes fertilise | Unique combination of genetic material for each offspring | Siblings different from each other |\n\n### Environmental Causes of Variation\n\n| **Environmental cause of variation** | **What happens?** | **Why does it cause variation?** | **Example?** |\n|--------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| Conditions for plant | Plants in different conditions grow to different sizes Plants in different pH soils can grow different coloured flowers Lack of nutrients for plant | More sunlight for photosynthesis to make glucose for respiration and growth Acidic soil makes blue flowers. Alkali makes pink flowers Proteins | Rose bush in higher light intensity grows bigger Different coloured flowers of hydrangeas Nitrates |\n| Injury/Disease | Damaged tissue | Damages cell, leaves marks on skin | Scars |\n\n### Combined Environmental and Genetic Causes of Variation\n\n| **Environmental and genetic effect of variation** | **How do genetics play a part?** | **How does environment play a part?** |\n|---------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------|------------------------------------------|\n| Height | Inherited genes from parents | Malnourishment |\n| Skin colour | Genes instruct melanin levels | Sunlight can increase melanin production |\n\n### Discrete Variation\n\n- Discontinuous/discrete variation is normally only controlled by a single gene (or very few).\n- There are no in-between values, only specific ones.\n- Normally represented through a bar chart.\n\n### Continuous variation\n\n- A characteristic that can take any value in a range (quantitative) is said to show continuous variation.\n- Characteristics that show continuous variation such as height show a normal distribution pattern\n- These characteristics are usually controlled by a number of genes (polygenic) and influenced by the environment\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Classification/VariationStandardDeviation":{"title":"Variation \u0026 Standard Deviation","content":"\n- Standard deviation is a measure of how spread out the data is.\n- The greater the standard deviation, the greater the spread of data.\n\n- A normal distribution is usually a bell-shaped curve.\n\n\n### Characteristics of normal distribution\n\n- Mean, mode and median are equal\n- bell shaped\n- Symmetrical (50% higher than mean, 50% lower)\n- Most values are close to the mean\n- Few individuals at extremes\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Classification/img/Pasted image 20230621103200.png]]\n\n\n\n[Classification](sixth/Biology/Classification/Classification)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.966712624Z","tags":["biology","classification"]},"/sixth/Biology/Disease/CommunicableDiseaseHwk":{"title":"Communicable Diseases Homework","content":"\n\n\na) A communicable disease is a disease that can be spread between organisms via a vector.\nb) ![[pie-chart.png]]\n\nc) 23% = 13 million\n11.5% = 6.5 million\n2.3% = 1.3 million\n\n\n13000000/23 = 565217.3913\n\n565217.3913 x 69 = 39000000.00\n\n39 million from non-communicable per year\n\nWe know that 23% is 13 million, so we can extrapolate from that to discover what 1% is and then multiply that by 69 to find out what 69% is. From here, we learn that 39 million people die of non communicable diseases. The number is only approximate because records are not entirely accurate, and some countries do not publish data at all.\n\n---\n\n1) Plants have a physical barrier between themselves and the external environment, this is always at least an epidermis, which just prevents foreign objects from entering the plants system. Many plants have more sophisticated systems as well, so if a pathogen enters the plant, tylose may be used to block up the xylem to slow or stop the spread through the plant and calose can have a similar blocking effect on the phloem. In addition, if the epidermis is damaged, then callose and tylose can be used to form a barrier between the outside and the internals. A plant may also isolate leaves, branches of sections of the plant from a water and energy supply, allowing it to die and drop off. This would result in the infected plant section die.\n2) Plants have reactions to different diseases where they produce specifically tailored chemcials to slow or kill different pathogens. These chemical responses also allow for communication with other plants, triggering them to produce toxins. The chemicals produced can also be tailored to harm or deter certain insects or animals, reducing the likelihood of something larger coming and eating the plant.\n\n[Disease](sixth/Biology/Disease/Disease)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.990712556Z","tags":["biology","homework"]},"/sixth/Biology/Disease/CommunicableDiseases":{"title":"Communicable Diseases","content":"\n- Communicable diseases are caused by one organism that infects another\n- Infective organisms are known as pathogens\n- Pathogens include: bacteria, viruses, protists and fungi.\n\n## Bacteria\n\n- The most common organism for infection\n- Not all bacteria are pathogens, most do not cause disease\n- Bacteria are typically classified using their basic shape and cell wall\n![[Pasted image 20230123094409.png]]\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123094400.png]]\n\n\n## Virus\n\n- Viruses are non-living\n- Viruses are a section of RNA surrounded by a protein.\n- Viruses infect cells by inserting its DNA into the host cell\n- The infected cell will then begin to produce viral proteins\n- All natural viruses are pathogens\n- Viruses effect all types of organisms, including bacteria, those are called bacteriophages.\n\n\n## Bacteriophages\n\n- Virus attaches to host cell\n- Inserts viral nucleic acid\n- The cell replicates viral nucleic acid\n- The cell synthesises viral proteins\n- assembly of virus particles\n- Lysis of host cell and new bacteriophages released\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123094606.png]]\n\n## Protoctista / Protista\n\n- Eukaryotic cells\n- Exist as single organisms and as colonies\n- A small percentage are pathogenic, they can affect animals and plants (ie, malaria)\n- Often protista require a vector to transfer the disease (eg, mosquitos for malaria)\n![[Pasted image 20230123094908.png]]\n\n## Fungi\n\n- Not usually a large issue for animals, but affects plants massively\n- Eukaryotes, can be unicellular or multicellular\n- Many fungi are saprophytes, meaning they feed off of decaying matter\n- When fungi infect plants, they often target the leaves, preventing photosynthesis\n- Fungi produce many millions of spores that rapidly infect other organisms\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123094817.png]]\n\n## Damage to Tissues\n\n- Viruses\n\t- Take over cellular metabolism\n\t- Viral genetic material is inserted into the genetic material of the host cell\n\t- The host cell then produces more viruses, which burst out, destroying it.\n- Protista\n\t- They take over a cell, digest the insides and use this as a medium to reproduce, before bursting out.\n- Fungi\n\t- Digest and destroy living cells.\n\n## Producing Toxins\n\n- Most pathogenic bacteria will produce a toxin, which is a poison.\n- This toxin damages the cells of the host organism, often by breaking down the plasma membrane or inactivating enzymes.\n- Some fungi also produce toxins\n\n\n\n\n[Disease](sixth/Biology/Disease/Disease)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.990712556Z","tags":["biology","disease"]},"/sixth/Biology/Disease/Disease":{"title":"Disease","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.990712556Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Disease/PlantDiseases":{"title":"Plant Diseases","content":"\n## Transmission\n\n### Direct Transmission\n\n- Direct contact between plants\n\n### Indirect Transmission\n\n- Via soil or vectors such as air\n- Pathogens may survive in soil and affect future plants (soil contamination)\n- Additional vectors include:\n\t- Wind\n\t- Water (raindrops, splashes etc)\n\t- Animals, insects and birds\n\t- Humans, hands, clothing and tools\n\n## Key Diseases\n\n### Ring Rot (Potatoes/Tomatoes)\n\n**Caused by:** Clavibacter Michiganensis\n**Pathogen:** Bacteria\n**Transmission:** Remains in soil, infects tubers and roots\n**Transmission Type:** Indirect\n**Transmission Factors:** Plants in soil, soil conditions\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123100332.png]]\n\n### Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)\n\n**Caused by:** Tobacco Mosaic Virus\n**Pathogen:** Virus\n**Transmission:** Mechanical, touch, contact.\n**Transmission Type:** Direct \u0026 Indirect\n**Transmission Factors:** Climate, contact frequency\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123100526.png]]\n\n### Potato/tomato late blight\n\n**Caused by:** Phytophthora infestans\n**Pathogen:** Protist\n**Transmission:** Wind, Water\n**Transmission Type:** Indirect\n**Transmission Factors:** Wind, rainfall\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123100411.png]]\n\n### Black Sigatoka\n\n**Caused by:** Mycosphaerella Fijensis\n**Pathogen:** Fungi\n**Transmission:** Spores, Extended Contact\n**Transmission Type:** Direct \u0026 Indirect\n**Transmission Factors:** Wind, Rain\n\n![[Pasted image 20230123100434.png]]\n\n## Global Transmission Factors\n\n- Some varieties of crops are more susceptible than others\n- Overcrowding\n- Poor mineral nutrition reduces diseases resistance\n- Damp, warm conditions increase spread of pathogens\n- Climate change\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Disease](sixth/Biology/Disease/Disease)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:37.990712556Z","tags":["biology","disease"]},"/sixth/Biology/Endocrinology/Endocrinology":{"title":"Endocrinology","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology","endocrinology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Endocrinology/Homeostasis":{"title":"Homeostasis","content":"\n- Living things have an internal environment \n\t- the environment changing puts stress on the organism\n\t- organisms need to maintain specific conditions\n\t- a stimulus invokes a response\n\n- Internal Environments:\n\t- If an organism is multicellular many cells are not exposed externally \n\t- protected by skin/bark and bathed in tissue fluid\n\t- Waste products diffuse from cells \n\t\t- Accumulation of waste is a stimulus\n\t\t- Cells need to respond\n\t\t- Waste needs to be removed\n\t\t- Wast enters the blood and is carried away \n\t\t- Blood concentrations must be closely monitored\n\n\n- A good communication system needs: \n\t- To cover the whole body\n\t- To allow cells to communicate\n\t- To allow specific communication\n\t- To allow rapid communication\n\t- To enable short and long term responses\n\n### Negative feedback\n\n- A change to an internal environment is detected\n- Change is signalled to other cells\n- A response is invoked to reverse the change\n\nNegative feedback requires:\n- receptors\n- communications system \n- effector cells\n- conditions fluctuate around a set point\n\n![[sixth/Biology/Endocrinology/img/Pasted image 20230626141325.png]]\n\n\n### Positive feedback\n\n- Less common\n- Increases the original change\n- Useful sometimes\n\n- Oxytocin increases uterus contractions\n\n\n#### Temperature Control\n\n##### Ectotherms\n\n- Animals that use their surroundings to warm their bodies\n\n\n| **Advantages** | **Disadvantages** |\n|--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|\n| Less energy required | Requires ideal environment |\n| Less food needed | Requires basking |\n| No thermoregulatory functions needed | May not be capable of activity over winter |\n| Can go longer without food | |\n| More energy used for growth | |\n\nTemperature regulation in ectotherms:\n- Exposed body to the sun\n\t- increases temperature\n- Increase breathing movements\n\t- reduces temperature\n- Orientate body away from sun\n\t- reduces temperature\n- Hide in burrow\n\t- reduce temperature\n- Orientate to sun\n\t- increases temperature\n- Alter body shape\n\t- increases temperature\n- Change heart rate\n\t- Increase or decrease\n\n\n[Endocrinology](sixth/Biology/Endocrinology/Endocrinology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology","endocrinology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Co-factorsCo-Enzymesandprostheticgroups":{"title":"Co-factors, co-enzymes and prosthetic groups","content":"\n### Co-factors\n\n- Non-protein components\n- Bind temporarily\n- Obtained from diet (iron ions, calcium ions etc)\n- eg, amylase requires Cl⁻ to function\n\n### Co-enzymes\n\n- An organic (carbon-based) co-factor\n- Bind temporarily\n- Many derived from vitamins\n- Carry chemicals between enzymes\n\n### Prosthetic Groups\n\n- Bind permanently\n- Eg haem in haemoglobin\n\n\n### Activation of Enzymes\n\n- many enzymes are inactive to begin with\n- need a change in 3D structure to activate\n- Some activated by co-factors, some a change in environment (pH/temperature)\n\n\n[Enzymes](sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology","enzymes"]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Effectors":{"title":"Effectors","content":"\n\n### Effect of Temperature\n\n- Increasing temperature increase rate of reaction\n- Particles move faster and are therefore more likely to collide\n- Temperature coefficient, `Q10` = how much the rate of reaction increases with a 10℃ rise. (usually doubles)\n- Optimum temperature is the temperature at which the rate of reaction is fastest\n- Past optimum, the bonds holding the enzyme together vibrate, and eventually denature permanently. \n\n\n#### Thermophiles\n\n- Organisms adapted to living in very hot temperatures\n- Enzymes are more stable and shapes are more resilient to change\n- More disulphide bridges are present\n\n\n#### Cold environments\n\n- Some enzymes have more flexible structures, and are therefore less stable\n- Small temperature changes will denature them\n\n\n### Effect of pH\n\n- H⁺ ions decrease the pH\n- Optimum pH is the level at which the rate of reaction is greatest\n- H⁺ interacts with polar groups and charged R groups, causing bonds to break and substrate no longer fits into active site when pH is far from optimum\n\n\n\n### Substrate concentration and enzyme concentration\n\n\n#### Substrate\n\n- As substrate concentration increases, the number of substrate molecules/atoms/ions in an area/volume increases\n\t- The same is true for enzyme concentration\n- Increased chance of successful collisions\n\n- Vmax is the maximum rate of reaction\n\t- It occurs when all active sites are occupied by substrate particles.\n\n#### Enzyme\n\n- Increasing enzyme concentration increases the number of active sites available \n- This increases the number of enzyme-substrate complexes that can be formed, increasing the rate of reaction\n- Vmax can be increased by increasing the substrate concentration and/or temperature\n\n\n\n[Enzymes](sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology","enzymes"]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/EnzymeReactions":{"title":"Enzyme Reactions","content":"\n### Intracellular/Extracellular enzymes\n\n#### Extracellular enzymes\n\n- Released from cells\n- Used to digest food\n- Required to use polymers for nutrition\n- Single-celled organisms release extracellular enzymes into their immediate environment \n\n#### Intracellular enzymes\n\n- Act within cells\n- Synthesis of polymers from monomers\n- Destroy toxins such as hydrogen peroxide\n\n\n### Digestion reactions\n\n#### Digestion of Starch\n\n- Starch polymers are broken down into maltose (disaccharide) by amylase from pancreas and salivary glands\n- Maltose broken into glucose by maltase in small intestines\n- Glucose absorbed into blood\n\n#### Digestion of Proteins\n\n- Trypsin is a form of protease\n- Catalyses proteins -\u003e smaller peptides\n\n### Main reaction types\n\n#### Anabolic Reactions\n\n- Building up reactions\n- Combining two reactants into one product\n- Protein synthesis\n\n#### Catabolic Reactions\n\n- Breaking down \n- Food digestion\n- Breaking one reactant into two products\n\n\n\n\n[Enzymes](sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology","enzymes"]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes":{"title":"Enzymes","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/EnzymesOverview":{"title":"Enzymes","content":"\n### What are enzymes?\n\n- Biological catalysts\n- Inside cells\n\t- protein/lipid synthesis\n\t- intercellular \n- Outside cells\n\t- digestion\n\t- extracellular\n- Globular proteins\n- Generally soluble in water\n- Functions\n\t- Speed up a reaction\n\t\t- Help build a larger molecule\n\t\t- Help breakdown a large molecule into multiple smaller ones\n\n### Activation energy\n\n- Amount of energy which needs to be supplied for a reaction to proceed.\n- Enzymes reduce activation energy requirements (due to their specific shape)\n\n### Induced fit hypothesis\n\n- Substrate molecules collide with enzyme's active site\n- Enzyme molecule changes shape slightly. Active site fits more closely around substrate.\n- Enzyme-substrate complex (**ESC**) is formed.\n- Substrate destabilised\n- Product produced\n- Enzyme-product formed\n- Product leaves enzyme active site\n\n\n- All enzymes are globular proteins\n\t- More beta pleated sheets than alpha helix\n- Many hydrophilic R groups\n\n\n\n[Enzymes](sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology","enzymes"]},"/sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Inhibitors":{"title":"Inhibtors","content":"\nInhibitors:\n- stop enzymes working\n- decrease rate of reaction\n- block active sites\n\nAn **inhibitor** is any substance that slows down the rate of an enzyme controlled reaction by affecting the enzyme molecule.\n\n\n### Competitive Inhibitors\n\n- Similar shape to substrate \n- Occupy active sites\n- Form enzyme-substrate inhibitor complexes\n- Enzyme-substrate complex decreases rate of reaction\n- Level of inhibition depends on concentration of substrate/inhibitor\n- most don't bind permanently, making the reaction reversible\n\n#### Alcohol Dehydrogenase and ethylene glycol\n\n- An ethylene glycol overdose can be fatal\n- In the liver, it is broken down into oxalic acid (very toxic) by alcohol dehydrogenase\n- By administering a large dose of ethanol, you can prevent oxalic acid production by filling all active sites with a competitive substance.\n\n### Non-competitive Inhibitors\n\n- Bind elsewhere on the enzymes\n\t- Alosteric site\n- Affects the tertiary structure leading to a change in the shape of the active site \n- Level of inhibition depends on concentration of inhibitor\n- Many bind permanently, making the reaction irreversible\n\n#### Protein Pump Inhibitors (PPIs)\n\n- Stomach acidity is determined by H⁺ ion concentration\n- Inhibiting the pumps reduces H⁺ ion production\n- Which increases the pH of stomach acid\n- Leading to lower acidity\n- A PPI binds to an **alosteric site** and changes the tertiary shape of the enzyme, preventing the complementary substrate from binding\n\n\n### End production inhibition\n\n- Product of one reaction is an inhibitor to the enzyme that produced it.\n\n### Biochemical reactions\n\n- Products of one reaction becomes substrate for the next\n- One product may inhibt the enzyme that produced it, limiting the rate of reaction and creating a **negative feedback loop**\n\n\n\n\n[Enzymes](sixth/Biology/Enzymes/Enzymes)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology","enzymes"]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/BreathingMechanism":{"title":"Mechanism of Breathing","content":"\n## Inhalation/Inspiration\n- Diaphragm contracts and becomes flatter (typically dome-shaped)\n- Digestive organs pushed down\n- (External) intercostal muscles contract\n- Ribcage rises\n- Volume of thorax increases\n- Pressure inside thorax decreases below atmospheric pressure\n- Air is **forced** into the lungs\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019122809.png]]\n\n## Exhalation/Expiration\n- Diaphragm relaxes\n- Diaphragm pushed up by displaced organs underneath\n- (External) intercostal muscles relax\n- Ribcage falls\n- Volume of thorax decreases\n- Pressure inside thorax increases above atmospheric pressure\n- Air is **forced** out of the lungs\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019123051.png]]\n\n| Feature | Inhalation | Exhalation |\n|---------------------|----------------------|------------------------------|\n| Diaphragm | Contracts + flattens | Relaxes, becomes dome shaped |\n| Digestive Organs | Pushed Down | Push Diaphragm up |\n| Intercostal Muscles | Contract | Relax |\n| Ribcage | Rises | Falls |\n| Chest Cavity | Volume increases | Volume decreases |\n| Thorax | Pressure decreases | Pressure increases |\n| Air | Forced IN | Forced OUT |\n\n\n[Exchange Surfaces](sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces":{"title":"Exchange Surfaces","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/MamillianLungs":{"title":"Mamillian Lungs","content":"\n![[Pasted image 20221019121354.png]]\nAlveoli are the sole site of gaseous exchange.\n\n## Adaptations for gaseous exchange\n\n\u003e [!abstract] Gaseous Exchange\n\u003e\n\u003e movement of gases by diffusion between an organism and its environment.\n\n- large surface area : many alveoli\n- short distance for diffusion: alveoli and capillary wall are one cell thick (squamous epithelium)\n- steep diffusion gradient: ventilation and good bloody supply\n- semi-permeable membrane: cell membranes are permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide\n\n## Alveoli\n\n![[Pasted image 20221019121914.png]]\nBlue blood is arriving to be oxygenated and red blood is leaving after being oxygenated.\n\nAlveoli have thin walls and provide large surface areas for gas exchange.\n\n## Tissue and function distribution in the human lungs\n\n### Requirements of human airways\n- flexible\n- divide many times, allow air to reach alveoli\n- high elasticity (stretch \u0026 recoil)\n- strong, to prevent collapse\n\n## Components\n\n### Trachea\n- much of the wall is cartilage\n- prevents collapse when air pressure is low\n- Contains:\n\t- elastic fibres: recoil \u0026 return\n\t- smooth muscles: constrict airway\n\t- blood vessels: supply cells with nutrients and remove waste\n- Innermost lining is epithelium (ciliated and goblet cells)\n\n### Bronchi\n- Same as trachea, just smaller\n\n### Bronchioles\n- Larger ones may have some cartilage\n- Mainly smooth muscle and elastic fibres\n\n### Alveoli\n- Squamous epithelium \n- elastic fibres: recoil after exhalation to prevent bursting\n\n\n[Exchange Surfaces](sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/MethodsOfCellTransport":{"title":"Methods of Cell Transport","content":"\n## Diffusion\n\nThe passive movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration.\n\n## Facilitated Diffusion\n\nThe passive movement of molecules along a concentration gradient, however guided by the presence of another substance—an integral protein such as a channel.\n\n## Active Transport\n\nUsing energy to move molecules from a low concentration to a high concentration.\n\n## Endocytosis\n\nActively transporting substances into the cell through engulfing them with the cell's plasma membrane. The number of molecules entering the cell by endocytosis will be equal to the number exiting the cell via exocytosis.\n\n## Exocytosis\n\n\n\nTypically used for the removal of waste molecules, exocytosis is the process of molecules being removed from the cell via vesicles. The Golgi complex produces vesicles that engulf waste molecules and bring them to the plasma membrane, where they can be expelled from the cell.\n\n\n\n\n[Exchange Surfaces](sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology","homework"]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/RevisionPackExchangeSurfaces":{"title":"Revision Pack - Exchange Surfaces","content":"\ni) \n\n0 years = 2.72FEV\n5 years = 2.42FEV\n\n2.42/2.72 * 100 = 89.0%\n\nii) Fig 5.1 clearly shows that people who continued to smoke experienced a definite decline over the 5 year period, with deterioration speeding up as time passed. However, the people who stopped smoking enjoyed a slight increase in their FEV which slowly began to tip downward after 2 years, declining at a much slower rate than that of the smokers who were continuing.\n\nb)i) Cigarette smoke contains many compounds that should not enter the human body due to their detrimental effects. Some of these compounds, such as tar will bind up the cilia lining the walls of bronchioles. This cilia is responsible for wafting mucus (which will capture unwanted particles and pathogens) away from the alveoli and out of the lungs. By smoking, you will create a build up of tar in the lungs, slowly disabling the cilia and preventing them from moving the mucus. As a result, mucus and unwanted particles will build up in the lungs. As the cilia is unable to remove them, a coughing mechanism is used to shift the mucus. This leads to persistent coughing. \n\nCoughing can work for a while, however it is a violent motion which can cause damage to the sensitive membranes within the lungs. If you cough too much, you will cause significant damage to tissues within the lungs, further debilitating them. This cough will also likely prevent the repair of tissue as it will be frequent and will interrupt the reapri mechanisms.\n\nii) Asthma\nChronic Bronchitis\n\niii) The lock and key model is a more high-level view of how enzymes work, whereas the induced fit model focuses on a more accurate and low-level understanding of the process. It suggests that enzymes and ocassionally the substrate may **change shape** slightly to fit. These are conformational changes.It increases the ability of the enzyme to catalyze a reaction.\n\nThis can be applied to COPD as enzymes similar to those of certain pathogens are also present in elastin. This allows for damage to be made to tissue within the alveoli, as these enzymes will alter their shape slightly to fit into elastin and trigger a breakdown. \n\n2)a)i) Alveoli. There are many alveoli within the lungs because of the requirement of exchange surfaces to have a very high surface area. A single alveolus does not have a surface area high enough to meet the exchange requirements of the organism, so many are required to achieve this goal.\n\nii) Squamous Epithelium\n\n\niii) Elastic fibres allow the alveoli to flex with pressure changes in the lungs and also help to stop the structure from falling apart. \n\nb)i) As diffusion occurs between the air in the alveoli and the blood, the amount of oxygen in the air is continuously being decreased while the amount of carbon dioxide continually increases. If ventilation is not good, then the balance will eventually shift and oxygen will move out of the blood, with carbon dioxide moving in. This would defeat the purpose of the exchange surface, so refreshing the air regularly will both prevent this from occurring and ensure that the rate of diffusion remains high.\n\nii) Specialised cells line the border between the alveoli and the capillary that passes it, these are called \"squamous epithelial cells\" and are adapted to allow for a shorter diffusion pathway. The cells are stretched out to reduce the distance that substances have to travel between air and blood. The wall here is also only a single cell thick, further boosting the diffusion speed.\n\n[Exchange Surfaces](sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology","exchange","homework"]},"/sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/TheNeedForSpecialisedExchange":{"title":"The Need for Specialised Exchange Surfaces","content":"\n## Single celled organisms\n\n- exchange gases, nutrients and waste products across outer surfaces because they have a larger SA:V (surface area to volume ratio).\n- low metabolic activity—diffusion via outer surface meets demands.\n\n## Multicellular organisms\n\n- smaller SA:V\n- higher metabolic demand\n- outer surface not large enough for diffusion to meet demands\n- substances have to travel further to reach the centre of the organism\n- require specialized exchange surfaces\n- specialized exchange surfaces: surfaces over which materials are exchanged for another material.\n\n## Features of good exchange surfaces\n\n- increased SA—overcomes small SA:V of organism\n- thin layers reduce distance for diffusion\n- good blood supply creates a steep concentration gradient\n- ventilation—maintains steep concentration gradient for movement of gases\n\n\n\n[Exchange Surfaces](sixth/Biology/ExchangeSurfaces/ExchangeSurfaces)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.014712487Z","tags":["biology"]},"/sixth/Biology/Homework/CatalaseAndHaemoglobin":{"title":"Compare the role and structure of catalase and haemoglobin","content":"\nIn terms of their role, catalase is an enzyme involved in breaking hydrogen peroxide (toxic) down into water (safe, useful) and oxygen (safe, useful). Haemoglobin however takes on an entirely different role, it is used in erythrocytes to bind and release oxygen during their journey around the body. It is not an enzyme.\n\nStructurally, both molecules have many similarities, containing haem groups and being globular proteins. Haemoglobin consist of four subunits, split into 2 identical pairs. 2 of them are ɑ (alpha) groups while the other 2 are β (beta) groups. In catalase, there are also 4 subunits, however all are identical ɑ chains. \n\n\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["biology","homework"]},"/sixth/Biology/Immune/Copyup":{"title":"Copy up","content":"\n## Development and use of drugs\n\n#### Accidental discovery\nPenicillin \n\n#### How common is the use of traditional medicines?\n\nVery common.\n\n#### Describe examples of aspirin\n\n- Ibuprofen \n- Codeine\n- Hydrocodone\n\n#### Observation of wildlife\n\n- Bears and monkeys use citrus oils and insecticides\n- Birds line their nests with medicinal leaves to keep blood-sucking mites away\n\n#### Further plant research\n\n- Observing how a plant behaves or influences something that is harmful to humans\n- Isolate an active ingredient\n- Optimise a dose of the active ingredient and a delivery method to use as treatment\n\n#### Research into disease-causing mechanisms\n\n\n\n\n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["biology","immune"]},"/sixth/Biology/ReadingAboutPhotosynthesis":{"title":"Reading about Photosynthesis","content":"### Part 1\n\n1) Name 3 pigments in leaves\n - Chlorophyll a\n - Chlorophyll b\n - Carotenoid\n2) What are two products of the Light dependent reaction?\n - Electrons\n - Oxygen\n3) What does an absorption spectrum show?\n Light absorption of a pigment at a range of frequencies of light wavelength\n4) Where does the light dependent reaction occur?\n Photosystem II, and partially in Photosystem I\n5) What is the role of light harvesting pigments?\n To absorb as much light energy as possible. This is achieved by using a range of pigments that can absorb different frequencies of light.\n6) What is the role of the reaction centre of a photosystem?\n To pass excited electrons down the electron transport chain\n7) What happens to electrons in the reaction centre?\n They have their energy level increased via photon energy.\n8) How is the electron from chlorophyll p680 replaced?\n A water molecule is split \n9) Which type of chlorophyll is in photosystem I?\n P700\n10) What is chemiosmosis?\n The process of producing ATP in ATP synthase\n\n### Part 2\n\n- Produce 10 short answer questions with answers\n\n1) What is the maximum depth seaweed can grow at in clear water? \n - 250 meters\n2) When do seaweeds release carbon dioxide?\n - At night or during low light levels\n3) How does seaweed protect itself from dangerous wavelengths?\n - They have specialised pigments\n4) Do macroalgae have roots or stems?\n - Neither, all the nutrients they need can be found dissolved in the seawater. \n5) What is an important limiting factor for the growth of green algae?\n - Nitrogen access\n6) Do seaweeds need differentiated cells? \n - Not always, as tissues can usually draw everything they need from the surrounding water.\n7) What makes up optimal conditions for seaweed?\n - A correct balance of substrate, nutritional elements, temperature and light\n8) Does marine algae have any interesting nutritional information?\n - It contains more iron than spinach or egg yolks\n9) How deep can you find red macroalgae?\n - Down to about 30 meters, beyond which you get brown and above which you are more likely to get green\n10) Can seaweed still perform photosynthesis when exposed to air?\n - Partially\n\n \n\n[Biology](/Biology)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["homework","biology","photosynthesis"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/AnsoffsMatrix":{"title":"Ansoff's Matrix","content":"- Factors influencing which markets to compete in and which products to offer\n- Strategic direction to include the Ansoff matrix and value of:\n- market penetration\n- market development\n- new product development\n- diversification\n\n**A marketing planning model that helps a business determine its product and market strategy**\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230915111019.png]]\n\n### Market penetration\n\n- Aim: to increase market share\n- By selling more existing products to the same target customers\n- Get existing customers to buy more\n\n\n- ***A growth strategy where a business aims to sell existing products into existing markets.**\n\n#### Evaluating market penetration\n\n- Business focuses on markets and products it knows well\n- Can exploit insights on what customers want\n- Unlikely to need significant new market research\n- But will strategy allow the business to achieve its growth objectives\n\n### Qs\n\n### Matrix for Coca-Cola\n\n#### Market Penetration\n\n- Coca-Cola Share Size 1.5l bottle\n\t- This is identical to an existing product except in terms of volume, therefore they are simply trying to extend their market dominance with this product.\n\n#### Market Development\n\n\n- Coca-Cola Vanilla\n\t- The product had already been developed and sold in America, but was being introduced into a new location\n\n#### Product Development\n\n- Diet Coke\n\t- There is already a demand for colas, and there were changing customer demands so Coke updated their existing product to provide additional consumer choice.\n- Powerade\n\t- The energy drinks market existed prior to powerade, but by entering a new product into the market Coca Cola could compete for additional market share.\n- Fanta Icy Lemon\n\t- Coke listened to consumer feedback and developed a new product to be more competitive in an existing drinks market\n#### Diversification\n\n- Winnie the Pooh Roo Juice\n\t- A new product, but it is just juice with a special brand. It is competing with other children's juices in a market that Coca-Cola hasn't entered before.\n\n\n3) A business like Coca-Cola benefits from using Ansoff's Matrix because it allows them to ensure that they are growing their business into different markets whilst also retaining dominance of their existing markets. This process means that they can reduce their dependence on a single market or product by extending their product portfolio.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/AuthorityAndOrganisationalDesign":{"title":"Authority and Organisational Design","content":"\n## Centralised\n\n- A business with a centralised structure keeps decision-making at the top of the organisation, with decisions coming from head office/ the most senior managers.\n\n### Advantages\n\n- Easier to implement across the business\n- Prevents other parts of the business from becoming too independent\n- Easier to coordinate and control from the centre\n- Economies of scale and overhead savings are easier to achieve\n- Quick decision making (usually)\n\n### Disadvantages\n\n- More bureaucratic—extra layers in hierarchy\n- Local or junior managers are likely to understand customer needs better\n- Lack of authority down hierarchy may reduce manager motivation\n- Customer service misses out on flexibility and speed that comes with local decision making.\n\n## Decentralised\n\n- In a decentralised structure, decision-making is spread out to include more junior managers in the hierarchy, as well as individual business units or trading locations.\n\n### Advantages\n\n- Decisions are made closer to the customer\n- Better able to respond to local circumstances\n- Improved level of customer service\n- Consistent with aiming for a flatter hierarchy\n- Good way of training and developing junior management\n- Should improve staff motivation\n\n### Disadvantages\n\n- Decision-making is not necessarily “strategic”\n- Harder to ensure consistent practices and policies at each location\n- May be some diseconomies of scale—role duplication etc\n- Who provides strong leadership when needed (crisises etc)\n- Harder to achieve tight financial control—risk of cost-overruns\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n4) Not an organisational structure: Customer/market\n5) Functional vs Matrix management structure:\n A functional management structure focuses on grouping people into functional groups. So the legal team will all work together as part of one team, and the engineering team will work together as a different cohesive unit. A matrix structure focuses more on projects. Whilst people belong to a specific department they also have a project assignment. The work that each individual is given is primarily coming from the project manager, although some instructions will still come from the functional department manager.\n6) Organisational design and structure is influenced by the nature of the business. If the business is dealing with pharmaceuticals, then mistakes **cannot** happen. This means that the business management will be driven towards a more authoritarian structure, with more centralised management. However, if the business offers warehouse storage as a service, then they will likely be able to operate efficiently on a very laissez-faire structure with lots of decentralisation. This is because it isn't vital that everything is done in the exact same way, and it may improve customer relations. The size of the business is also a big factor, as the larger the business gets, the harder it becomes to maintain effective centralised management. As the burden on the head office grows with every employee that the business gains, if they have thousands of people working at hundreds of sites across the globe, then they are likely to struggle to require a more hands off approach in order to achieve optimum efficiency.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/BowmansStrategicClock":{"title":"Bowman's Strategic Clock","content":"### Challenge of Business Strategy\n\n- To find a way of achieving a sustainable competitive advantage over the other competing products and firms in a market\n\n### A competitive advantage\n\n- An advantage over competitors gained by offering consumers greater value, either by means of lower prices or by providing greater benefits and service that justifies higher prices\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230922144344.png]]\n\n\n### Low price\n\n- Low profit margins\n- Companies such as Aldi\n- Very intense (price wars)\n\n### Low price and low value\n\n- Not very competitive\n- Very little value\n\n### Hybrid\n\n- Some element of low price\n- Some product differentiation\n- Some added value and a reasonable price \n\n### Differentiation\n\n- Offers the highest level of perceived added value\n- Branding plays a key role\n- Quality is very important\n\n### Focused Differentiation\n\n- Highest price levels\n- Customers buy the product because of the high perceived value\n- Luxury brand\n\n### Risky High Margins\n\n- Very high risk\n- No extra in terms of perceived value\n- Customers will usually find a better option eventually\n- Very short term strategy\n\n### Monopoly Pricing\n\n- Only one business offering the product\n- Customers have no alternative, so pricing is easy to change for the business\n- Regulated very tightly as the market position is extremely dominant\n\n### Loss of market share\n\n- Recipe for disaster\n- Middle-range or standard price for a product with a low perceived value\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessMission":{"title":"Business Mission","content":"\n### Mission Statement\n\n- Difficult to define accurately\n- A generalised statement of where you are heading from which objectives can be set\n- A more ambiguous and passionate way of expressing an aim\n\n#### The mission statement is\n\n- the overriding purpose of the business\n- the reason for its existence\n- a strategic perspective\n- supports the stated “vision” for the future\n\n#### The mission statement is not\n\n- a statement of goals or objectives\n- statement of core values\n- how the business intends to compete in the marketplace\n\nSee [Hierarchy of Objectives](sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessObjectives)\n\n#### Key audiences for a mission statement\n\n- Employees\n- Customers\n- Investors\n- Society\n\n#### Purpose, Values, Standards, Strategy\n\n- Make up core values\n- Often included in the mission statements, or longer term plans\n\n#### What makes a good mission?\n\n- A clear sense of business purpose\n- Excites, inspires, motivates, guides\n- Easy to understand and remember\n- Differentiates business from competitors\n- For all stakeholders, not just shareholders and managers\n\n\n#### Frequent criticisms of mission statements\n\n- Not always supported by actions of the business\n- Often too vague or general\n- Could just be for good PR\n\n---\n\n### Internal influences on objectives and decisions\n\n- Business ownership – profit or non-profit?\n- The relative power of stakeholders\n- Ethics - decisions made on ethical grounds might reject the most profitable options\n- Business culture – \"the way we do things around here\"\n- Resource Constraints – everyday decisions about deploying limited resources \n\n### External influences on objectives and decisions\n\n- Pressure for short-termism – businesses focus on short-term profit objectives rather than long-term performance objectives due to shareholders demand for return on investment\n- Private limited companies have an easier time focusing on long-term goals than public limited companies, because Ltds typically have closer relationships with their shareholders\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessObjectives":{"title":"Business Objectives","content":"\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20220914095046.png]]\n*The hierarchy of objectives*\n\n---\n\n\n**SMART** - acronym helps management set effective objectives\n\nS - Specific; the objective should state exactly what is to be achieved.\n\nM - Measureable; an objective should be capable of measurement - so that it is possible to determine success.\n\nA - Achieveable; the objective should be realistic given the circumstances in which it is set.\n\nR - Relevant; objectives should be relevant to the people responsible for achieving them.\n\nT - Time Bound; objectives should be set with a time-frame in mind. These deadlines should be realistic.\n\n\u003e [!success] Business should follow SMART\n\u003e\n\u003e SMART objectives focus the business on what is important, ensuring that they stay on track.\n\n## Strategic vs Tactical objectives\n\nStrategic objectives focus on the long term, and are set by the board.\n\nTactical objectives tend to be more short term, and can be set by line managers.\n\n## Business Aims \u0026 Objectives Activity Worksheet\n\n#### Explain the difference between an aim and an objective\nAn aim is an overall target or goal for the business. Whereas objectives are smaller targets to help reach the aim. A business may have several different objectives to reach a single aim.\n\n#### Why do businesses have aims and objectives?\nThis gives them a purpose and a target to work towards.\n\n#### Describe what financial aims are\nIncreasing sales, revenue or sales. Anything related to directly increasing cashflow.\n\n**Survival**: Common aim for new businesses, simply focuses on keeping things going while they get started.\n\n**Profit**: Simply looking to earn more revenue than the sum of their costs. Increasing profit would allow greater wealth to the the business.\n\n**Sales**: To aim to sell a certain amount of a product, gives employees a common goal.\n\n**Market share**: To increase market share by a set percentage over the course of a year.\n\n**Security**: The entrepreneur being able to withdraw enough to be financially stable.\n\nMany financial objectives require attention to be paid to [Pricing](sixth/Business/Units/fh/ProfitMeasurement)\n\n#### Explain non-financial aims\n\n- Not usually linked to monetary success\n- Might be a solution to a social issue\n- Frequently personal to the founder(s)\n\n**Social**: Aims committing to act ethically. \n\n**Satisfaction**: The aim of turning a passion or a hobby into a business can often be a common start-up aim. \n\n**Challenge**: The challenge of starting something from scratch. Aiming to succeed on your own \u0026 with your own terms.\n\n**Control**: Having control over decisions made, your working pattern and the business direction.\n\n#### Suggest whether you believe non-financial aims are necessary for a profit-making business.\n\nYes, when people are going to give money to a business, they are likely to choose the most ethical option if it is financially viable to them. Therefore, businesses that have non-financial aims will be more inviting to new customers.\n\n#### Do you believe Lush has benefitted from having clear non-financial aims?\nYes, people knowing that no animal testing has occured makes them feel more comfortable when buying products from Lush. Things like this become a selling point and good publicity.\n\n#### Explain the reasons why businesses aims and objectives differ\n\nDifferent markets will have different problems and audiences, looking for different things. And as a business grows, it will need to update it's aims and objectives to remain competitive. It does not make sense for LEGO to aim to reduce animal testing - because they don't test on animals. Lush however has benefitted from that.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessOrganisation":{"title":"Forms of Business Organisation","content":"\n## Worksheet\nShareholder -\u003e Someone who invests capital in exchange for a part ownership in the company\n\nMutual -\u003e A business jointly owned by all of its members and existing for the benefit of its members rather than making a profit\n\nUnincorporated -\u003e A business which is not registered with companies house.\n\nMarket Capitalization -\u003e The current value of a company calculated by share price x number of shares issued.\n\nPrivate Limited Company -\u003e A business owned by shareholders which cannot sell shares on the stock market.\n\nDividend -\u003e A share of profits allocated to shareholders\n\n- Charity\n- Unlimited\n- Public\n- Stock Exchange\n\n= CUPS\n\nIn the private sector, there are businesses owned by private individuals. These include sole traders, partnerships and private and public limited companies. Companies are incorporated meaning that they become a separate legal entity from the owners, can sue and be sued in law and the owners of shares have limited liability meaning they can only lose the amount they invested in the business. Unincorporated businesses like sole traders and partnerships have unlimited liability, which means that the owners can lose personal assets in the event of failure.\n\nAnagrams:\n\nREADER LOST -\u003e Sole Trader\nKART ME ANTIPASTO CILIA -\u003e Market Capitalisation\nI DID VEND -\u003e Dividend\nHERALD HORSE -\u003e Shareholders\n\nVirgin group may have wanted to be a private ltd when diversifying into new areas, because they would be protected from liability but not quite as vulnerable as a plc could be.\n\nInvestment into R+D can be risky, as it uses lots of company funds and comes with high risks. Reduces profit.\n\nShare prices are determined by what people think the value of the business is. So a profit warning equals reduced dividend payments and business stability - therefore lower business value.\n\n1) If you start a business without limited liability, and you make a mistake, then you have no protection against anything that happens. You could end up in debt and with your personal assets at risk. Limited liability is a simple way to separate yourself from your business and create that legal barrier between the two entities.\n3) A private limited company and a public limited company are similar in many ways. However, they start to differ at the point where a plc has shares floated on the stock market, whereas a private limited company requires shareholders to be invited. A public company has additional requirements when it comes to publishing accounts and handling additional paperwork (although a private company most definitely still has paperwork). Public limited companies are much more visible to the public, and news outlets will report on their profit filings and activities much more closely. This means that a public limited company will have to be much more careful about their activities than a private one.\n4) A private limited company does not need to publish its accounts, whereas a public limited company does. This is an advantage to setting up as a private ltd, because it means that your financial data is more secure. You will be able to protect information about your cash flow from the public, meaning that it will have a minimal impact on your business. This also enables a business to be more effective at competing with other businesses in the same market, because they will not be sharing their performance information - meaning that they have more room to outwit their competitors.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessTypes":{"title":"Business Types","content":"## Differences between\n### The mission of a business and the objectives of a business\n\n- A mission is typically higher level than an objective and viewed on a longer term by a business. An objective might be to increase profit of a certain market area by 25% over a period of time, whilst the mission might be to bring affordable clothing to everyone.\n\n### Private and public limited companies\n\n- The shares of a private limited company are not floated on the stock market\n- A public limited company requires at least £50,000 in capital to launch\n- Many companies start private and go public\n- Public companies have additional reporting requirements\n\n### Limited and Unlimited Liability\n\n- Limited liability means that shareholders are not responsible for the debts of the business\n- Whilst unlimited liability means any debts that the business has are shared between shareholders should they need to be collected\n- Limited liability is much safer from a legal viewpoint\n\n### The objectives of a sole trader and the objectives of a public limited company\n\n- A sole trader is likely looking to make a living by selling goods or services in a single location, with only several employees\n- Public limited companies have much larger and broader objectives, as they will typically try to achieve societal changes and will operate on a larger scale with a significantly larger amount of capital.\n\n### Private and public sector organisations\n\n- Public sector organisations are run by the government\n- Private sector organisations are run by individuals\n- Public sector organisations are typically run for public benefit, such as the NHS, the fire department of the education system\n- Private sector organisations are usually run for profit (typically the case of private \u0026 public limited companies) although not always as many charities and NGOs are not run for profit but are also not considered public sector.\n\n### Ordinary share capital and market capitalisation\n\n- Ordinary share capital is money raised through selling shares\n- Market capitalisation is the total value of all of the shares for a business\n\n\n## Benefits and Drawbacks\n\n### Sole Trader\n\n- Easy to setup\n- Cheap\n- Little paperwork\n- Full control \n\n- Unlimited liability\n\n\n### Private Limited Company\n\n- Fairly easy to setup\n- Limited liability\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyBT":{"title":"Case Study: BT's key non-financial measures of performance","content":"*WIP*\n\n1) d,b\n2) Explain one strength and one weakness of using quantitive data to measure a company's planet and people performances.\n \n A numerical value is absolute and fact. By measuring planet and people performances with figures, they can be certain of the actual impact that they are having on the planet.\n\n\n**Work on paper!**\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyBlackFriday":{"title":"Case Study: Black Friday","content":"\n## Andy Graham, MD at John Lewis, needs to decide whether the business will continue to participate in Black Friday and has requested a SWOT analysis is drawn up. Analyse the benefits of conducting a SWOT analysis to help him with this decision? (12 marks)\n\nA SWOT analysis is a highly efficient way of identifying potential problems and advantages of participating in Black Friday for John Lewis. Because of its simple 4 point structure, it is possible to very clearly plot the results of a decision, and it also helps managers making decisions to ensure that they have considered all the likely outcomes before they do anything definitive. \n\nFor a business like John Lewis, it is important for them to maintain their appearance as a luxury business providing high quality, high value goods. Participating in Black Friday could degrade the value of their products and lead to them making less sales outside of Black Friday. However, if they don't participate, they could risk losing sales over the Black Friday weekend, which would amount to a significant cash injection for the business, and would allow John Lewis to quickly move stock. In a SWOT analysis, they could have a look at possible strengths and weaknesses in their brand image, and consider what impact this would have on John Lewis in the long run. Using this information, they could make a more scientific decision, which would reduce the risk to the business.\n\nHowever, there are risks associated with using a SWOT analysis, because whilst the tool is very powerful, it requires clear and well-thought through data to be inputted, otherwise it could mislead a decision maker. If John Lewis put the wrong or non-relevant information into their analysis, then they could make a badly informed decision which would have negative repercussions on the business as a whole.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyEducsupplies":{"title":"Case Study: Eudcsupplies","content":"\n## Explain two methods of employee representation introduced at Educsupplies (6 marks)\n\nEducsupplies introduced a suggestion scheme, allowing employees to provide feedback about the running of the business and their views. The “you said – we did” initiative allowed employees to view the impact of their feedback and gain a sense of importance. \n\nEqually, the director's walkabout enabled direct and instant communication between employees and directors, meaning that the day-to-day issues of an employee could be quickly and clearly communicated to someone from the board. This will lead to many issues being raised with the highest level of management before they have time to develop into something that will lead to dissatisfaction and possible grievances. \n\n\n## Most employees at Educsupplies belong to the recognised trade union. Explain two possible benefits to employees of belonging to a trade union. (6 marks)\n\nBy being a member of a union, employees will benefit from improved negotiations over the likes of pay and working conditions thanks to the collective bargaining that a union can perform. This has already lead to improvements in the mentioned areas for employees, which will help to keep them satisfied with their jobs, leading to lower labour turnover and greater productivity. The union also provides employees with an additional layer of protection or a safety net of sorts, allowing them to feel more comfortable and protected whilst at work. Because of this, employees will have a less stressful working experience, because should something bad happen, they will have a strong organisation to fall back on.\n\n\n## What does the case study suggest are the benefits of employee representation to:\n\n### the employees of Educsupplies (6 marks):\n\nEmployees are free to share their feedback on any element of the business, and know that it will be listened to by management, giving them an increased chance of making changes for the betterment of the workforce. This will enable employees to enjoy greater power in their roles and take up a more integral position within the business. \n\nWhen employees have an issue with their position, they have a direct channel to communicate their problems with the management which will give them the opportunity to resolve any potential disputes quickly and before they become cause for industrial action.\n\n\n### the owners and managers of Educsupplies (6 marks):\n\nEducsupplies has experienced a range of issues recently, and proper employee representation will let them remedy a lot of these problems. Whilst action could be taken autonomously from upper management, it would likely be too broad to address the specific requests of the employees. By incorporating the employees into the decision making processes and taking their suggestions as inputs, these fine point issues can be properly addressed, and the business can cooperate with employees to try and ensure that all issues are resolved in a timely manner with an amicable attitude on both sides. This is much preferable to industrial action, or low employee satisfaction.\n\n\n## The quality of communication is an influence on employer-employee relations. Based on Educsupplies, or any other businesses with which you are familiar, to what extent do you believe the quality of communication is the most important influence on good employer-employee relations? (16 marks)\n\nCommunication is the key to the prevention *and* resolution of issues. Whilst it definitely isn't the only factor to good employer-employee relations, good communication definitely is one of the major ones. Before Educsupplies made changes to their business, they had poor communication between various employer and employee bodies, which lead to a plethora of issues within the organisation. The vast majority of changes that they made to the business were centered around communication, which lead to very favourable results. This suggests that the business was lacking in communication, but it also shows that good communication is important to keeping everything running smoothly.\n\nTherefore, I would argue that the quality of communication **is** the most important factor for good employer-employee relations. All interactions and agreements between employers and employees are a result of communication, if both parties are able to engage in this effectively, clearly and respectfully constantly, then issues that could grow into problematic disputes could be dealt with before they risk causing a scene and general sentiment could be kept favourable between all involved parties. This is very beneficial for the business, becuase it means that internal issues won't be dividing employees and causing struggles - leading to greater labour productivity, lower labour turnover and greater product quality. \n\nSo high quality communication impacts every area of the business, and is an essential cornerstone for any organisation to achieve a high degree of efficiency and unity.\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyFrozenWorld":{"title":"Case Study: Frozen World","content":"\n### Analyse the strategic position of Frozen World through either the model of Porter's generic strategies or Bowman's strategic clock (12 marks)\n\nFrozen World have positioned themselves with very low prices to ensure that they can attract customers on price alone. By using Cost Leadership, they sacrifice higher end market sales and focus on volume of goods sold. In order to make this work, they focus on economies of scale to allow bulk purchases to be made and low unit costs to be achieved. Frozen World also benefits from the declining UK economy, as more people are struggling to afford essentials such as food, which makes Frozen World more attractive to potential customers. They further reduce their costs by selling unbranded goods, because known brand names automatically inflate costs. In the case of Frozen World, they don't care particularly about brands or quality as they have put their entire focus into price.\n\nThey have placed themselves at position 1 on Bowman's Strategic Clock, providing low prices with low added value. They don't add any value particularly, but their USP is having the lowest prices, which is enough to generate sales. When they made the decision to position themselves here, they sacrificed a lot of potential customers who would look for higher quality products, more socially impactful businesses, in favour of being the cheapest. \n\n### To what extent is a low-cost strategy the best strategic position for Frozen World to adopt? (20 marks)\n\n#### Plan\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20231004095859.png]]\nContext hooks: Frozen World \nEvaluation hooks: low-cost strategy, best strategic position\n\n##### P1\n\n- In the current UK economic climate, many people have decreasing wealth\n- Therefore, the main deciding factor in whether or not people can/will buy a good is price\n- This suggests that position 1 on Bowman's Strategic clock *is* an effective position to hold\n\n##### P2\n\n- Low-cost is associated with low-quality\n- Even if people have decreasing wealth, they will still want to eat good quality food\n- If Frozen World develops a reputation for being poor quality, people will not buy from them *regardless* of their pricing\n- Therefore, it is apparent that Frozen World's market position may be poor in the long run, as they are working so hard on minimising costs that they will not be able to sustain a decent level of quality.\n- And with 37% of the population purchasing from discount stores at the moment, Frozen World is likely to have some hard competition.\n\n##### AJIM\n\n(Answer, Justify, It depends on, Most Important)\n\n- It is a decent position for Frozen World to adopt, as low price is not only a sure way of generating sales but it also doubles up as a good marketing strategy.\n- This is especially effective because people are not particularly affluent at the moment.\n- The most important factor for them will be to ensure a consistent level of quality to avoid developing a bad name for their brand.\n\n\n#### Answer\n\nIn the UK, the average person does not have much disposable income. This means that many people are looking to save money wherever they can, and food shopping is a frequent expense that cannot be avoided. However, Frozen World are offering the food people need at extremely low prices, giving them a niche in the market. For many people, price is the only thing that matters when purchasing, so Frozen World's exceptionally low pricing of £1 or less allows them to almost definitely attract many customers. Because of this, we can assume that their placement at position 1 on Bowman's Strategic Clock is effective.\n\nUnfortunately, low cost is associated with low quality, so Frozen World is unlikely to be able to make much in the way of sales to people who are not struggling financially. Additionally, even people who are struggling will still want quality food if they can manage it, so a competitor to Frozen World offering better food at only a slightly higher price could easily acquire Frozen World's market share. If Frozen World develops a poor reputation for quality, then they will lose sales and customers regardless of how low their pricing is, because people will view their products as unusable. This suggests that their market positioning may not hold up in the long run, and that the Frozen World business might only be a short-term success. As resources are placed on lowering costs, how will they effectively regulate quality?\n\nTheir current position, in the current economic climate is reasonable, Frozen World are capable of making sales and are capable of growing. Low price is a double win as it not only guarantees them sales but acts as a great marketing point. As there is a dwindling number of people who are currently affluent or well off, budget supermarkets are going to be increasingly popular as people look for ways to cut costs to the bone. Frozen World's most important factor is going to be trying to maintain a consistent level of quality whilst not raising their prices. It will only take 1 or 2 slip ups for their reputation to be irreparably damaged, and this will significantly harm their ability to do business.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyLush":{"title":"Case Study: Lush Cosmetics","content":"\n## What is meant by the term \"target market\"? (2m)\n\nThe target market is the selection of people that the business wishes to sell their products to. They try to tailor their offerings to that demographic.\n\n## State two examples of behavioural segmentation included in the article (2m)\n\n- Celebrity purchases are noted on the website, so people who like to follow celebrities will be more likely to buy from Lush.\n- They also focus heavily on freshness and authenticity of their products, meaning that people who look for quality will be more attracted to their store.\n\n## Analyse two reasons why Lush introduces new products every three months. (9m)\n\nCustomers come to Lush because their products are *fresh*, if they offered the same products constantly then the range would become stale. This would psychologically impact the customers, making them feel that Lush wasn't being fully fresh. By using fresh ingredients and changing their range up frequently, they can counter this.\n\nAlso, fresh ingredients means that products have a short shelf life otherwise they would risk damaging their reputation. This would result in them having to have a short production chain and a quick product turnover in their stores. Therefore, changing their actual products helps to keep things fresh without having much of an impact on their production.\n\n## Analyse two reasons why Lush might have decided to open its own shops when it re-launched the business in 1994? (9m)\n\nLush is “iconic”, their stores are unlike any others. You can smell their stores from a distance, which makes them noticeable. If Lush sold their products in other company's stores, such as a supermarket, they would not be able to utilize such a marketing method. Also, people tend to consider the ethics of the store they are in more that the ethics of the company producing the product that they are buying. By running their own stores, Lush can take their core values such as freshness and reinforce them by designing their stores around their business.\n\nAlso, running their own shops would provide them with greater control over every aspect of their business. When they were selling through The Body shop, they were completely dependent on The Body Shop for all sales. If The Body Shop decided to stop stocking their products, they wouldn't have anywhere to turn. However, if running their own stores they would have greater control. Nobody would be able to cut them out of their own business.\n\n\n---\n## Lush uses market segmentation in its planning.  Evaluate the usefulness of market segmentation in segmentation in enabling Lush to make large profits. (16 marks)\n\nLush utilizes market segmentation to help them focus their product development efforts on the correct target audience. By splitting the market in which they operate into segments, they can identify the people who are most likely to buy their products and ensure that they are meeting all the requirements of these customers. In this sense, the use of market segmentation is a good thing for Lush. However, when they focus solely on certain market segments they may alienate some of their customers. \n\nHowever, the risk that some customers will be excluded may be a worthwhile risk for Lush as they will be able to ensure that they stay focused on their core audience, which will allow them to retain their main customer base and provide a higher quality service to their consumers.\n\nLush achieves high profits through their market segmentation planning by finding quality selling points, such as fresh and natural ingredients, which they then use to make their high markup a reasonable purchase for their target market, which consists of people who are willing to spend more to get a product that ticks these boxes. Because Lush is operating in a fairly niche market, they don't have a huge amount of competition either, which allows for them to take more risks when it comes to new products, and allows them to continue growing their market share.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyMichellesStressfulJob":{"title":"Case Study: Michelle's Stressful Job","content":"\n\u003e [!failure] Piped content missing\n\u003e\n\u003e Content upload error during build process.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyMiyagiMotors":{"title":"Case Study: Miyagi Motors","content":"## Prep\n### Demographic\n- 45 year old\n- £65000\n- Environmentally conscious\n- meet consumer needs\n- target advertising\n\n## Analyse the reasons why Miyagi Motors need to find out the main consumer demographic for the Loris electric car (9 marks)\n\nKnowing the consumer demographic allows a company like Miyagi Motors to know who is buying their existing products, and therefore how they can ensure that upcoming products meet the requirements and wants of their market. If they produce a car that does not meet the needs of their customers, then they will not sell many and will suffer bad PR as well. However, if they do correctly factor in the main demographic for their products then they will be able to increase sales and gain good publicity—a win-win for the business and its clients.\n\nSomething that would be vital to consider when reviewing the main consumer demographic is the financial situation of the individuals. So as the average income of their consumers is around £65,000/annum they will be able to spend more money than the average person, however they are still unlikely to have the target price of £24,000 lying around. This would be a cost that could be offset when the customer considers the reduction in fuel costs after the purchase, and any other features Miyagi includes to improve the perceived value of the vehicle.\n\n## To what extent is consumer income the main external factor affecting demand for the Loris electric car? (16 marks)\n\nWhilst the income of the consumer is a large factor impacting whether they would look to buy a Loris, there are other factors that could have a greater influence. An example of this would be savings—as if someone had a very large sum of money in savings, but a low salary, they may still buy the Loris.\n\nIt is worth considering wider, more general economic factors as well, such as interest rates. Many people will not buy something that costs £24,000 out of pocket, so they will need to borrow money from a bank. High interest rates will increase the long-term cost of borrowing money, and will reduce the probability of someone spending their money on a non-essential item like a nice car. Even if somebody does have a high enough income to afford a new car—they may not wish to do so if they have concerns over the security of their job or the future of the economy.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyNewFrontiersTravel":{"title":"Case Study: New Frontiers Travel launch new pick n mix service aimed at rejuvenating the package holiday market","content":"\n1) New Frontiers Travel have not made any changes to their offerings for a while, however the market in which the exist has evolved significantly. With the rise of the internet new businesses have opened up to provide customers with more convenience and flexibility than what New Frontiers can offer. With increased internet access and usage potential customers have been increasingly looking for more competitive options or booking their holidays themselves, because the people offering travel and accommodation have also moved onto the internet. For a company like New Frontiers, this means that their business model is not going to hold up as it is, and they need to make modifications to their strategy to adapt to this new business landscape. \nThe introduction of their website, NewFrontiers.com, means that they can offer their new, refocused packages to customers in a format that people will be more likely to engage with. Also, the new CEO is recognising that people are decreasingly using physical stores, so the decision to close 199/1069 stores that they have in the UK will likely save the company a fair bit of money. Without these changes, the company will continue to lose revenue and relevance in the market and will face bankruptcy. Their old model worked, but as times are changing, the company needs to move with them.\n\n\n2) Extension strategies are an important method for bolstering the profits of New Frontiers, however they will not be the sole factor required to keep the company in business.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.022712464Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyRyanair":{"title":"Case Study: Ryanair","content":"\n2) The physical environment that Ryanair provides are cut right back to reduce the costs on Ryanair. Whilst this does offer customers very competitive prices. Many customers will expect additional service to be provided, however Ryanair either does not provide these at all or uses them as an opportunity to charge an additional fee.\n\n3) Digital marketing is any marketing that takes place digitally, typically online. This could be anything from social media advertising campaigns to viral videos. It allows for very rapid, certain marketing. Online people can find and share content much more quickly leading to greatly improved marketing performance. And if an advertising campaign is purchased via a technology company they can typically gaurantee so much reach and interactions. \n\n4) Ryanair achieves penetration pricing partly via their dynamic pricing model, where they will sell the first tickets on a flight at very low prices, and gradually increase the price as more seats fill up. They also provide seasonal offers, where even lower prices are offered (and advertised) allowing for them to appeal to the market as **the** choice for cheap air travel. The impact of penetration pricing is typically stiffling competition and increasing units sold.\n\n5) After Ryanair has sold the first 70% of seats on a flight, they switch from their lower pricing strategy to a price skimming strategy. Ryanair knows that if you have not booked in the first 70%, then you are likely to be somewhat desperate to get a flight, meaning that you will be more likely to pay a higher price, because you just need a flight and don't have the flexibility to choose another flight. Therefore, Ryanair has successfully implemented price skimming across the final 30% of ticket sales for each flight, allowing them to make more money from these customers whilst still typically managing to fill the flight - and give most customers the impression of great prices.\n\n6) Ryanair became established and successful fairly quickly in Europe, and already had a fairly large market share. There is not enough room for two businesses to exist in the very low end flight market. So if SouthWest Airlines moved into Europe, they would have a very high risk, low chance of success battle to beat Ryanair in the market. This is not something that their low cost model would work well with, as it would likely lead to increasing prices in the main American branch. Therefore, it would not make financial sense for SouthWest to try and enter the European market, however if there are other regions of the world, such as Asia or Oceania where this is a demand for cheap flights, and no business is currently competing in the market then it may be a much better idea for SouthWest to enter that region instead.\n7) Ryanair is looking to increase the quality of the service that they provide to appeal to a greater range of people, specifically the business class. To do this, one of their focuses is on people. By ensuring that their staff provide a high quality, reliable and friendly experience to passengers, Ryanair will be able to improve the customer satisfaction that they have, giving them the ability to compete with other airlines in different areas other than price. If they can do this successfully, without having to increase their costs or pricing by much, then it could lead to Ryanair becoming a choice for people looking for something more premium as well.\n8) Price elasticity of demand on flights is something that changes. If you are booking a flight 6 months in advance, you are not under pressure to book there and then, so in order to secure a sale, a company such as Ryanair can do this best by offering a lower price to you. However, if you are looking to book a ticket the same week or even same day, then you are just looking for a flight that will take you to the correct place. Ryanair knows this, and is aware that in these cases people will be much more likely to pay a higher price for a ticket than the people who book early, meaning that they can easily push prices up and increase their margin for the final 30% of tickets sold. In other words, Ryanair goes from being one option among many for the early birds, to the only option for people booking late - therefore it is much easier for Ryanair to sell a ticket to the late person than it is for them to sell a ticket to the early one. \n9) Digital marketing is a new strategy that allows for guaranteed reach and much quicker more reactive marketing. If used correctly, it can funnel traffic from major social networks onto the Ryanair website, and it can be used to specifically target individuals who are looking for flights to certain areas. Because of this degree of accuracy that digital marketing offers, Ryanair will be able to get much better value for money on marketing campaigns. Moving to a more technologically based market.\n\n---\n## Hwk: Evaluate the potential difficulties faced by Ryanair in trying to change its marketing mix in order to widen its appeal.\n\nRyanair is trying to shift their focus to more points in the marketing mix because they have now cornered the budget market, using price penetration and skimming to maximise their revenue for each flight whilst ensuring that they get run at a near maximum capacity. So, price is already very well optimised, and they have chosen to only operate between popular destination meaning that their place is fairly wll constructed so far. \n\nHowever, one area where Ryanair has not yet directed their focus is people. Customers looking for a more premium experience will not choose Ryanair because the service that they offer is not premium. One of the main ways that Ryanair could bolster this would be through increasing both the staffing levels on flights and the training of their staff. If there are more staff, then the load on each individual staff member will be reduced and the quality of service that can be provided to each individual customer will increase. With additional training, this will only improve further. \n\nThe physical environment on a Ryanair flight is not something that could particularly be described as luxurious either. As a primarily budget airline, Ryanair has packed their planes with as many seats as possible. This means that leg room, comfort, and other amenities have been significantly restricted. If Ryanair wants to successfully attract a more premium clientelle, then they will have to find a way of offering these services at a slight premium. Likely the best way that they could offer this would be by converting a certain section of the seats on the flight to \"Premium seats\", which would enable customers willing to pay a bit more for the upgrade to enjoy an experience that matches more high end airlines. \n\nIn addition, the process that Ryanair puts customers through is not intended to be luxurious or premium. It is intended to convert as many people to paying customers as possible, and it applies time pressures with their cheaper prices for the first customers and seasonal deals. This means that Ryanair is less attractive than many competitors where you don't have to worry about whether or not you'll get a seat. Because of this, Ryanair may need t ofocus on some form of premium membership, whereby people who pay some form of annual fee will get priority access to their booking system. Allowing them to book seats before they are made avaliable to everyone, and possibly even providing additional services to these customers, such as included meals or discounts on flights. It would be possible to structure this in such a way where Ryanair would continue to make a profit from these customers, whilst also improving the quality to a level where they would be attracting higher tier customers onto their flights.\n\nTherefore, it makes a lot of sense for Ryanair to look at expanding their marketing mix. The process allows Ryanair to significantly bolster their range of offerings, meaning that more people will be attracted to their service. However, it is also important for Ryanair to not loose sight of their core customer base, because these are the people who generate most of the company's revenue, and if Ryanair makes their customers on lower priced tiers feel discriminated against or like second-class customers, then they will risk loosing both positive public relations and customers. So - Ryanair need to expand their marketing mix to improve the experience people offer, the process through which bookings are made and the physical environment provided on their flights, but they do also need to do this in a way that allows them to increases profit, without scaring away existing customers and opening a gap in the market to allow a competitor to enter.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyStayingPrivate":{"title":"Case Study: Staying Private","content":"\n1) Timpson is a successful business with assets worth a lot of money. This makes them vulnerable to the impacts of having unlimited liability, as William Timpson and any other shareholders could be liable for any damages or debts that the company becomes involved in. Because of this, it makes logical sense for the business to move towards something with limited liability. This basic change in business form, whilst it would come with a few negative side effects, immediately protects the owners from a lot of risk. A private limited company would enable the company to fairly seamlessly transition without having to make too many adjustments to the functional structure of the organisation. Another option that might be viable for a company such as Timpson is a public limited company. This business form would bring increased scrutiny over the company, and would allow anybody to buy into the business—good for cashflow, not so great for control. \n\tSo whilst a sole trader isn't a completely unviable business form, it is definitely not a great idea. A private limited company is probably the best match for the business, as William Timpson said that he “would hate … having shareholders telling me what to do”, and a private limited company brings protection without letting anybody become a shareholder.\n\tA sole trader would have been a good place to start, as it is easy to set up, there is a low level of complexity and the assets at risk are fairly unlikely to be lost if it is a small business. Absolute control is given to the business owner.\n\n2) Factors impacting a plc's share price:\n- performance of similar businesses\n- overall economic status\n- profit warnings\n- accounts\n- recent business decisions\n- rumours (ie, layoffs)\n- whether or not the business will become obsolete in future\n- sustainability\n- public opinion\n\n3) When deciding whether or not to remain a private company, Timpson would have considered a wide range of different factors. These would have included the likes of financial stability, as a private company would be much more responsible for financing itself, whereas a public company would have the freedom to raise finance via the sale of shares. Because Timpson wants the company to remain private to give him more freedom over the decision-making aspect, he would have to find a way to justify the financial side of this move, as anybody who wanted to transition to a public company would likely use the financial difference as an argument point. Another important factor in this decision would be the risk of a hostile takeover. As a public company, the business would be very vulnerable as a low share price could leave them open to be bought out by another organisation. This would likely conflict with the interests of Timpson, because he likes retaining control over the business. A loss of control may end up being a worthwhile sacrifice, though, as a public company comes with advantages too. These include the obvious, like being able to sell shares easily, but also less clear benefits like greater public presence. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyThatsEntertainment":{"title":"Case Study: That's Entertainment","content":"\n\n## Assess the value of the market research carried out by James (9 marks)\n\nJames carried out several forms of market research, which is good because it distributes the sources and helps to verify the authenticity of the data that he gathers. He performed secondary research using a UK-based website. This is good because the data is easily accessible and can be accessed in large quantities. He found that the average cost of a child's entertainer would be about £135—across the UK.\n\nThis information is useful for approximations, however it should not be taken as hard facts. Because of the nature of a website, the data may be outdated, leading to false expectations, and it is also very possible that it doesn't reflect the demographic of James's local area. For instance, because his local area had “high unemployment”, people may be looking to reduce costs by cutting out unessential spending, such as a child's entertainer.\n\nLuckily, he decided to reinforce his findings with primary research, in the form of a questionnaire that he handed out to parents at the local school. With this, he managed to discover that—based on 20 returned surveys—56% of parents had an interest in a child's entertainer, and he found that they were prioritizing quality over price. This suggests that there are good grounds for James to enter the market, especially as only 1 of the local entertainers offers a children's magic show.\n\n\n## To what extent do you agree that the market research James carried out will ensure the success of his new business? (16 marks)\n\nMarket research is unable to ensure anything, it should never be treated as a hard-set market setup, because it is based on samples of sections of a market—it doesn't represent everyone. James got 20 questionnaire responses, and has extrapolated to a larger population from this data. This is an assumption, not a guarantee. It is therefore possible that the people who returned surveys are a minority and that James's business might not get enough traction to to become profitable.\n\nHis secondary market research can act as a reinforcement of the primary research he performed, as parallels can be drawn between the results. For instance, it is possible to see that opinions found on Netmums can be related to those shared by local parents. This can be used to make the educated suggestion that approximately 50% of parents would consider paying for a children's entertainer.\n\nHe has not taken factors such as population size into account. Because if he is only planning on operating in a small region, then the existing entertainers in the region may already saturate the market, and their experience and loyalty may be able to allow them to outcompete James. If this is the case then it may be true that customers have a demand, but the supply would already be provided. He could have improved his research by asking customers whether they had found a child entertainer, and whether that child entertainer had provided everything that they wanted. This would have enabled James to identify gaps in the market and increase his probability of success in a situation where the market is already competitive. \n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CompetitiveEnvironmentFiveForces":{"title":"Competitive Environment - Five Forces","content":"### Porter's Five Forces\n\n- Devised by Michael Porter\n- A framework for analysing the nature of competition within an industry\n\n### Summary for industry profits\n\n\n#### High industry profits associated with\n\n- Weak suppliers\n- Weak customers (buyers)\n- High entry barriers\n- Few opportunities for substitutes\n- Little rivalry\n\n#### Low industry profits associated with\n\n- Strong suppliers\n- Strong customers (buyers)\n- Low entry barriers\n- Many opportunities for substitutes\n\n### The five forces\n\n- Threat of new entrants to a market\n- Bargaining power of suppliers\n- Threats of Substitute Products\n- Bargaining power of buyers (customers)\n- Intensity of rivalry within the industry\n\n#### Threat of new entrants\n\n- If new entrants move into an industry they will gain market share and rivalry will intensify\n- The position of existing firms is stronger if there are barriers to entering the market\n- If barriers to entry are low then the threat of new entrants will be high, and vice versa.\n\n#### Barriers to entry\n\n- Investment cost\n- Economies of scale available to existing firms\n- Regulatory or legal restrictions\n- Existing products with a strong brand of USP\n- Access to suppliers and distribution channels\n- Retaliation by established products (price war)\n\n#### Bargaining power of suppliers\n\n- If a firm's suppliers have bargaining power they will:\n\t- Exercise that power\n\t- Sell their products at a higher price\n\t- Squeeze industry profits\n- If the supplier forces up the price paid for inputs, profits will be reduced\n- The more power the customer (buyer) the lower the price\n\n##### Determinants of supplier power\n\n- Uniqueness of the input supplied\n\t- If the resource is essential to the buying firm and no close substitutes are available, suppliers are in a powerful position\n- Number and size of firms supplying the resources\n\t- A few large suppliers can exert more power over market prices than many smaller suppliers each with a small market share\n- Competition for the input from other industries\n\t- If there is great competition, the supplier will be in a stronger position\n- Cost of switching to alternative sources\n\n\n\u003e Omission\n\n\n### Worksheet\n\n1) Analyse why overcrowding in the industry might mean smaller firms may be forced out.\n \n When there are too many businesses operating in the industry, consumers will be offered a lot more choice, both in terms of products and in price. As larger businesses have more financial clout, they will be able to easily outcompete many smaller competitors on price, likely gaining more market share as a result. Smaller businesses won't have the same level of pricing flexibility, so cannot afford to be involved in a price war. However, as the jewellery market is based on luxuries, people are often willing to pay a premium, allowing some smaller firms to outcompete their larger counterparts in terms of quality. \n \n Regardless, some small firms will have to go. Overcrowding means that the supply is higher than the demand, and as smaller firms have a smaller piece of the pie, they cannot afford to lose anywhere near as much market share as larger firms, meaning that they will likely collapse first.\n\n2) Evaluate the market conditions for the jewellery and watch industry using Porter's five forces model.\n \n As the market is overcrowded, there are many competing businesses, which leads to consumers having much higher bargaining power. If they don't like a product or a price, they can just go to another jewellery shop and buy something else. If there were fewer jewellery shops, then this would be much less of a problem for businesses, as consumers would be more limited. \n \n Premium jewellery will be made using expensive, precious materials, which will cost a lot and have fewer suppliers. This will lead to high supplier bargaining power and very elastic costs. Cheaper jewellery producers will use much cheaper materials that can be procured much more easily, from far more suppliers at a much lower cost. While, the lower quality materials will deter some higher end customers, or people looking to buy things like wedding rings, many people will be attracted by the lower prices . This means that the suppliers able to produce products cheaply will be more likely to succeed, especially during economic hardships where individuals have less money to spend. This means that manufacturers using cheaper materials are a potential threat to premium manufacturers. \n \n Larger companies typically have a stronger brand than smaller independent manufacturers, which means when someone mentions a piece of jewellery—the larger firm comes to mind. This gives them a massive advantage in terms of selling goods as marketing is less of a problem. However, they do also have a much larger budget which allows much greater marketing spending should they want to do a campaign for a new product launch or to rekindle their brand image.\n\n\n \n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CoreCompetencies":{"title":"Core Comepetencies","content":"\n**A core competence is something unique that a business has, or can do, strategically well.**\n\nThe concept was developed by Prahalad \u0026 Hamel\n\n\"The key to competing in the future is building, deploying, protecting and defending core competencies...\"\n\nWhen linked to [SWOT Analysis](sixth/Business/Units/fh/SWOTAnalysis), core competencies are a strength\n\n### The Three Key Conditions\n\nIf a quality meets all three conditions, then it is a core competency.\n\n- Does it provide consumer benefits?\n- Is it easy for competitors to imitate? (NO)\n- Can it be leveraged widely to many products and markets?\n\n### Prahalad \u0026 Hamel's suggest\n\n- Outsource areas that you don't specialise in \n- Focus on the core competencies\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/DifferentFormsOfBusiness":{"title":"Understanding Different Business Forms","content":"\nBusiness forms typically depend upon some of the following factors:\n\n- Business Objectives\n- Stakeholders\n- Shares \u0026 Shareholders\n- Organisational structure\n\n## Business Form Mapping\nThe private sector is any business that is owned by partners, owners or shareholders.\n\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20220915094507.png]]\n\n**Incorporated:** Private Limited Companies and Public Limited Companies\n\n**Unincorporated:** Sole Trader and Partnership\n\n## Business Research: Public Limited Companies\n\nA plc tends to be a fairly established business, as it costs £50,000 to set up (at least) and therefore it is usually a reformed private limited company. Like a private limited company, plcs are owned by shareholders. However, there is a fundamental difference - as the shares of a public company are traded on the stock exchange and can be bought by anyone. This enables the raising of stock capital.\n\nThere are also more high level requirements placed on the business, as more documents must be published - including public accounts.\n\nThis means that anyone can own part of the business if they purchase shares. However, the effective owner of the business is the majority shareholder - if there is one. \n\nDecisions will be made by the executive employees (such as the CEO) and the board (made up of major shareholders). This only covers major decisions, as more minor decisions will still be covered by lower levels of management.\n\nHostile takeovers are a higher risk for public limited companies as anybody is capable of purchasing shares. The setup cost is high, and shareholders will all expect a cut of the profits.\n\nThe shareholders all have limited liability.\n\nA plc is usually a lot bigger than a standard ltd company.\n\nShareholders have ultimate control over the business - however the majority shareholder, if one exists, has complete control. (Anyone with more than 50% of shares.)\n\nHere are some Plcs:\n\n- Admiral Group Plc\n- Aviva Plc\n- BP Plc\n- British American Tobacco plc\n- National Grid\n- Pheonix Group Holdings plc\n- Shell plc\n- Tesco plc\n\n## Business Research: Private Limited Companies\n\nPrivate limited companies can be really small all the way up to a large business. It is the simplest way to form a limited liability company and it has fairly low costs and requirements.\n\nIt only costs £25 to register the company and needs shares to be assigned (if that method is used - persons of signifcant control can also be assigned). A ltd company is typically owned by one (or few) people who set it up. Shares are typically only owned by people directly involved with the company - and share capital is not usually a main source of finance.\n\nWithin a private limited company, the decision making is usually more central than with the typically larger plc. This is because in a private limited company, management is typically much smaller, possibly consisting of a single person. Therefore, a ltd is going to run more like a dictatorship, as one person *could* definitely have complete control over everything.\n\n### Advantages:\n\n- owners have limited liability\n- individuals have the opportunity to become their own boss\n- new shareholders must be invited, preventing hostile takeover and divergence of interests.\n- shares can still be sold to raise money\n\n### Disadvantages:\n\n- there is frequently a lot of paperwork\n- sometimes financial information may end up being public\n- setup can be time consuming\n- the business may require professional help to manage finances\n\nControl is very central, as the owner of the business may choose to keep the whole organisation under their sole control, or delegate it as they choose.\n\nCorporation tax needs to be paid based on profits - meaning that the company may struggle to keep a positive balance.\n\nThe business is incorporated, and liability is limited - so the owners are protected from having their personal assets lost if something goes wrong with the business.\n\nPrivate limited companies tend to be smaller businesses, however there is no limit to the size of a ltd company - so some of them are very big. \n\n### Examples:\n\n- Contract West Limited\n- The Mill at Harvington Limited\n- Arrowtrack Limited\n- B Car Service Limited\n- Jacana Produce Limited\n- INEOS\n- Home Bargains\n- Thames Water\n- Radius Payment Solutions Ltd\n- Bet365\n\nBusinesses considering changing their form, may need to consider some points covered [here.](sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyStayingPrivate)\n\n## Business Research: Partnership\n\nA partnership is usually a smaller business, owned by a group of partners who usually all have specialisations in an area.\n\nWe frequently see partnerships operating as a firms such as solicitors, lawyers, dentists etc. The business is professional, but geared up to run at a relatively small scale.\n\n### Advantages:\n\n- deed of partnership can specify what profits each partner gets\n- they are quick and easy to setup\n- the owners have shared decision making\n- debt responsibility is split between owners\n\n### Disadvantages:\n- they can involve very long hours\n- conflict among owners can occur\n- there is the risk of unlimited liability\n- one partner may let the rest down if they don't uphold the standards of the business\n\nAll partners have shared control.\n\nFinance is provided by the partners, and profit is split between them. The \"deed of partnership\" denotes the specifics of this.\n\nThe business has unlimited liability - putting the partners at high risk.\n\nTypically, partnerships are small and do not grow much.\n\n### Examples:\n\n- JBW law\n- High Street dental practice\n- Merstow Green Medical Practice \n\n## Business Research: Sole Trader\nA sole trader is a common form of business where the owner of the business is the same legal entity as the business. They have unlimited liability, and fairly little legal protection. \n\nA sole trader is owned by a single person who runs the business.\n\nAll of the decision making is made by the singular owner.\n\n### Advantages\n- absolute control to the owner\n- still a legal business, can hire employees etc\n- lower turnover may remove VAT requirements\n\n### Disadvantages\n- unlimited liability\n- personal assets at risk\n\n---\n\nShareholders in **plc** and **ltd** companies can appoint a **Board of Directors** to make the decisions when it comes to running the business. The board appoints management staff of the business.\n\nEvery year, an annual general meeting (AGM) happens for any business. During this time, all shareholders may attend and vote to appoint the board of directors. Shareholder's influence over the vote is dictated by the percentage of shares that they own in the company.\n\nThe board typically aims to get a return on the shareholder's investments into the business.\n\nIn many smaller **ltd** companies, the same people will be shareholders, board members and senior managers in the organisation.\n\n---\n\n## Unincorporated vs Incorporated\n\n### Unincorporated\n- the owner **is** the business - no legal differences\n- owner has unlimited liability for business actions (including debt)\n- most unincorporated businesses operate as sole traders\n\n### Incorporated\n- legal difference between the business and the owners\n- owners/shareholders have limited liability\n- most incorporated businesses operate as private limited companies\n\n### Setting up a plc\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20220920140004.png]]\n### Setting up a ltd\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20220920140040.png]]\n\n---\nLimited companies have significantly more paperwork than unlimited companies. Accounts will be made public and avaliable for anyone who wants to access them, in a plc. Ltds will not have to have their accounts published.\n\nInvestors look for a return on their investment when they buy shares in a business. They would earn money back from dividends - or shares of the company profits.\n\nDividends can be paid annually or as interim dividends.\n\nThere are also [Public Sector](sixth/Business/Units/fh/PublicSector.md) businesses.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/Distribution":{"title":"Distribution (Place)","content":"\nDistribution is the process of getting a product from the producer to the consumer.\n\n\u003e [!tip] Main objective of distribution\n\u003e\n\u003e To make products avaliable in the right place at the right time in the right quantities.\n\n\n## Distribution Channels\n\nA distribution channel moves a product through the stages from production to final consumption.\n\nEach party in a distribution channel is called an *intermediary*.\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Consumer-Channel-Structure-4015857755.jpg]]\n\n### Wholesalers\n\n- Break bulk\n- Buy large volumes of products at a low price and resell smaller quantities at a slightly higher (but still cheaper than the market) price\n- Retailers can order smaller amounts of product from wholesalers.\n- A wholesaler makes money by buying at a lower price from the producer and adding their profit margin onto the price paid by the retailer.\n\n### Agents\n\n- Specialist type of distributor\n- Does not hold stock\n- Tend to operate in the tertiary sector (services)\n\t- Travel\n\t- Insurance\n\t- Publishing\n- Earn a commission based on sales achieved\n\n### Direct vs Indirect Distribution channels\n\n- Direct Distribution\n\t- Channel where a producer and consumer deal directly with each other without the involvement of an intermediary\n- Indirect Distribution\n\t- Involves the use of intermediaries between the producer and consumer\n\n### Factors to consider\n\n- Nature of the product\n\t- Perishable/fragile\n\t- Technical/complex\n\t- Type of product \n\t- Desired image for the product\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/EconomicGrowth":{"title":"Economic Growth","content":"\n## Market Conditions: Two Key Indicators\n\n**Economic Growth (GDP):** The level of demand in most markets is influenced by the rate of economic growth. Economies vary in terms of their “normal” long-term growth rate. A mature economy like the UK has a long-term growth rate around 2-3%. It shouldn't be too high, or too low. GDP growth will vary depending on the state of the economic cycle.\n\nGDP = Gross Domestic Product\n\nThe value of goods and services produced by an economy over a specific period.\n\nGDP:\n\n- measure of the value of activity of economy\n- value used to assess changes in economic growth\n\nDemand:\n\n- how much of a good or service a consumer wants—and is able to pay for \n- for a business, demand turns into revenues (sales)\n\nGDP is measured in quarters, so 4 sections per year of 3 month units. 2 consecutive quarters of negative growth is a recession.\n\nInterest Rates—An interest rate is the **reward for saving** and the **cost of borrowing** expressed as a percentage of the money saved or borrowed.\n\nSo, when interest rates are high, saving is more attractive and taking out loans or mortgages are less so.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/EconomicGrowthAndBusinessCycle":{"title":"Economic Growth And The Business Cycle","content":"\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230525094811.png]]\n\n- Economic activity and economic growth are measured by GDP (Gross Domestic Product)\n\t- The market value of all goods and services produced within a country.\n\n### Key Factors Affecting Short-term Economic Growth\n\n- Interest rates set by the central bank\n- Fiscal policy – government spending and taxation\n- Commodity prices such as oil, gas and foodstuffs\n- Exchange rates\n- Trading conditions in other countries\n- Confidence of businesses and households\n\n### Economic and Social Costs of Growth\n\n\n- High rates of GDP growth can bring about undesirable economic and social costs - much depends on the nature of growth\n\n- Risks of higher inflation and higher interest rates\n\t- Fast-growing demand can lead to demand-pull and cost-push inflation - this leads to a conflict between macro objectives\n\t- The central bank may decide to raise interest rates to control inflation\n- Environmental effects\n\t- More negative externalities such as pollution \u0026 waste\n\t- Risk of unsustainable extraction of finite resources - ie, fast growing countries may cause a long-run depletion of natural resources\n- Inequalities of income and wealth\n\t- Rapid increases in real national income can lead to a higher level of inequality and social divisions\n\t- Many of the gains from growth may go to only a few people\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ElkingtonsTripleBottomLine":{"title":"Elkington's Triple Bottom Line (Profit, People, Planet)","content":"\n**A way of assessing business performance based on three important measures: people, profit and planet.**\n\n### The Traditional Bottom Line\n\n- Businesses assumed to be profit-maximisers\n- Traditional measure of business success\n- Closely linked with business value (eg, share price)\n- Often the basis for financial incentives like bonuses\n\n### The Triple Bottom Line\n\n- It aims to measure the financial, social and environmental performance of a business over a period of time\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230612110839.png]]\n\n- Profit\n\t- Familiar to managers\n\t- Identified from income statement\n\t- Audited—reliable figure\n- Planet\n\t- Measures impact of business on environment\n\t- More tangible, eg emissions, use of sustainable inputs\n- People\n\t- Measures extent to which business is socially responsible \n\t- Hard to calculate \u0026 report reliably \u0026 consistently\n\n### Mini case study: Novo Nordisk\n\n- Profit\n\t- Novo Nordisk is already highly profitable so does not need to work heavily in this area\n\t- Primary objective is to develop and market treatments\n- People\n\t- Novo Nordisk Foundation has the majority of the voting power in their shareholder structure\n\t- Develop/provide life saving medications\n- Planet\n\t- Commit to 100% renewable production sites\n\t- Investing in research\n\t- Zero environmental impact by 2030\n\n---\n\n### Benefits \u0026 Value of the triple bottom line\n\n- Encourages businesses to think beyond narrow measure of performance (profit)\n- Encourages CSR reporting\n- Supports the measurement of environmental impact and the extent of sustainability \n\n### Drawbacks \u0026 Criticisms of the triple bottom line\n\n- Not very useful as an overall measure of business performance\n- Hard to reliably and consistently measure people \u0026 planet bottom-lines\n- No legal requirement to report it so take-up has been poor\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/EmergingMarketsAndBusiness":{"title":"Emerging Markets and Business","content":"\nEmerging market is used to describe an economy in the process of rapid growth and industrialisation.\n\n### Common Features of Emerging Markets\n\n- Economies making a transition\n- Rapid industrialisation\n- Have potential to become developed economies\n- Faster long-term economic growth than most developed countries\n- Many inhabitants still in poverty, though economic growth is taking many out of poverty\n- Businesses struggle to access global markets (ie, trade barriers)\n\n### The Four Classic Original Emerging Markets (BRIC)\n\n- Brazil\n- Russia\n- India\n- China\n\n#### What happened to the BRICs\n\n- China is now one of the world's largest economies\n- Russia has suffered heavy sanctions after invading Ukraine and has lost a lot of market power\n- India continues to grow, now having the largest population of any country\n- Brazil has not accelerated ahead or changed course massively, but still represents a potential economic power of the future\n\n### Perceived Business Threats from Emerging Markets\n\n- Increasingly large pool of skilled, but low-cost labour\n- Undervalued currencies make their exports cheaper\n- Inadequate protection of brand and other intellectual property\n- State subsidy of industries to make them more competitive globally\n\n### Key risks and threat of emerging markets\n\n- Political instability\n- Cultural differences / sensitivities\n- Variable approaches to financial and legal dealings\n- Corruption and bureaucracy still an issue\n- Emerging markets becoming major exporters\n- Low-cost production makes developed economies uncompetitive in some markets\n\n---\n\n### Case Study (Plan): Myface and Emerging Markets\n\n- Emerging markets have different dynamics to the developed markets that Myface is used to operating in, meaning that their current strategies may prove ineffective. However, there are many people in these markets who could be added to Myspace's user base quite smoothly if they can correctly attract users.\n- An emerging market is very volatile and could leave a business like Myface in a difficult situation if they do not adapt quickly to the changing market conditions\n- If there are weaker copyright/IP laws, then Myface may have to consider the problem of dealing with clones and other blatant copies, as well as the impact these sites may have on their business.\n- Different countries will have different data protection regulations, so it may be required that Myface invest in local infrastructure to run their operations in the country, this could lead to much higher costs and therefore risks associated with entering a developing economy. \n- Neglecting to deal with their problems in the west won't make those go away, so they cannot only focus on growth into new markets, they must also work on improving their performance within existing markets or they may end up in a situation where their core market is at risk.\n- Myface may benefit from buying out potential competitors such as Instagram (cough cough) to secure the younger market and a future for their company even if their main platform is lost.\n- Getting into these markets earlier may give them a first mover advantage.\n- If the market already has companies operating in it, then they may be looking at saturation and the issues with being yet another solution to a problem that no longer exists.\n- If the country has poor internet infrastructure, then there may not be many people who can actually use Myface, meaning that the investment may be poor if they don't also invest in internet connectivity for the country.\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/EmployerEmployeeRelations":{"title":"Employer-Employee Relations","content":"\n- Employees want\n\t- to feel\n\t\t- valued\n\t\t- listened to\n\t\t- appreciated\n\t- to have\n\t\t- good relationships with managers\n\n- Poor relations may result in\n\t- Increased absence\n\t- Dissatisfaction\n\t- Higher turnover\n\t- Industrial action (strikes)\n\t- Reduced productivity\n\n## Employee Representation\n\n\u003e Arises when employees are part of a formal structure that involves them in the decision-making process of a business.\n\n### Legal requirements to consult with employees\n\n- Proposed redundancy programmes\n- When employees are transferred from one employer to another\n- On changes to pension arrangements\n- Proposed changes to working time arrangements\n\n### Benefits\n\n- Increased empowerment and motivation of the workforce\n- Employees become more committed to the objectives and strategy of the business\n- Better decision-making because employee experience and insights are taken into account\n- Lower risk of industrial disputes\n\n### Drawbacks\n\n- Time-consuming and potentially slows decision-making\n- Conflicts between employer and employee interests may be a block to essential change\n- Managers may feel their authority is being undermined\n\n## Trade Unions\n\n### Main Role\n\n- Protect and improve the real incomes of their members\n- Provide or improve job security\n- Protect workers against unfair dismissal and other issues relating to employment legislation\n- Lobby for better working conditions\n- Offer a range of work-related services including support for people claiming compensation for injuries sustained in a job\n\n### Two main functions of a trade union\n\n#### Represent\n\n- To represent and protect the interest of the employees\n\n#### Negotiate\n\n- Negotiate on behalf of employees with employer\n\n### Advantages for an employer having a good relationship with a trade union\n\n- Negotiating with trade unions saves time and cost rather than dealing with all employees individually\n- Unions are part of the communication process between the business and employees\n- Employee morale and motivation may be improved if they know that their interests are being protected by a union\n- The trade union can be a supportive partner in helping a business undergo significant change\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/EmployerEmployeeRelationsCnt":{"title":"Employer-Employee Relations Continued","content":"\n## Good reasons for a formal system of employee representation\n\n- Make employee views known to management\n- Help strengthen both management's and employee's understanding of workplace issues and other matters affecting the business\n- Help create an atmosphere of mutual trust between employees and management and therefore improve workplace relations\n\n## Main role of trade unions\n\n- Support with equal pay\n- Fair pay/ living wage\n- Legal support\n- Job security\n- Improved pensions\n- Maternity leave\n- General rights protection\n\n- Protect and improve the real incomes of their members\n- Provide or improve job security\n- Protect workers against unfair dismissal and other issues relating to employment legislation\n- Lobby for better working conditions\n- Offer a range of other work-related services including support for people claiming compensation for injuries sustained in a job.\n\n### Represent\n\n- Represent and protect interests of employees\n\n### Negotiate\n\n- Negotiate on behalf of the employees with the employer\n\n## Advantages for an Employer of a Good Relationship with a Trade Union\n\n- Negotiating with trade unions (ideally a single union) saves time and cost rather than dealing with all employees individually\n- Unions are part of the communication process between the business and employees\n- Employee morale and motivation may be improved if they know that their interests are being protected by a union.\n- The trade union can be a supportive partner in helping a business undergo significant change.\n\n## Reasons for declining union membership\n\n- Decline in employment in manufacturing (where union membership is traditionally high)\n- Increased employment in the service sector (e.g., retail) where unions are less well established\n- Growth in the number of small firms which do not to recognise or need trade unions\n- Significant growth in flexible working (part-time, temporary seasonal)—where employees see less need for union protection\n- Improved employee involvement in the workplace—so less perceived need for collective bargaining\n\n## Why are employees from Starbucks and Google trying to unionise? \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExtendedMarketingMix":{"title":"Extended Marketing Mix","content":"\nThe 4 Ps:\n- Price\n- Product\n- Place\n- Promotion\n\nThe new 3 Ps:\n\n- Process\n- People\n- Physical Environment\n\n\u003e And then there were 7\n\n## People\n\n- This element focuses on the people within a business who come into contact with customers.\n- For a physical product, these are likely to be the people involved in the initial selling process and those providing after sales service.\n- For a service the people is even more important due to their increased impact on customer satisfaction.\n\n- Recruit the correct people\n- Train them properly\n- Motivate your staff\n- Share with employees the importance of good customer service.\n\n\n## Process\n\n\n- Do you have to wait long?\n- Easy to navigate?\n- Order online?\n- Quick delivery\n- Can you make it easier?\n\n\t- Enhancing the experience of queuing where necessary, theme park rides may provide some entertainment whilst queuing.\n\n## Physical Environment\n\n- The physical premises of a business\n- When you first walk in you get an impression.\n\t- the design\n\t- the decor\n\t- signage\n\t- staff uniforms and appearance\n\t- brochures, stationery\n\t- website\n\n- If the physical environment gives a positive impression about the business, then the customer is more likely to use their service. An unattractive reception area, low quality brochure and non-user-friendly website are likely to put customers off.\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n**Physical:** The appearance of a physical store, ideally something that reflects the mood of the brand and sets customer expectations of the business.\n\n**Process:** The interactions and involvement with the customer as they move through the store experience. Somewhere like IKEA is going to have a very different process to a place like McDonalds. IKEA expects you to spend a long time in the store and walk right round the whole place, likely spending a large amount of money. Mcdonalds however focuses on a short, easy experience.\n\n**People:** The staff that you interact with whilst at the shop and how they reflect the brand image.\n\n\nApple and Poundland differ largely in the area of image. Poundland has a very wide range of products and looks to cram as much in as they can and try to get people to buy a larger amount of products so that Poundland can keep their prices low. \n\nApple looks for a much cleaner experience where the customer looks at possibly getting a single product. However Apple provides experts who can guide you through the whole process. Apple doesn't need to sell you a product either, as their margins are very high and prices are in the hundreds of pounds. \n\nMost important 3 Ps:\n\n- Price -\u003e People always want to save money\n- Promotion -\u003e Good promotion keeps the brand in people's minds\n- People -\u003e Friendly staff will greatly increases the chance of a sale\n\nMcDonald's:\n\nThe price is fairly low compared to many other restaurants.\nThe place is usually near a high footfall area where there are lots of people present. The promotion is strong, with memorable tunes and branding \n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalEnvironment":{"title":"External Environment","content":"\nThe environment in which businesses operate. Most businesses have little or no control over this environment. The environment needs to be monitored constantly in order to react to any changes that occur.\n\nA more competitive business will anticipate changes instead of just reacting to it.\n\n\nPESTLE Analysis:\n\nPolitical\nEconomic\nSocial\nTechnological\nLegal\nEthical/Environmental\n\nPESTLE analysis is a good list to work through when analysing the external environment.\n\n**Political:**\n- Competition Policy\n- Industry regulation\n- Government spending \u0026 tax policies\n- Business policy \u0026 incentives\n\n**Economic:**\n- Interest rates\n- Consumer spending \u0026 income\n- Exchange rates\n- Economic growth (GDP)\n\n**Social:**\n- Demographic change\n- Impact of pressure groups\n- Consumer tastes \u0026 fashions\n- Changing lifestyles\n\n**Technology:**\n- Disruptive technologies\n- Adoption of mobile tech\n- New production processes\n- Big data and dynamic pricing\n\n**Legal:**\n- Employment Law\n- Minimum/ Living Wage\n- Health \u0026 Safety Laws\n- Environmental legislation\n\n**Ethical and Environmental:**\n- Sustainability \n- Tax practices\n- Ethical sourcing (supply chain)\n- Pollution \u0026 Carbon Emissions\n---\n\n## PESTLE Analysis Activity\n\nPolitics may impact the future of Amazon because governments may become concerned about the influence of Amazon. Therefore, to regulate competition, the government may choose to prevent a monopoly by taking action against Amazon.\n\nEconomic factors influencing business strategy:\n\n- Interest Rates\n- Unemployment\n- Inflation\n- Recession\n\nA recession will directly impact the amount of revenue Amazon generates, meaning that Amazon may have to restructure their business model to survive.\n\nIf Amazon does not keep in the loop with social changes, then they will be seen as out of touch and will lose customers.\n\nLegal factors are typically enforced by laws, forcing the company to follow specific regulations.\n\nAmazon has frequently been seen to package items inefficiently, wasting excess plastics and polluting the environment. This means that Amazon has to change in order to retain customers.\n\n[Task](sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalVsInternal)\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalEnvironmentExchangeRates":{"title":"Exchange Rates","content":"\nAn exchange rate is the price of one currency expressed in terms of another currency. The exchange rate determines how much of one currency has to be given up in order to buy a specific amount of another currency.\n\n### Ways that exchange rates can impact business activity\n\n- Price of exports in international markets\n- Cost of goods bought from overseas\n- Revenues and profits earned overseas\n- Converting cash receipts from customers overseas\n\n### SPICED\n\n**S**trong\n**P**ound\n**I**mports\n**C**heaper\n**E**xports\n**D**earer\n\n### What might cause an increase in the exchange rate?\n\n- Increasing demand for exports results in higher demand for currency\n- Lower demand for imports results in lower demand for currency\n- Speculation - traders may bet that the exchange rate will rise\n- An increase in interest rates - making it more attractive to hold the currency\n- Foreign direct investment into the country leads to higher demand fro currency\n\n\n---\n\n### Practice exercise 4\n\n#### What is an exchange rate?\n\n- The amount of one currency that can be purchased for another currency.\n\n\n#### Explain how free exchange rates are determined.\n\n- If the demand for payments in one currency increases, then the value of that currency would increase, whilst the opposite is also true.\n\n#### State and explain three reasons why a currency might increase in value\n\n- Higher demand for exports\n\t- If one country has highly desired export demands then their currency is likely to increase in value\n- Trader speculation\n\t- If traders believe that the value will increase, then they will buy the currency up and that will lead to an increase in value\n- Foreign investment\n\t- Foreign investments into the country leads to greater demand\n\n#### Select one of the following statements to complete the sentence...\n\n- If the value of the pound against the dollar rises, then prices of exports to America rise and prices of imports from America fall.\n- if the value of the pound against the dollar falls, then prices of export to America fall and prices of imports from America rise.\n\n#### When the exchange rate rises\n\n##### How might a firm ensure that its prices abroad do not rise?\n\n- They could use local suppliers as much as possible, reducing the impact as much as they can on tariffs and exchange rate fluctuations. \n\n##### Why might a firm not always choose to take the above action?\n- It might not be viable for a firm to get a certain material locally, as it may either be much cheaper to import from an external supplier or it may be a natural resource that can only be extracted in certain regions, outside of the country.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalEnvironmentInflation":{"title":"External Environment: Inflation","content":"\n**Inflation** is a sustained increase in the average price level of an economy.\n\n- the rate of inflation is measured by the annual percentage change in the level of prices as measured by the consumer price index\n- a sustained fall in the general price level is called deflation—in this situation the rate of inflation becomes negative\n\n### Consumer Price Index (CPI)\n\n\n- the consumer price index is the mean measure of inflation for the UK\n- the government has set the Bank of England a target for inflation (using the CPI) of 2%\n- the aim of this target is to achieve a sustained period of low and stable inflation\n- low inflation is also known as price stability\n\n\n### Two main causes of inflation\n\n#### Demand pull\n\n- when there is excess demand\n\n#### Cost push\n\n- when costs rise\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230626105441.png]]\n\n\n\nInflationary case study: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-12196322\n\n### Main causes of demand pull inflation\n\n- Very fast growth of demand for credit/borrowing\n- High levels of consumer spending\n\n### Deflation\n\n- A period when general price levels fall\n- Normally associated with a significant reduction in economic activity (depression/slump)\n- Can also occur if the economy is rapidly building its productive potential\n\n#### Economic \u0026 Business costs of deflation\n\n- Consumers postpone spending if they believe prices will go lower\n- The real value of debt increases and makes it harder to pay debt off\n- Falling asset prices (such as housing)\n- Business profit margins fall due to lower selling prices\n\n**Some inflation is good for business**\n\n### Effect of inflation on revenue\n\n- The price elasticity of demand is an important factor in how inflation will impact revenue\n- If the product is price elastic, then revenue is likely to fall during inflation\n- If the product is price inelastic, then revenue will not change much during inflation\n- Price elasticity of demand refers to the responsiveness of demand to changes in price\n\n### Inflation and business costs\n\n- A rise in general inflation:\n\t- Sales revenue should rise\n\t- But workers are more likely to demand higher pay to compensate for consumer price inflation\n\t- Labour intensive industries at more risk\n- Input cost inflation\n\t- Cost-push inflation will vary from industry to industry\n\t- Firms that need to buy significant commodity raw materials may find profit margins squeezed if they cannot pass on increased costs to customers\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalEnvironmentInterestRates":{"title":"Interest Rates","content":"\nAn interest rate is the cost of borrowing money or the return for investing money.\n\n### Interest payments and receipts\n\n#### Interest Paid\n\n- Paid to bank when overdrawn\n- Paid to bank on a loan\n- Paid to credit card or leasing companies\n\n\n#### Interest Received\n\n- Paid by bank on cash balances held\n- Paid by customers if they are late settling invoices\n\n\n### Who sets the interest rates?\n\n- The base rate is set by the Bank of England in the UK. \n- Each month, the Monetary Policy Committee of the Bank of England meet to decide what the base rate should be\n\n### If an interest rate rise is a problem...\n\n- Price discounts to stimulate demand\n- Cost cutting to maintain margins and conserve cash\n- Reduce capacity - eg, short time work, redundancies\n- Improve management of working capital (eg, destocking)\n- Reduce the debt burden\n- Cut back on investment plans\n\n### Interest rates \u0026 exchange rates\n\n- High interest rates in the UK (compared to other countries) will cause an inflow of capital into the UK\n- This increases the demand for sterling and reduces the supply\n- As a result the exchange rate goes up\n- A stronger currency will make the exports more expensive and imports cheaper.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ExternalVsInternal":{"title":"External vs Internal","content":"*Low glucose: Task impacted.*\n\n## Gillygate Pub\n\n### Problems\n- Energy prices (ECONOMIC)\n\t- Forced to call in administrators after £2,500/mo energy bills\n- Rent rise (ECONOMIC)\n- More competition (ECONOMIC)\n- Brexit (ECONOMIC, POLITICAL)\n\n## Tempt\n\n### Problems\n- Rising energy bills (ECONOMIC)\n\n## Emma Mellor's Handmade Rugs\n- High delivery charges (ECONOMIC)\n- Reduced spending as bills rise (ECONOMIC)\n- Reduced passing trade (ECONOMIC)\n\n## Mark Snowden of Jax Barbers\n- 300% energy bill increase (ECONOMIC)\n- \"40 years in business, and this one is the hardest by far\"\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/FiscalAndMonetaryPolicy":{"title":"Fiscal And Monetary Policy","content":"\n### Fiscal Policy\n\n- The use of government spending, taxation and borrowing to achieve relevant economic objectives\n\n#### Main taxes\n\n- Income tax\n- Corporation tax\n- VAT\n\n#### Main tax expenditures\n\n- Health\n- Education\n- Social Security\n\n#### What happens if government spending is greater than taxes?\n\n- Budget deficit\n\n### Monetary Policy\n\n- The use of interest rates and changes to the money supply to achieve relevant economic objectives\n\n#### Who manages monetary policy?\n\n- The Bank of England (Monetary Policy Committee)\n- Their main aim is to try and keep inflation around 2%\n- Look to support stability and economic growth\n\n## Open Trade and Protectionism\n\n- The opposite of free/open trade\n- The main aim is to protect domestic businesses and industries from any overseas competition and prevent the outcome resulting solely from open trade\n\n#### Tariffs\n\n- A tariff or tax/duty that raises the price of imported products\n- An attempt to reduce the domestic demand for the specific imported products \n- Intended to allow domestic suppliers to scale up\n\n#### Quotas\n\n- Limits on the quantity of imports allowed or a limit to the value of imports permitted into a country over a specific time frame\n\n#### Non-tariff barriers\n\n- Other regulations such as labelling requirements or quality standards\n- They are administrative, technical and regulatory obstacles to trade\n\n#### Export subsidies\n\n- Payments to encourage domestic production by lowering their costs\n\n#### Domestic subsidies\n\n- Domestic subsidies involve government help or state aid for domestic businesses facing financial problems\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/HRFlow":{"title":"Human Resources Flow","content":"\n\n## Human Resource Flow ##\n\nthe flow of employees through an organisation \nincluding:\n- the inflow—when they are recruited\n- the internal flow—what happens to them within the organisation\n- the outflow—when they eventually leave the organisation\n\n### The Inflow\n\nInvolves decisions about recruitment, selection and induction of new employees\n\n### The Internal Flow\n\nInvolves decisions about transfers, redeployment, promotions and demotions, training and development, evaluating employees' performance and rewarding them.\nThe internal flow must be managed to ensure employees' skills and competencies are developed to meet organisational needs, while at the same time satisfying \nemployees' own career aspirations.\n\n### The Outflow\n\nInvolves decisions about when and how employees leave an organisation, including retirement, redundancy and dismissal.\n\n# Human Resource Plan #\n\nThe 3 key elements of the human resource plan are:\n- forecasting labour demand\n- analysing present labour supply\n- balancing projected labour demand and supply\n\n### Stages in HRP\n\n1) assessing the current workforce\n2) assessing the workforce needed in the future\n3) identifying the gaps or areas of oversupply\n4) developing strategies to fill gaps or reduce the oversupply\n5) right people, right place, right time\n- This is cyclical so restarts at 1 after 5\n\n\n## NHS Case Study ##\n\n- increase wages\n- improve working conditions\n- lower tuition fees for dentistry school\n\n\n---\n\n### Recap\n\n- Human Resource Flows\n\t- Inflow—recruitment, induction\n\t- Internal flow—promotions, training, transfers, redeployment, demotions, reward appraisal\n\t- Outflow—resignation, retirement, redundancy, dismissal\n- Human Resource Plan\n\t- TODAY\n\n### Reasons to recruit staff\n\n- Business expansion\n- Existing employees leave and need replacing\n- Business needs new employees with new skills\n- Business is relocating\n\n### Changes in employment patterns\n\n- More people working from home\n- More people working flexible hours\n- More part-time workers\n- Greater number of women looking to work\n- Ageing population\n- People rarely remain in the same job for life\n- Technology is enabling “teleworking”.\n- More jobs exist in the tertiary sector now\n\n### Workforce Planning\n\n- The workforce plan establishes what vacancies exist\n- Managers produce a job description and job specification for each post\n- Job description\n\t- Detailed explanation of the roles and responsibilities of the post advertised\n\t- Most applicants will ask for this before applying for the job\n\t- Refers to the post available rather than the person\n\n### The Recruitment Process\n\n- Define requirements\n\t- Job description\n\t\t- Job title\n\t\t- Reporting responsibilities\n\t\t- Subordinates\n\t\t- Main purpose\n\t\t- Main tasks\n\t\t- Employment conditions\n\t- Job specification\n- Attract potential employees\n\t- Job advertising\n- Select the right people\n\t- Job Interview\n\t- Ability/Aptitude tests\n\n\n### Recruitment Methods\n\n- Internal recruitment\n\t- Jobs given to staff already employed by business\n\t- Involves promotion and reorganisation\n\t- Advantages\n\t\t- Cheaper\n\t\t- Quicker\n\t\t- People who know the business\n\t\t- Motivates existing employees\n\t- Disadvantages\n\t\t- Business already knows strengths and weaknesses of candidates\n\t\t- Limits number of potential applicants\n\t\t- No new ideas from outside\n\t\t- May cause resentment amongst candidates not appointed\n\t\t- Creates another vacancy which needs to be filled\n- External recruitment\n\t- Job centres\n\t- Job advertisements\n\t- Recruitment agencies\n\t- Headhunting\n\t- Personal recommendation\n\t- Advantages\n\t\t- Outside people bring in new ideas\n\t\t- Larger pool of workers from which to find best candidate\n\t\t- People have a wider range of experience\n\t- Disadvantages\n\t\t- Longer process\n\t\t- More expensive process due to advertisements and interviews required\n\t\t- Selection process may not be effective enough to reveal best candidate\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/HumanResourceManagement":{"title":"Human Resource Management","content":"\n## Setting Human Resources (HR) Objectives\n\n**Human Resource Management**: The design, implementation and maintenance of strategies to manage people for optimum business performance. \n\u003e CIPD\n\nA **HR objective** is a specific goal or target of relating to the management and performance of human resources in a business.\n\n\n## Importance of HRM\n\n- Services are more common now, people are the critical resource to deliver quality and customer service\n- Competitiveness requires a business to be efficiet and productive - requires a motivated workforce.\n\n## Aspects of HRM\n\n- Workforce planning\n- Recruitment and selection\n- Training\n- Talent development\n- Employee engagement and involvement\n- Managing diversity\n- Developing corporate culture\n\n\n**Think PESTLE.**\n\n## Hard HRM\n\n- Employees are viewed as another resource that does not add significant value to the business.\n- Employees are directed and controlled closely\n- Work is often highly competitive\n- Little opportunity for creativity\n\n### Benefits\n\n- Quick staff replacement\n- Training costs are minimal\n- Fewer errors due to tighter control\n\n### Drawbacks\n\n- High staff turnover\n- Low level of motivation\n- Appraisal systems are judgemental\n\n\n## Soft HRM\n\n- Employees are seen as a highly valuable asset\n- Empowerment and training\n- Appraisals are developmental and aimd to supporting employees\n- Manager acts as a facilitator to help an employee to do their job properly\n\n\n### Benefits\n\n- Competitive advantage\n- Reduced labour turnover\n- Increased staff loyalty\n\n### Drawbacks\n\n- Reliance upon consultation and discussion\n- Opportunity cost\n- Assumption that all employees actually wish to become involved in the business\n\n---\n\n## Common HR Objectives\n\n- Employee Engagement\n\t- Engaged employees will identify with your goals\n\t- Will stay loyal\n\t- Excited to take on new challenges\n\t- Disengaged staff will simply work the hours that they are contracted to work\n\t- Maintaining good employee/employer relations\n- Talent Development\n\t- Identification and development of potential future business leaders\n\t- Speeding up the career progression of people with high potential\n\t- Graduate fast-tracks\n\t- 360 degree appraisal programmes\n- Training\n\t- Improve knowledge \u0026 skills of employees\n\t- Improves engagement \u0026 performance\n\t- Expensive\n\t- Time consuming\n- Diversity\n\t- Widen variety of skills, ideas and experiences\n\t- Diversity needs to exist at each and every level of the business\n\t- Positions should always be filled based on ability\n\t- Senior management positions are particularly poorly represented by employees from minority groups\n\t- Change in corporate culture may be nescessary\n\t- Better understanding of target market\n\t- More attractive employer\n- Alignment of Values\n\t- A firm's core values outline the way a business behaves and influences the decisions that they make. It becomes a central point of reference for everyone within the organisation.\n\t- However, if the views of employees run contrary to that of the business, there is likely to be conflict and a firm's corporate objectives are unlikely to be achieved.\n\t- It is important for training and communication to be developed to promote the core values of the firm and for all deccision making to reinforce this ideal so that the business builds up a clear identity of what it stands for amongst all of their stakeholders.\n- Skills, Numbers and Locations\n\t- Ensuring that the number of employees with the correct skills, in the right location is correct is integral to smooth business operation. \n\t- HR will need to adapt with any changes to the business, such as expansion or new technology to ensure that this goal is always as close to being met as possible.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/HwkPestleAnalysis":{"title":"Homework: Pestle Analysis","content":"\n**PESTLE**:\n\nPolitical\nEconomic\nSocial\nTechnological\nLegal\nEnvironmental/Ethical\n\nChosen company for analysis: Valve Corporation\n\nPolitical—Valve is very politically neutral—with very little political involvement. They operate everywhere—only excluding North Korea. They do not sanction or treat different regions differently, which is seen as both good and bad. For instance, when lots of companies were pulling out of Russia—Valve made no comment or change. However, they do also persist in harder regions - as they have continued all operations in Ukraine.\n\nEconomic - Valve is largely unimpaired by the wider economy as they have created their own internalised Steam economic system. They are definitely still connected to the global economy though - and it does play a big role in their business. However, as they make billions in profit each year, they can afford to loose some of their money and tend not to make a change based on the economic climate.\n\nTechnological - Valve is a high tech organisation, their main product is Steam - a digital game, software and media distribution platform. They also produce games and hardware. This means that Valve tends to be at the cutting edge of technology. They have recently filed patents for BCIs (Brain Computer Interfaces), Nerve Manipulating Systems (allowing for the human nervous system to be manipulated to experience different sensations) and for technologies allowing for a false reality to be displayed to a user as a reality. \n\nLegal - Valve is largely unregulated, as many of their business models are yet to be monitored by the law. They do comply with laws, however do also have some business models that are potential risky - such as their microtransaction/gambling models that are used in some of their games. Largely, Valve is an ethical company, paying employees well and providing partners with a good range of services at a very reasonable price. But they are not perfect in this regard.\n\nEnvironmental/Ethical - Valve does not have a written ethical code, however they do react ethically in many situations. When underage gambling sites have existed around their products, they have forced these sites to close down as soon as they became aware of their existence. \n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/IncomeElasticityOfDemand":{"title":"Income Elasticity of Demand","content":"\n**% change in demand divided by the % change in income**\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/InternalVsExternalRecruitment":{"title":"Internal vs External Recruitment","content":"\n## Worksheet\n\n### Compare the process of recruiting internally and externally.\n\nInternal recruitment is beneficial due to the fact that the business has more data about the candidates and can therefore make more informed judgements about who would be a better fit for the business. However, when recruiting internally, it is very likely to create conflict or resentment between employees. This would reduce the efficiency of the business and could break teams apart. External recruitment on the other hand is much more costly and time-consuming, although it does enable the recruitment of someone who specialises in the role that they are applying for, rather than someone who is simply promoting from another role. This means that the role could be filled with somebody more specialised.\n\n\n### Through research and from what already has been covered, evaluate why McDonald's may focus a lot of their recruitment efforts internally.\n\nMcDonald's has a high staff turnover rate, meaning that many employees do not remain in the company for long. However, by making all the roles above crew member something that a crew member can be promoted into means that motivation is boosted for employees and that people in management positions have a better understanding of what employees lower down the chain are experiencing. By recruiting externally, they would lose a lot of these benefits and would possibly reduce the overall efficiency of the business. As a company, McDonald's also likes to create the image that they train up new managers, bringing value to the individuals in their future career and future employers. By doing this, McDonald's can use their internal recruitment strategies to bolster their public relations and gain additional credibility with others.\n\nExternal recruitment would lead to new people appearing higher up in the store's hierarchy, which may make more senior crew members feel cheated out of a promotion.\n\n\n\n## Role of a recruitment agency\n\n- A recruitment agency provides a link between the employer and the employee\n\t- Potential employees register with the agency and provide personal details\n\t- Employers approach the agency for shortlists of potential candidates\n- Recruitment agencies charge a fee for the service\n\t- Main fee is to the employer\n\t- Usually a percentage of employee's wages and salary in the first 6–12 months\n\t- Often an expensive option\n- Some agencies specialise in particular employment areas\n\n\n## What to consider when advertising\n\n- Type of job\n\t- Senior management jobs merit adverts in the national newspapers and/or specialist management magazines\n\t- Many semi-skilled jobs need only be advertised locally to get sufficient candidates\n- Cost of advertising\n\t- National newspapers and television cost significantly more than local newspapers\n- Readership and circulation\n\t- How many relevant people does the publication reach?\n\n## The Shortlist\n\n- Long list =\u003e Total pool of applicants\n- Shortlist =\u003e Small number of suitable applications that meet the job criteria\n- Should be drawn up by 2 people working independently\n- Import not to only include \"perfect\" or \"ideal\" candidates\n\n### Selection Tests\n\n- Formats\n\t- Aptitude tests\n\t- Intelligence tests\n\t- Personality tests\n- Why\n\t- Basic interview can be unreliable as applicants can perform well at interview but not have qualities or skills needed for the job\n\n## References\n\n- Written character statements from people who know the applicant well\n- An important safety check\n- A chance to learn more about the strengths and weaknesses of an applicant\n- Final check that all information given by candidate is correct\n- Good honest reference from an independent source can also reveal good or bad incidences from candidate's past or particular traits that may have been missed.\n\n---\n\n**Motivation** → The will or desire to do something\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/InterprettingMarketData":{"title":"Interpretting Market Data","content":"\n## Extrapolation\n\nUses trends from historical data to forecast the future.\n\n## Moving averages\n\nA moving average takes a data series and \"smoothes\" the fluctuations in data to show an average. The aim is to take out the extremes of data from period to period.\n\n\nExtrapolation is not just drawing a straight line and assuming that conditions will all remain stable or equivalent to historial data. It requires attention to be paid to the various different internal and exterenal factors.\n\nFactors include:\n\n- product life cycle\n- pace of technological innovation\n- market saturation\n- etc\n\n## Pros and Cons of Extrapolation\n\n### Pros\n- A simple method\n- Not much data required\n- Quick and cheap\n\n### Cons\n- Unrealiable \n- Assumes the continuation of past trends\n- Ignores many qualitative factors (changes in fashion or taste for instance)\n\n## Correlation\n\nCorrelation is the strength of the relationship between two variables.\n\n### Independent Variable\n\nThe factor that causes the dependent variable to change.\n\nX axis\n\n### Dependent Variable\n\nThe variable that is influenced by the indepedent variable.\nY axis\n\n### Types of correlation\n\n#### Positive correlation\n\nA positive relatioshiop, when the independent increases so does the dependent.\n\n#### Negative correlation\n\nA negative relationship, when the independent decreases so does the dependent.\n\n#### No correlation\n\nThere is no obvious relationship between the two variables.\n\n\nStrong correlations are very definite, whereas a weak correlation means the data is quite spread.\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/JobDesign":{"title":"Job Design","content":"\n- Job design is all about the tasks and responsibilities that are grouped into a specific job.\n- Job design can have a significant influence on labour productivity through the link with motivation.\n- Boring, repetitive jobs can often lead to poor quality and low productivity.\n\n- Job design aims to improve motivation and job satisfaction and a sense of personal achievement by reducing mechanistic or repetitive tasks.\n- Through job design or redesign an organisation aims to reduce labour costs (eg through absenteeism, labour turnover) and improve labour productivity without offering additional monetary reward.\n\n## Job Enrichment and Job Enlargement\n\n- Job Enrichment\n\t- Giving workers more interesting and challenging tasks\n\t- Seen as more motivating as it gives workers a chance to further themselves\n\t- Herzberg in particular recommended this approach\n- Job Enlargement\n\t- Giving workers more tasks to do of a similar nature or complexity\n\t- Job rotation is a part of this\n\n## Influences on Job Design\n\n- Productivity\n- Maintaining/improving quality\n- Motivated staff\n- Retention of staff\n- Absenteeism\n\n## Hackman and Oldham—Job Characteristics Model\n\n- Employees will work much harder and better when they are rewarded for the work they do and when that work provides them with satisfaction. They will perform even better when they can see the relevance of the tasks.\n\n\n- Based on the belief that the **task itself is key** to motivation.\n\t- Skill variety ⇾ The more variation in tasks and their required skills, the more engagement will be gained from employees\n\t- Task Identity ⇾ A clear beginning and end to the task, with a clear overall description of the ask.\n\t- Task Significance ⇾ Whether the job or task has a significant impact-either to the individual, the business, or society overall. If the job is important, then it has meaning, so it is more engaging to the employee.\n\t- Autonomy ⇾ How much freedom is given to an individual to accomplish their tasks. What freedoms are they given over how they complete the task, when they complete the task and what decisions they can make.\n\t- Job Feedback ⇾ Employees are kept in the loop when it comes to their performance. They are told whether they are doing their job well, and if they are not, they are given constructive criticism on how they can improve.\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n### Q1\n\nHackman and Oldham's job characteristics model describes how employees can get greater satisfaction from their work through changes to how their job functions as per job content.\n\n\n### Q2\n\n#### 5 Core job characteristics\n\n- Skill variety\n- Task Identity \n- Task Significance\n- Autonomy\n- Job Feedback\n\n#### 3 Psychological States\n\n- Experience meaningfulness\n- Experience responsibility\n- Experience results\n\n#### 4 Individual and Organisational Outcomes\n\n- Lower labour turnover\n- Greater labour productivity\n- Greater feeling of achievement for employees\n- Increased employee motivation\n\n\n### Q3\n\ni) Facebook and the constant innovation generated from the 'Hacker' culture evident.\n\nInfluence: Technology, latest and greatest\n\n\nii) BP rebuilding reputation under new leadership\n\nInfluence: Proving to the masses that the company has changed\n\n### Q4\n\n#### True/False/It Depends\n\n- False\n- True\n- It depends\n\n\n---\n\nThe task itself is key to the task.\n\nCore characteristics:\n\n- Skill variety ⇾ Job more engaging ⇾ More motivation \n- Task identity ⇾ Clear goals ⇾ better output\n- Task Significance ⇾ Job feels important ⇾ greater engagement\n- Autonomy ⇾ More freedom and responsibility ⇾ Higher sense of authority and achievement\n- Job Feedback ⇾ Feedback on what is going well or areas to improve ⇾ Progressively better performance from long term targets.\n\n\n---\n\n## Case Study: Michelle's Stressful Job\n\n\n1) Job design is majorly influenced by the amount of work, and type of work, that needs doing. If a company such as Michelle's decides it needs someone in the reception area and that they need to complete a certain workload, then they will look for the most efficient way to achieve this. In this case, they have assigned a single person to this job, however Michelle is finding it stressful, so it is likely that regardless of how skilled an individual is, the company will need multiple people to be operating the role. Another major factor in job design is the quality of which a task needs completing. For a role like Michelle's, there are many tasks that need to be completed, however for a large amount of them the task only needs completing, it does not need completing to a high quality. Therefore, it is more economically intelligent for her employer to only have 1 person in reception at a time, despite the fact that they may be aware that the worker will be stressed and overwhelmed by the workload. An area of job design that the employer has completely overlooked here is task identity, they have loaded so many different jobs onto the role of the receptionist, that they have blurred the lines between the importance of each individual responsibility.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/KaplanAndNortonsBalancedScorecardModel":{"title":"Kaplan and Norton's Balanced Scorecard Model","content":"\nA widely used framework for assessment achievement of financial **and** non-financial objectives.\n\n\nRobert Kaplan and David Norton developed the concept of a balanced scorecard.\n\nAim of the scorecard: To align business activities to the vision and strategy of the business, improve internal and external communications, and monitor business performance against strategic goals.\n\n\n### Key features of the balanced scorecard\n\n- Top-down approach\n- Starts with the mission and vision of the business\n- Identifies key performance indicators from four different perspectives\n- Emphasises importance of non-financial measures\n\n### Four perspectives of the balanced scorecard\n\nVision \u0026 strategy:\n- Financial\n- Customer\n- Internal Processes\n- Organisational capacity\n\n**KPI** - Key Performance Indicator\n\n### Advantages of the Balanced Scorecard\n\n- Broader view of business performance\n- Links performance measurement to long-term mission and vision\n- Involves everyone in the business (not just financial stakeholders)\n- Highly flexible - KPIs chosen by the business\n\n### Drawbacks of the Balanced Scorecard\n\n- Danger of too many KPIs\n- Need to have balance between the four perspectives - not easy\n- Senior management may still be too concerned with financial performance\n- Needs to be updated regularly to be useful\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MarketMapping":{"title":"Market Mapping","content":"\nA market map is a diagrammatic technique that enables businesses to display the perceptions of customers.\n\nCompares different variables regarding products and consumers.\n\nAllows us to understand how a product or brand is perceived relative to a competitors brand.\n- More ethical?\n- More reliable?\n- More high class?\n\n- It can be used to identify what segment of the market is underprovided for and look at producing a product to fill that gap\n- Typically, products or brands are compared between all competitors within a market\n- Gives a business insight into the competition within the same market as its own product\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20221118104836.png]]\n\n---\n\n1) Market mapping is the process through which the competitors within a market can be compared on several factors. It is useful for finding gaps for a new business to open within.\n2) a) Car market maps could use “horsepower” and “price”\n\tb) Horsepower is a major selling point for a car, because performance is a major pro of a car\n\tPrice is another point because cars are very expensive, so pricing is a big pain point for customers.\n\n3) Everybody wants to be very fashionable, and many are willing to pay high prices for it. The demand for this quadrant is much more diverse than the demand for other quadrants, so there is room for more businesses in the top right quadrant.\n4) An advantage of setting up a business in the middle pricing levels with functional clothing would be the fairly unrivalled marketplace. There are no other businesses in this market, meaning that there is room for them to pull customers from the nearest competitors. Assuming that demand does exist for a business in this market segment, the business would likely have an easy time entering the market. \n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MarketingBranding":{"title":"Marketing Branding","content":"\n**Boston Matrix**\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/th-445456743.jpg]]\n\nThe Boston Matrix is a product/business portfolio.\n\n## Branding\n\n### Exercise \n\n1) Audi\n2) Starbucks\n3) Adidas\n4) Quicksilver\n5) Pizza Hut\n7) Kellogs\n8) Amazon\n9) Shell\n10) Subway\n11) Redbull\n12) BMW\n13) Levi's\n14) Nike\n15) Lamborghini\n16) Skype\n\n**Branding is the process of differentiating a product from its competitors**\n\nA name, sign or symbol design or slogan linked to a particular product or service.\n\n### Worksheet \n\n1) Branding is deliberate actions that you take to influence people's perception of your product or service, and it is the driving factor in why they keep using your business time and time again.\n2) Strong brands mean that your business will be at the forefront of people's minds and will encourage people to trust the product and become loyal to the business. \n3) Loyal customers are important, because loyal customers will choose the company that they are loyal to even if it means paying extra.\n4) Nike believes that it is worth them paying for sponsorships if it affiliates their brand with winners. By linking themselves to successful sports people, they will in turn attract fans of these people and people with aspirations to be good at sports too.\n5) Bentley can charge premium prices for their cars because they are perceived as an ultra high end brand, meaning that people will be perceived differently in a Bentley. They are very dedicated to quality and reliability, making their brand be viewed as the king of quality in the market.\n6) Tesco Finest is a luxury sub brand that Tesco has produced to try and attract customers who would previously have gone to stores such as M\u0026S or Waitrose. Tesco Finest has set itself out as a luxury brand by having unique packaging, premium prices, and higher quality than standard products.\n7) Reduced PED is a benefit for strong branding because it means that a business with a strong brand is free to increase prices without too much concern for loss of customers. because they have developed a loyal audience and a brand image that people want to affiliate themselves with, the price won't make a significant difference. \n8) Strong branding brings in more customers, increases the likelihood of customers to return all while building an increasing number of loyal customers who care less about the price than they do about being involved with the product.\n\n\n\nBrand Recognition\n\n1) Transport for London\n2) Virgin Media\n3) Tesla\n4) Amnesty International\n5) Just Stop Oil\n6) Greenpeace \n7) Tango\n8) Cadbury's\n9) Samsung\n10) Nintendo\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MarketingObjectives":{"title":"Marketing Objectives","content":"\nMarketing is **the process of identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer needs profitably.**\n\nObjectives are **statements of specific outcomes that are to be achieved**.\n\nMarketing objectives must be consistent with corporate objectives. \n\nFor example, if the corporate objective is to reach a market share of 10%, the marketing objectives may be to reach sales of £100 per customer.\n\nWhen you set an objective, it provides a focus and a purpose to the people involved.\n\n## Marketing Maths\n\nKey measures:\n- Market Size\n- Market Growth\n- Market Share\n\n### Market Size\n\nThe total size of the market, the number of sales in the specific industry (ie, how many smartphones are sold).\n\nUsually measured in either **volume** or **sales (revenue)**.\n\nNot usually a marketing objective, as you can't easily influence in the size of a market.\n\nMarket segments can also be measured.\n\n| Year | Market Size (£) | Index Number (2014 = 100) |\n|------|-----------------|---------------------------|\n| 2014 | 5000000 | 100 |\n| 2015 | 5250000 | 105 |\n| 2016 | 5600000 | 112 |\n| 2017 | 6250000 | 125 |\n\n\n### Market Growth\n\n- A key indicator for existing and potential market entrants\n- Growth rate can be calculated using either value (eg market sales) or volume (units sold)\n\n| Year | Units Sold [A] | Change (Units) [B] | Growth Rate (%) [B/A (from prev yr] x 100 |\n|------|----------------|--------------------|-------------------------------------------|\n| 2014 | 1000000 | - | - |\n| 2015 | 1100000 | 100000 | 10.0 |\n| 2016 | 1350000 | 250000 | 22.7 |\n| 2017 | 1475000 | 125000 | 9.3 |\n\n\n### Market Share\n\n- Explains how the overall market is split between the existing competitors\n- Tends to be calculated based on market value, but volume can also be used\n- Good indicator of competitive advantage\n- Key is to look for significant increases or decreases in this value\n\n| Business | Sales in 2018 (£) | Cumulative Market Sales (£) | Market Share (%) in 2018 |\n|----------|-------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------------|\n| A | 250000 | 250000 | 12.5 |\n| B | 400000 | 650000 | 20 |\n| C | 900000 | 1550000 | 45 |\n| D | 175000 | 1725000 | 8.75 |\n| E | 275000 | 2000000 | 13.75 |\n\n## Problems with setting market objectives\n\n- Fast-changing external environment\n\t- new competitors or legislature\n- Potential conflict between marketing objectives\n\t- trying to increase market share by cutting prices may damage brand perception\n- Easy to be too ambitious with marketing objectives\n\t- growing market share without putting necessary resources in place to achieve it\n\n### Example of marketing objectives\n\n**Maintaining or increasing market share** (corporate objective) =\u003e Achieve revenue growth of 20% per year for the next four years. Increase our market share in the UK by 5% by 2017. Add 1,000 new customer accounts generating at least £100,000 per account within four years. (marketing objective)\n\n\n### Internal influences on marketing objectives\n\n- Employees\n- Skills\n- Finance\n- Motivated workforce\n- No conflict with corporate objectives\n\n### External influences on marketing objectives\n\n- Legislation\n- Competition\n- The market\n- Economic changes\n- Social changes\n\n**PESTLE** is important here (or whenever looking at external influences/factors).\n\n## Worksheet\n\n1) Percentage change in market size.\nYear 1: £22,000 Year 2: £25,300\n15% change\n\n2) £35,700 + 30 % = £46410\n25 + 20% = 30\n\n---\n1) Greater brand loyalty will result in more returning customers and word of mouth publicity, leading to higher sales and customer numbers.\n2) Higher interest rates will impact the amount people are willing to borrow, so for a high value product such as a car, higher interest rates may require more affordable finance options to be made available or lower prices overall.\n3) Lower profitability means that the business needs to take action to increase the amount of profit that it is making to prevent it from becoming unprofitable and to appease shareholders and increase stability of jobs. \n---\n3 internal influences:\n- employees\n- finances\n- target market\n\n3 external influences:\n- market changes\n- government legislature\n- social changes\n---\nc\n\n---\n\n## Sampling\n\nSampling involves the gathering of data from a sample of respondents, the results of which should be representative of the population (eg, target market) as a whole.\n\n### Sampling Techniques\n- Simple Random Samples\n\t- a sample is elected for study from a population where everyone is chosen entirely by chance and has an equal chance of being selected, such as the electoral register.\n- Quota sample\n\t- the population is first segmented into subgroups (strata) before a judgement is made in selecting respondents that are representative of that subgroup. (male or female, income, education)\n\t\t- Example: 60% of people who shop at a shopping centre are female. Sample size is 400, so 240 females and 160 males.\n\t\t- Women are aged 30-40\n- Stratified Sample\n\t- Stratified sampling is used to select a sample that is representative of different groups. If the groups are of different sizes, the number of items selected from each group will be proportional to the number of items in that group. People are selected randomly.\n\n\n\n**Highly geared—thee business is financed by loans\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MarketingResearch":{"title":"Marketing Research","content":"\nMarket research is important because customers differ in terms of:\n\n- the benefits they want\n- amount they are able to or willing to pay\n- media (television, newspapers, websites and magazines) they see/use\n- quantities they buy\n- time and place that they buy\n\nInsights provided by effective market research:\n- dimensions of the market (Size, structure, growth, trends)\n- competitor strategies\n- needs, wants and expectations of customers\n- market segments \n\n## Research Types\n\n### Primary Research\nData collected first-hand for a specific reason or purpose\n\n#### Examples\n\n- Online surveys\n- Questionnaire\n- Interviews\n- Testing \u0026 Observation\n- Focus Groups\n- Staged launches/releases\n- Postal surveys\n- Experiments\n\n#### Advantages\n\n- Targeted data—what you need exactly\n- Verifiable accuracy\n- Fresh data\n- Kept private\n- More detailed\n\n#### Disadvantages\n- Time consuming\n- Requires engagement with individuals/marketing\n- Needs analysis (secondary research may come with completed graphs etc)\n- Specialist reports can be expensive\n- Risk of survey bias\n- Sampling may not be representative\n\n### Secondary Research\nData that already exists and which has been collected for a different purpose\n\n#### Examples\n\n- Government and Census data (ONS etc)\n- Internet\n- Books \u0026 Newspapers\n- Income statements\n- Competitor Websites\n- Marketing Research Reports (£££)\n- Trade Associations\n\n#### Advantages\n- Quick and easy to access\n- Likely to be free\n- Large datasets are available \n- Good source of market insights\n\n#### Disadvantages\n- Can contain bias\n- Might be old\n- Not specific to what you need\n\n\n### Quantitative Research\n- Focuses on numerical data \n- Collected through surveys and questionnaires\n- Helps companies to see what % of people think what\n- - Eg, 35% of people enjoy football\n\n### Qualitative Research\n- Focuses on opinions and attitudes\n- Collected through interviews, focus groups, in-depth discussions\n- Helps companies to see what people really think\n- Eg, students at the local school like watching football but not playing it.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MeasuringHRPerformance":{"title":"Measuring Human Resources Performance","content":"\n## Measurements\n\n- Labour productivity\n- Output per employee\n- Staff Turnover\n\n### Employee retention\n\n- All businesses loose staff\n\t- Natural causes (illness, death)\n- Changes in strategy\n\t- Closing a branch\n- Bad management or conditions\n\t- If people are unhappy with the conditions of the job they are more likely to leave\n\n### Absenteeism\n\nAn employee's intentional or habitual absence from work.\n\n- A significant business cost\n\t- Sickness costs around £600 for each worker per year\n\n#### Formula\n\nNumber of staff absent during period \n/\nNumber employed during period\n\nx 100\n\n#### Alternative Formula\n\nNumber days taken off for unauthorised absence(during period)\n/\nTotal days worked by workforce over the period\n\nx 100\n\n#### Worked example\n\nWorking days : 4000\nUnauthorised Absence: 560\n\n560/4000 x 100 = 14%\n∴ Absenteeism = 14%\n\n---\n## Practice Exercise 1 \n\n1) Rate of inflation\n4) 190 workers, 178 employed by EOY and 24 workers left. \n24/190 * 100 = 12.6%\n5) 6300 workers per year, 2700 for 1+ years. Retention.\n42.8% retention.\n6) Labour productivity indicates how much output is produced for the size of the workforce. If a business has a very high labour productivity, then it means that each employee, on average, will produce a relatively high volume of goods over a specific time period. Labour cost per unit, on the other hand, indicates how much labour costs to produce a single unit. If labour productivity is high, then the labour cost per unit will decrease, as each person will be producing more over a time period. \n7) By providing workers with more benefits, they can ensure that motivation levels are increased, meaning that people will work harder, decreasing the labour cost per unit and thereby increasing labour productivity.\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/MotivationTheory":{"title":"Motivation Theory","content":"\n- What is it?\n\t- Motivation is the will to work\n\t- Comes from enjoyment of the work itself and/or desire to achieve certain goals\n- Methods available to motivate employees\n\t- Financial methods\n\t\t- Bonuses\n\t- Non-financial methods\n\t\t- Responsibility\n\t\t- Praise\n\n## Reasons why people go to work\n\n- To earn money\n- Job satisfaction\n- To belong to a group\n- A sense of security\n- Obtain a feeling of self-worth\n\n## Advantages of a well motivated workforce\n\n- Increase productivity\n- High staff retention\n- Flexible workforce\n- Produce higher quality goods/services\n- Better customer service\n- Desire to learn new skills\n- Employees want business to succeed\n- Lower levels of absenteeism\n- Company gets a better reputation\n- Lower training and recruitment costs\n\n## Main financial incentives at work\n\n- Wages\n\t- Paid per hour worked\n- Salaries\n\t- Annual salary paid monthly\n- Bonuses\n\t- Paid when certain targets have been achieved\n- Commission\n\t- Staff paid according to the number or value of products they sell\n- Fringe benefits\n\t- Often known as perks, additional benefits to working at the business.\n\t\t- Free meals\n\t\t- Company car\n\t\t- Private health insurance\n\t\t- etc\n\n## Main non-financial incentives to support motivation\n\n- Empowerment\n\t- Delegating responsibility to employees\n- Praise\n\t- Recognition for good work\n- Promotion\n\t- Promoting staff to a position of higher responsibility\n- Job Enrichment\n\t- Giving staff more challenging and interesting tasks\n- Job Enlargement\n\t- Giving employees more tasks of similar levels of complexity\n- Working environment\n\t- Providing a safe, clean, comfortable environment to work in\n- Team working\n\t- Provide opportunities to work in teams\n\n## Motivational Theorists\n\n### Taylor\n\n- Scientific management\n- Everybody is motivated by money\n\n### Mayo\n\n- Human relations management\n- Hawthorne effect\n\n### Maslow\n\n- Hierarchy of needs\n\n### Herzberg\n\n- Two-factor theory\n- Motivators\n- Hygiene or maintenance factors\n\n### McGregor\n\n- McGregor's theories X and Y\n\n### Drucker\n\n- Importance of objectives\n\n### Peters\n\n- Involving employees\n- Recognising champions\n\n## Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs\n\n- Five levels of human needs which employees need to have fulfilled at work\n- Only once a lower level of need has been fully met, a worker would be motivated by the opportunity of having the next need up in the hierarchy satisfied\n- A business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfil each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230317104534.png]]\n\n### Physiological\n\n- Food\n- Rest/sleep\n\n### Safety\n\n- Safe working environment \n- Warmth\n- Job Security\n- Praise\n- Training\n\n### Love/Belonging\n\n- Teamwork\n- Friendship\n\n### Self Esteem\n\n- Empowerment\n- Respect By Others\n- Recognition\n\n### Self-actualization\n\n- Advancement\n- Empowerment+\n\n## Taylor's Scientific Management Activity Worksheet\n\n- Frederick Winslow Taylor \n- Taylorism\n- Motivated by pay\n- Science can be used to increase efficiency\n- Workers given one task to master\n- “In the past, the man has been first. In the future, the system must be first.”\n- “One best way” to do a task\n- Managers maintain close control and supervision\n\n\n### Key concepts of scientific management theory\n\n- Standardised approach to optimising work for a more efficient workforce\n- Time and motion study analysing tasks \u0026 finding the quickest way of completing tasks\n- Workers did not have to be skilled just highly productive at one job\n- After finding the “one best way” employees then need to be motivated to work in that way\n- This could be done by increased pay for productive workers \u0026 firing ineffective workers → Piece rate pay\n\n\n## Taylor's Approach to Management\n\n### Work Study\n\n- Identify the most efficient methods of production\n\n### Identify\n\n- Spot the most efficient worker and identify why they are so good\n\n### Train\n\n- Train the remaining workers to work like the best\n\n### Reward\n\n- Pay workers based on productivity (ie, piece rate)\n\n## Taylor in the modern world\n\n- Amazon was heavily criticised for their piece rate approach in their warehouses.\n- They have made some improvements, but are still not regarded as a good employer.\n\n\n## Herzberg's Theory of Motivation\n\n- Believed in a two-factor theory\n\n### Worksheet\n\n#### Summary of the Two Factor theory of motivation\n\n- Hygiene Factors\n\t- Won't make employees work harder\n\t- Causes dissatisfaction is not present\n\t- Examples\n\t\t- Job Security\n\t\t- Status\n\t\t- Relationships\n\t\t- Salary\n\t\t- Conditions\n\t\t- Policies\n- Motivation Factors\n\t- Make employees work harder if present\n\t- Increases satisfaction\n\t- Examples\n\t\t- Growth\n\t\t- Advancement\n\t\t- Varied work\n\t\t- Recognition\n\n\nHygiene factors should be met before motivational factors.\n\n#### Hygiene or Motivational Factor\n\n| | Hygiene Factor | Motivational Factor | Explain |\n|--------------------|----------------|---------------------|------------------------------------------------|\n| Fair pay | 🗸 | | Needed to ensure people feel respected |\n| Growth | | 🗸 | Helps people to feel like they are progressing |\n| Career Advancement | | 🗸 | Feel like they are moving up in the hierarchy |\n| Relationships | 🗸 | | Create connections between people |\n| Policies | 🗸 | | Fair policies to keep things in order |\n| Meaningful Work | 🗸 | | Making an impact |\n| Recognition |🗸 | | Being seen to make a difference |\n\n#### Assessment of the importance of hygiene factors in terms of employee satisfaction\n\n- Without hygiene factors, employees cannot be properly satisfied at work because they are looking to meet minimum expectations of the job\n- With hygiene factors, employees will feel like the job is at least meeting the bare minimum\n\n#### Suggest whether hygiene factors are more important than the motivational factors\n\nMotivational factors have the largest observable difference, however hygiene factors are required for the employees to feel like their basic requirements are being met. It is no good employees having loads of benefits if they are still isolated from each other in grey cubicles all day, because they will never have the relationship aspect of hygiene.\n\n#### Argument as to whether Herzberg's two theory motivational factor works\n\n...\n\n---\n\n## Mayo's Human Relations School\n\n### Mayo's Theory of motivation\n\n- Motivation was much more complex than being solely influenced than money\n- Initially believes physical factors made an impact on employee motivation\n\n- Performed the Hawthorne Experiment\n\n### What made him change this mind?\n\n- Hawthorne Experiment\n\t- Seperated workers into two teams\n\t- Altered working conditions of both teams\n\t\t- Increased a physical factor such as light in one team, reduced in another\n\t\t- Analysed results\n\t- Found that employee motivation improved or stayed the same in worse physical environments.\n\n- Conclusion\n\t- Social factors made an impact on motivation much more than physical factors\n\t- Participants productivity increased when they felt valued and appreciated\n\t- Positive relationships betwene managers and employees were found to be key\n\n- Hawthorne's social factors lead to the creation of Human Resources. \n- Term \"Hawthorne Effect\" used to describe how relations with managers increases result in productivity increases\n\t- Some dispute the size of the impact\n\n\n### 3 pros and 3 cons of the human relations theory of motivation\n\n\n- Pros\n\t- Encourages positive workplace relationships\n\t- Individual needs of employees are noticed\n\t- Social factors help to increase the morale, retention, motivation and productivity of employees\n- Cons\n\t- Unscientific approach and original findings lack sufficient supportive evidence\n\t- Ignores the potential impact of conflict\n\t- Oversimplifies human behaviour\n\t\t- Assumes a satisfied worker will automatically be a productive worker\n\n\n### Do you agree with this theory of motivation? \n\nMayo's social factors are definitely an important piece in the puzzle of motivation theory. Alone, they would not be enough to motivate employees, but I believe that if they are combined with several other approaches such as Herzberg's hygiene and motivation factors and Taylorism. The combination of these different theories would enable the spread of benefits to the employees to cover a wide enough range of needs that everyone should be sufficiently motivated to work at what is *at least* an acceptable level. \n\n### Personally, do you prefer Taylorism or Mayo's social factors?\n\nTaylorism focuses mainly on the financial side of things and ensures that employees are paid competitively. However, Taylorism treats employees more mechanically like a machine whereas Mayo's social factors focus more heavily on the human aspect and allow employees to establish more meaningful links between each other. Therefore, I would personally prefer Mayo's social factors, but I would understand why others may choose Taylorism.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/NicheAndMassMarketing":{"title":"Niche and Mass Marketing","content":"\n**Niche Marketing:** Where a business targets a smaller segment of a larger market, where customers have specific needs and wants.\n\n**Mass Marketing:** Where a business sells into the largest part of the market, where there are many similar products offered by competitors.\n\n## Niche Marketing\n\n| Pros? | Why? | Cons | Why? |\n|---------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| Profit margins often higher | Lower sales required to cover costs | Lack of economies of scale | Demand will be relatively low, so manufacturing will have to happen in smaller batches |\n| Clear focus | Because they are targeting a niche market, they know exactly what customers want. | If successful likely to attract competition | Other businesses will be interested to expand their market share, because it would lead to greater income. |\n| Less competition | A smaller market segment means less businesses will be competing for the custom. | Vulnerable to market change | Because the targeted market is so small, any small change could severely impact the revenue of the company. |\n| Customers tend to be more loyal | Because you are tailoring your product or service to them specifically, customers will feel a closer bond. | Risk of overdependence on a single market | Targeting a niche market means that a very small group of people will be customers, so the company will be a lot more dependant on a few individuals. |\n\n## Mass Marketing\n\n| Pros? | Why? | Cons | Why? |\n|--------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| Higher sales | Larger market, more people looking to buy, more sales | Can be difficult to meet all customer demands | You're targeting a large market segment, meaning that you're making a one size fits all solution. |\n| Higher brand awareness | More people are interested in the product, so more people will be aware of it | Higher advertising costs | More people need to see the advert because the market is larger, which means more money will need to be spent |\n| More potential customers | A larger than niche market, so more people might want to buy the product. | More competition | The market is bigger, and as there is more money to be made there will be more people trying to make money in the market. |\n| Cost efficient | Economies of scale can be used so unit costs can be reduced. | Less attractive to consumers | Not focused on their needs specifically, so niche markets will be more likely to capture their interest if they exist for that customer. |\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/NonFinancialIndicators":{"title":"Non-Financial Performance Data","content":"\n### Limitations of financial data in assessing business performance\n\n- Financial ratios tend to be historic\n- Financial ratios focus on measures that are more important to shareholders than business managers\n- Financial data is not the best way of understanding how the business is performing in terms of key competitive performance\n\n### Key non-financial measures of performance\n\n#### Operations\n- Efficiency (unit costs)\n- Labour productivity\n- Capacity utilisation\n- Break-even output\n- Quality (reject rate)\n- Quality (lead time)\n\n#### HRM\n- Labour turnover\n- Labour productivity\n- Unit labour costs\n- Absenteeism rate\n- Revenue per employee\n- Staff retention rate\n- Job satisfaction\n\n#### Marketing\n- Market share\n- Sales per employee\n- Sales growth (volume)\n- Customer retention rate\n- Brand reputation and awareness\n\n### Other relevant non-financial measures\n\n- Environmental performance\n- Compliance regulation\n- Health \u0026 safety record\n- Social media reach\n\n### Making connections between financial and non-financial measures\n\n- Financial measures and non-financial measures are closely linked. \n\t- If you want to improve your operating profit margins, taking non-financial measures to improve employee satisfaction could aid in achieving this goal\n\t- Improved product quality may cost no extra money, but could allow the goods to be sold at a higher price and more quickly.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/OngoingIndustrialDisputes":{"title":"Ongoing Industrial Disputes","content":"\n## Main methods of Industrial Action\n\n- Strikes (last resort, refusing to work at all)\n- Go slow (employees deliberately slow down to damage productivity)\n- Work To Rule (works at the minimum level set out by contract)\n- Overtime ban (Can have a significant effect on production capacity during peak periods, as nobody will work any extra hours)\n\n## Who suffers from industrial action?\n\n### Business\n\n- Loss of sales\n- Damage to customer satisfaction\n- An internal distraction for management\n\n### Employees\n\n- Lost pay\n- Potential loss of jobs\n- Possible loss of customer and public support\n- Risk that illegal action will result in legal proceedings\n\n\n## Industrial Disputes\n\n### Amazon workers in Coventry\n\n#### Why are they striking?\n\n- Amazon are ignoring the employees\n- Poor conditions \u0026 pay\n- Loss of benefits (ie, shares)\n- An algorithm measures a secret performance metric which workers are held to\n\n#### Who is striking?\n\n- Workers in fulfilment centers\n\n#### Which union is facilitating the strike?\n\n- GMB\n\n#### What is the goal of the strike?\n\n- Get Amazon to listen and make meaningful changes\n\t- Improve working conditions\n\t- Improve pay\n\t- Ensure better communications between employees and Amazon\n\n## Case Study: Striking\n\n### Junior Doctors\n\n#### Union\n\nBMA\n\n#### Why?\n\n- Pay cut of 26% since 2008, with inflation taken into account\n\n#### Offer from government?\n\n- No, the government describes their demands as unreasonable.\n\n#### What are the union members looking for?\n\n- Pay security\n\n#### Who is affected?\n\n- Patients, doctors, NHS, government\n\n#### How would I solve the dispute?\n\n- Open proper negotiations with the union\n- Negotiate a pay deal that is acceptable to the union members and affordable to the government (without trying to manipulate the situation)\n\n\n### Teachers\n\n#### Union\n\nNEU, NAHT, and others\n\n#### Why are they striking?\n\n- Real pay decreases across austerity\n\n#### Government offer\n\n- Yes, £1000 one off payment and a 4.3% rise for next year for most staff\n- Unions rejected\n\n#### What are union members looking for?\n\n- Fair pay rises\n- Pay security\n- Pay recovery to pre-austerity levels\n\n#### Who is impacted?\n\n- Students\n- Teachers\n- Schools\n- Government\n- Parents\n\n#### How would I solve the dispute?\n\n- Open negotiations between the government and the various teaching unions with the intention of coming to a viable compromise\n- Offer a long-term plan to increase pay and guarantee pay rises, on a level that will gradually recover the pay of teachers\n\n\n### Rail workers\n\n#### Union\n\n- RMT\n\n#### Why are they striking?\n\n- Pay, job cuts and changes to terms and conditions\n\n#### Have they received an offer?\n\n- RMT and National Rail accepted a revised offer \n\n#### What are the union members looking for?\n\n- Further change, better pay across the board.\n\n#### Who is impacted?\n\n- Passengers\n- Tourists\n- Workers\n- Government\n\n#### How would I resolve the dispute?\n\n- Get all involved parties together and set out exactly what it is that each party wants\n- Have a discussion between the various parties about what a viable solution would be to try and compromise on the presented issues.\n\n### Passport Office Staff\n\n#### Union\n\n- PCS\n\n#### Why are they striking?\n\n- Pay rise demand\n- Improved redundancy terms\n- Better pensions\n- Job security assurances\n\n#### Have they been given an offer?\n\n- Government has offered a 4.5-5% pay increase\n\n#### Who is affected?\n\n- Businesses sending post to customers\n- People sending post to other people\n- Employees\n- Government\n\n#### How would I solve the dispute?\n\n- Look at actual pay changes\n- Negotiate a deal with precise terms to try and satisfy both parties\n\n---\n\n## Avoiding Industrial Disputes\n\n- Regular consultations with trade unions\n\t- Pick up problems before they escalate\n- A staff forum or joint working group to pass on information and collect ideas from workers and consult with workers\n- An employee consultative body to discuss major issues as they arise\n- Team and group meetings and feedback sessions\n\n- Regular communication and honest discussion is important\n\n### Works Councils\n\n- A group of people from management and the workforce that meet to discuss company-wide issues.\n- Complementary to the role of trade unions, not a replacement\n- Struggles to perform tasks such as bargaining over wages\n\n## Settling disputes using ACAS\n\n- Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service\n\t- Conciliation\n\t- Mediation\n\t- Arbitration\n\n### Mediation\n\n- Two or more individuals or groups reach a solution that's acceptable to everyone\n- Involves an independent/impartial party\n\n### Conciliation\n\n- Used when an employee is making or could make a specific complaint against their employer to an employment tribunal\n- Conciliator has no authority \n- Both parties work together to try and prevent the need to go to an employment tribunal\n\n### Arbitration\n\n- An alternative to a court of law\n- Held in private rather than in public\n- An impartial outsider being asked to make a decision on a dispute\n- Arbitrator makes a firm decision on a case based on the evidence presented by both sides\n- Arbitration is voluntary, so both sides must agree that they will attend it, and that they will respect the decision of the arbitrator\n\n---\n\n## Improving employer-employee relations worksheet\n\n1) Good employer-employee relations aims to reduce **conflict** through improved **communication** and employees **views** being listened to and taken into account when decisions are being made. Employer-employee relations focuses on these two groups working **together** to achieve the same **objectives**. This is, of course, easier said than done and its success will often depend on the business's **culture**.\n2) Good employer-employee relations lead to:\n LESS staff turnover\n MORE Labour productivity\n MORE motivation\n LESS industrial action\n MORE ideas from employees\n MORE mutual trust\n LESS absenteeism\n MORE employee retention\n \n \n3) Trade Unions - A group which represent the views of their members. Usually organised by profession/industry. - Through collective bargaining they will represent their member's views and negotiate with employers on issues such as working conditions, pay, redundancies and unfair dismissal. They may carry out industrial action eg, calling a strike.\n \n Works councils - Committees including employees (who have been elected by their co-workers) and management who discuss issues which affect the business as a whole. - This provides a forum for employees to communicate with management. \n \n ACAS - A publicly funded organisation which offers free and impartial advice to both employees and employers - Aims to resolve disputes between employees and employers and support good relationships through methods such as mediation, conciliation and arbitration.\n\n4) Benefits and drawbacks to employee involvement in decision making\n \n Benefits:\n \n - Greater employee satisfaction leads to greater support from employees\n - Employees will raise issues that affect them before they lead to external parties being required\n\nDrawbacks:\n- Employees may hinder the decision making efficacy of the business\n- Managers may be overwhelmed with requests\n\n\n5) To what extent do you agree/disagree with...\n - Employee involvement in decision making is a good thing\n\t - Agree\n\t\t - By involving employees, decisions that affect them can be discussed with them before being finalised, giving them a feeling of control over their situation.\n- Trade unions are something that management should fear.\n\t- Slightly agree\n\t\t- Trade unions shouldn't be an employers best friend, they are there to support the employees above all else. An employer should not be scared of them to the extent that they won't cooperate with them, but employers should try to keep unions on a good standing with themselves.\n- Employee representation is the most important thing a business can do to motivate its employees\n\t- Slightly agree\n\t\t- Individual employees will be motivated by different offerings, some may wish to be excluded from the decision making process entirely. However, by providing the option for employees to become involved, motivation can be boosted for a sizeable portion of the workforce. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/OrganisationalStructures":{"title":"Organisational Structures","content":"\n## Key Words\n\n### Chain of Command\n\n- The \"chain\" of people from an individual moving up the hierarchy. An example might be **Crew member** -\u003e **Shift Manager** -\u003e **General Manager** -\u003e **CEO** \n\n### Subordinates\n\n- A subordinate is someone who is below someone else in a chain of command. You are a subordinate of your manager.\n\n### Span of control\n\n- How many people are under direct management of a single person. If there are few people under the command of an individual, then there is a narrow span of control, but if a manager has large numbers of people under direct control then the span of control is wider.\n\n## Hierarchical Structure\n\n- A hierarchical structure has a very tall organisational structure with many managers. The organisation is highly tiered and there are long chains of command.\n\n### Pros and Cons \n\n- Many layers of management slows communication\n- But plenty of opportunity for career progression\n- Works well for large organisations with many employees\n- If one person is underperforming then the impact could affect many people\n- Long chain of command means instructions may be obfuscated\n\n## Flat organisational structures\n\n- A flat organisational structure has a wider span of control because there are fewer tiers in the organisational structure and each manager has fairly loose control, meaning that they can have many subordinates.\n\n## Flat structure for large businesses\n\nWhilst a flat structure does come with many benefits, such as greater autonomy for staff, it does require that each individual is fairly highly skilled and has strong motivation. This is because there aren't enough managers to closely control each employee, so every employee has to be trusted to know what they're doing and - for the most part - just get on with it. The issue is if a business has many employees then there are likely some lower skilled employees, and there is a serious chance of managers becoming overloaded, especially if the business is distributed between multiple locations.\n\n## Matrix Structures\n\nA matrix structure is a structure where each individual is a subordinate of two managers. A team will be created to manage a project, where the project has a manager and each memeber of the team is part of a department such as marketing, finance or operations. Employees are under the team manager and department manager. This leads to some dual control.\n\n\n## Delayering\n\n- Taking layers of management out of the organisational structure to flatten the structure.\n\n### Pros and Cons\n\n- Reduced layers in hierarchy\n- Lower labour costs\n- Increased employee motivation\n- Faster decision making\n- shorter communication pathways\n- wider spans of control\n- greater emphasis on teamwork and empowerment\n\n## Delegation\n\n- Offloading the assignment of authority to subordinates for particular functions.\n\n### Pros and Cons\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Reduces management stress and workload\n\t- Allows senior management to focus on key tasks\n\t- Subordinates are empowered and motivated\n\t- Better decisions or use of resources (potentially)\n\t- Good method of on-the-job training\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Cannot/ should not delegate responsibility\n\t- Depends on quality / experience of subordinates\n\t- Harder in a smaller firm\n\t- May increase workload and stress of subordinates\n\n\n## Empowerment\n\n- Concept closely linked to motivation and customer service\n- Employees need to feel that their actions count\n- Empowerment is a catch-all term that covers:\n\t- Giving authority to make decisions to front-line staff\n\t- Encouraging employee feedback\n\t- Shows more trust in employees\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PEDQuestion":{"title":"PED Question","content":"### A business decides to increase the price of a product in order to improve its profit. Analyse how the success of this decision is affected by the product's price elasticity of demand.\n\nWhether a price increase will increase profit depends almost exclusively on price elasticity of demand. If the price of the product is inelastic, then changing the price within the boundaries of the inelasticity will not impact the demand. If this is the case, then increasing the price by the maximum allowed value by PED, the only impact would be an increased profit.\n\nHowever, in most scenarios it is not this simple. Most businesses face competitors who are able to closely compete on price. In cases like these, say where the business sells apples, there are many places where a consumer can get apples, so the price **must** be competitive otherwise a business will not attract sales. Here, the price elasticity of demand would be elastic, because any changes in price will impact the demand.\n\nHaving a competitive price is only part of the image however, as costs are typically something a business cannot easily negotiate. Therefore, they need to consider what their minimum possible price is and then decide how much more than this they can reasonably charge in order to maximise revenue. Price elasticity of demand is always a useful tool to review when making pricing related decisions as it provides valuable insight into whether a pricing change would increase actual earnings and it reduces the risk. \n\n\u003e Include a specific example.\n\u003e Include more specific values.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PeCAn-PiE":{"title":"Pecan Pie","content":"\n\n- Pe: Point explained\n\t- Always use words of the question\n\t- Short statement of the point\n- CAn: Contextualised Analysis\n\t- Logical chain of reasoning\n\t- Relevant range of business theory\n- PiE: Point included evaluation\n\t- Not the conclusion\n\t- Develop an “it depends” or “however”\n\t- Is it always the case?\n\nEvaluation hooks: i.e., “essential”. A word that indicates what the evaluation should sway on.\n\nContext hooks: Vital contextual information: i.e., “lowest cost”, “competitive”, “mass market”.\n\n\n---\n## Example\n\n### To what extent do you think using Taylor's theory would be a good way for all businesses to motivate their employees? (16m)\n\n\nEvaluation hook: all businesses\nContext hooks: motivation, managers, employees\n\n“To what extent”\n\n\n2x PeCAn PiE paragraphs:\n\n- Point explained: Taylor would be a good way to motivate many employees in a decent range of businesses. If you are running a factory and have a production line, then everyone (managers and employees) could benefit from a piece rate pay as it would increase output and reward the hardest working employees.\n- Context Evidence: Nari is a mobile phone manufacturer, and specialises in fast turnarounds. They offer a “48 hour lead time” to their customers, meaning that increased output allows them to meet more demands quickly. \n\t- Ongoing evaluation: This leads to them retaining their reputation as a fast mobile phone supplier, meaning that customers will be more likely to buy from them in future. In addition, employees get the benefit of being paid extra for hard work, rather than a standard rate regardless.\n- Point included evaluation: Taylorism focuses on people being motivated by money, and allows for a company like Nari to focus more heavily upon meeting numerical targets. It enables the production of [...]\n\n**Focus:** Continuous evaluation\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business","revision"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PortersFiveForcesCaseStudy":{"title":"M\u0026S - Porter's Five Forces Study","content":"### To what extent do you believe that the recent announcement by Marks and Spencer is a good strategy to achieve this aim? Refer to Porter's Five Forces in your answer. (20 marks)\n\nM\u0026S have clearly identified that their clothing and homeware stores are not as profitable as they hoped, if they are even turning a profit at all. Similarly, M\u0026S are aware that food stores are more profitable and are likely a more sustainable long-term business option. \n\nThe clothing that M\u0026S sell is typically towards the higher end, with a luxury focus. This means they will be using more expensive materials and therefore charging a higher price to consumers. Whilst historically this may have worked well for them, the current economic climate in the UK means that fewer consumers have sufficient disposable income to warrant purchasing luxury clothing items. Because of this, M\u0026S are likely suffering a down tick in sales for clothing which means that they have taken the time to review their options. It is important that they consider there options quickly as if they leave it too long they risk failing to retain a competitive edge. \n\nM\u0026S have made the realisation that many people are now shopping for clothes online, whilst food sales are still primarily in-store. So M\u0026S are transitioning their clothing business to a cheaper online model, which will also likely attract additional customers. In parallel, they are converting their old clothing stores into food ones, as they are confident that people will still buy their food in store, and that it will be more sustainable for the business to sell food directly.\n\nMost of the competitors that have appeared to rival the food business M\u0026S have are at the very least offering their customers the option to buy online. This is an expectation and gives new entrants into the market an advantage over any older businesses that sell exclusively in physical stores.\n\nHowever, it is important for M\u0026S to realise that by transitioning to an online model for their clothing brand, they are going to face much fiercer competition. It is a lot more work for a customer to walk to a different clothing store than it is for them to go to a different clothing website. This increased intensity of rivalry might force M\u0026S to compromise in areas that they have historically never had to compromise on. Most online stores offer discounts fairly regularly, and provide robust returns policies. If M\u0026S fail to meet these customer expectations, then they may struggle to build themselves a niche in the online clothing market, leading to their clothing brand loosing relevance. This is a major threat to their business, and means that they have to get this transition right. \n\nOverall, I feel that M\u0026S have recognised the importance of adapting their business to the modern age where everyone expects online shopping, however I am concerned that if they do not prepare themselves for the challenges that come with e-commerce they may face being left in the dust. The conversion of their old clothing and homeware shops to food stores does however sound like a good idea, as the M\u0026S food brand is strong and will be able to attract sales easily, so this will almost certainly increase their dominance in the food market. By using online stores for their clothing brand, they will likely be able to reduce costs as fewer staff members will be needed and they will only needed warehouses, rather than stores and warehouses. A cost reduction and a restructure of how they sell should give them a boost that, if handled properly, could accelerate their clothing business into the future. \n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PortersGenericStrategies":{"title":"Porter's Generic Strategies","content":"- Porter suggested two overall business strategies that could be followed in order to gain competitive advantage\n- Porter argued that differentiation and low cost are effective strategies for firms to gain a competitive advantage\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20230925150345.png]]\n\n\n### Stuck in the Middle\n\n- Low cost and differentiation\n\n### Differences between Bowman and Porter\n\n- Bowman focuses on price to customer rather than cost to business\n- Highlights a full range of options open to a business whereas Porter only looks at a few distinct choices in terms of positioning\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/Price":{"title":"Price","content":"\n### Pricing considerations\n\n- Cost of production\n- Competitor's pricing\n- Target Market\n- Markup Target\n- Overhead costs\n- Brand\n- Quality (mainly perception of quality)\n- Image\n- Stage in lifecycle\n\n### Pricing links with\n\n- Adding value\n- Gross Profit Margin\n- [Product Life Cycle](sixth/Business/Units/fh/ProductLifecycle)\n- Unit Costs\n- Sales Forecasting- [similar](sixth/Business/Units/nd/CashFlowForecasting)\n- [Elasticity of Demand](sixth/Business/Units/fh/PriceAndIncomeElasticityofDemand)\n\n\n## Methods, strategies, and tactics\n\n**Pricing method**: The method used to calculate the actual price set\n\n**Pricing strategies**: Adopted over the medium to long term to achieve marketing objectives. Have a significant impact on the marketing strategy.\n\n**Pricing tactics**: Adopted in the short run to suit particular situations. Limited impact beyond the product itself.\n\n\u003e [!note] Competitors significantly influence pricing\n\u003e\n\u003e Price leaders set the pricing for a market - these tend to be the big businesses. Whilst smaller businesses tend to be price followers, who simply follow prices set by the leaders.\n\n**Price takers:** Have no option but to charge the ruling market price\n**Price makers:** Able to fix their own price\n**Price leaders:** Market leaders whose price changes are followed by rivals\n**Price followers:** Follow the price-changing lead of the market leader\n\n\u003e [!quote] Mark up \n\u003e\n\u003e Widely used in retail, the amount that you add to the price on top of your production costs.\n\n**Loss Leaders:** A product or service sold at a loss to encourage people to enter the ecosystem of a product or service.\n\n## Benefits and drawbacks to using cost to influence price\n\n### Benefits\n\n- Easy to calculate\n- Price increases can be justified when costs rise\n- Managers can be confident each product is being sold at profit\n\n### Drawbacks\n\n- Ignores price elasticity of demand\n- May not take account of competition\n- Profit is lost if price is set below the cost of production\n\n## Price Skimming\n\n- Setting a high price to maximize profit\n- Works well for products that create excitement amongst “early adopters”\n- Frequently used in the technology industry\n- Product is sold to different market segments at different times, allowing for high initial profits\n\t- Will maximize profit per unit to achieve a quick recovery of development costs\n\n## Price Penetration\n\n- Setting a low introductory price\n- Opposite of price skimming\n- Aim is to\n\t- Gain market share quickly\n\t- Build customer usage and loyalty\n\t- Build sales of high-priced related items (“hook and bait” approach)\n- Price can be increased once a target market share is reached\n\n**Hook \u0026 Bait pricing**: Selling a product for a very low price, but it requires another product to work. For example, a printer requires ink—so a company may sell a printer for a low price but then sell ink at a high price to recoup their money through people having to buy new ink.\n\n\u003e [!question] Dynamic Pricing \n\u003e\n\u003e Dynamic pricing is a pricing strategy in which businesses set flexible prices for products or services based on current market demands.\n\n\nAmazon utilizes dynamic pricing, changing their prices on average every *10 minutes*.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PriceAndIncomeElasticityofDemand":{"title":"Price and Income Elasticity of Demand","content":"\n**Elasticity** measures the responsiveness of demand to a change in a relevant variable—such as price or income.\n\n**Price elasticity of demand**—measures the extent to which the quantity of a product demanded is affected by a change in price.\n\nPrice Elasticity of demand (PED) is calculated using:\n\n**% change in quantity demanded / % change in price**\n\n\nPrice elastic=\u003e PED is greater than 1 =\u003e Change in demand is more than the change in price\n\nPrice inelastic =\u003e PED is less than 1 =\u003e Change in demand is less than the change in price\n\nUnitary price elasticity =\u003e PED is exactly 1 =\u003e Change in demand = change in price.\n\nIf PED greater than 1, a change in price will cause a larger change in demand, so overall revenues would increase with a price cut, but drop with a price increase.\n\n### Factors influencing PED\n\n- Price of complementary goods\n- Brand strength\n- Habit\n- Availability of substitutes\n- Time\n\n**Income elasticity of demand**-measures the extent to which the quantity of a product demanded is altered by a change in income.\n\nCalculating income elasticity of demand (YED) is done using the formula:\n\n**% change in Quantity Demanded / % change in income**\n\nTypically:\n- a rise in income will result in a rise in demand\n- a fall in income will result in a fall in demand\nTo the extent:\n- this depends on the type of product (necessity vs luxury)\n\nFor inferior goods, demand falls as income rises, but increases as income declines.\n \nPED: A(-1.5), B(-0.2)\nIED: A(0.5), B(-1.9)\n*Negatives can be ignored here*\n\nPED: A is elastic, B is inelastic\nY/IED: B is luxury(elastic), A is necessary (inelastic)\n\n\n**Limitations of calculating and using elasticities**\n\n- Can be difficult to get reliable data\n- Other factors affect demand \n- Many markets subject to rapid technological change\n- Competitors will react\n\n**Key evaluation points**\n- Elasticities provide useful insights for management in decision-making\n- Firms tend to like to have products with inelastic demand\n- Building strong brans and product USPs is a good strategy for making demand more price inelastic\n---\n\nElastic products are more vulnerable to a decrease in demand if they increase their price. A price inelastic product will not notice much impact on demand if they increase prices.\n\nPetrol's elasticity depends on factors such as the number of nearby petrol stations, the need of customers to get petrol and various other factors. This means that petrol in a city would be fairly elastic, but fairly inelastic in the middle of nowhere.\n\nPrice elasticity = % change in demand / % change in price\n\nExample of a product raising prices by 20%:\n\n- Server costs\n\t- May prompt to look for another provider\n\t- Current provider has several USPs, meaning that migration would likely be too much of a hassle\n\n---\nPrice elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of demand to a change in the price. We normally assume that a rise in price results in a fall in demand. The level of elasticity depends upon several factors including: the number of substitutes in the market which make it possible for customers to switch, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury and brand loyalty.\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PriceElasticityOfDemand":{"title":"Price Elasticity of Demand","content":"**Elastic demand:** Above 1 is elastic\n**Inelastic demand:** Below 1 is inelastic\n\n**S**ubstitute -\u003e Many substitutes increase elasticity\n**P**ercentage of Income\n**L**uxury or necessity -\u003e Elastic for luxury, inelastic for necessity. \n**I**dentity/brand -\u003e If brand loyalty is low then the product will be elastic\n**T**ime\n\n### Calculating PED\n\n\n\u003e [!info] Formula \n\u003e\n\u003e Percentage change in quantity demanded / Percentage change in price\n\n\nNOO - New Figure - Old Figure / Old Figure x 100\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PricingConsolidation":{"title":"Pricing Consolidation","content":"## Practice Exercise 1\n\n1) Goods that are purchased and consumed regularly by a lot of customers and tend to be sold at low prices are: convenience goods.\n\n4) In the Boston Matrix, the difference between a cash cow and a dog is that a cash cow produces a large amount of profit and is likely in the mature stage of the product lifecycle. Whereas a dog is likely in the decline stage of the product lifecycle and is becoming a cost for the business with little future potential.\n5) Some products are called cash cows because they produce lots of profit and require minimal work from the business. A cash cow has likely gone through several other stages already, and it is now established in the market, being a leader in the industry.\n6) A product's USP might be its price, if it has the lowest price in the market, then it has an advantage over every other product in that market. A more reliable long-term USP for a product such as a microwave might be some additional functionality. Maybe it can detect the food put inside it and then automatically set itself up to cook the food.\n10) Introduction, Growth, Maturity, Decline\n11) Typically, the most profitable stage of the product lifecycle will be the maturity stage. By this point in time, marketing costs will be reduced, existing loyal customers will exist, and the brand will be well-known. This means that the business has lower costs for the product than it did in earlier stages, whilst it likely has a larger market share—leading to this being the most profitable stage.\n13) Extension strategies can keep a product on the market longer, delaying its decline. Extension strategies might include rebranding (changing the name and packaging of the product to make it seem like something new), dropping the price to improve the value for money of the product or a more extensive approach would be to update the product, giving it a more modern design and possibly even new features.\n\nAn example of a real life extension strategy would be NVIDIA releasing new drivers for an existing GPU, providing their existing products with additional functionality, therefore adding value and increasing sales.\n\n\n## Practice Exercise 2\n\n1) Psychological pricing is pricing that is intended to disguise the price of a product. For instance, if you charge £100 for a product, it sounds like more than £99.99, even though there is basically no difference. Therefore, when a business uses psychological pricing, they can typically increase sales.\n2) a) 50p + 60p + 70p = £1.80 + 100% = £3.60\nb) 55p + 60p + 70p = £1.85 + 80% = £3.33\n\n3) A company may use price skimming if they are producing a new product that is perceived to be desirable or luxury when they first introduce it into the market. Price skimming involves adding a very large markup to the cost of the product during the first stage of its product lifecycle. During this phase, the sales of the product will be lower than in future however the profit per sale will be at its highest. Apple uses this strategy with new iPhones as do companies like NVIDIA with new hardware releases.\n4) Penetration pricing significantly undercuts competitors, meaning that your product will stand out as the cheapest by far. If it can come close to the quality of the competition, then it will rapidly gain market share and a positive customer reputation – forcing competitors to lower prices or compete in another area.\n5) A price leader is a product that can set the market price. A company like Apple can choose what they charge for products because they know that people will pay for their latest product because some people associate themselves with Apple and their ideologies, meaning that they are willing to pay an unreasonable amount of money for an Apple product—even though a similar product is provided by another company at a much lower price. A price taker is a company that has no option but to follow the price leader's pricing in order to stay in business.\n6) A loss-leader is a product that is sold at a loss in order to get customers to enter the product's ecosystem. By doing this, the company can lock you in to making future purchases with them, and they can charge an additional markup on these purchases to recoup the costs of the loss-leader.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ProductLifecycle":{"title":"Product Lifecycle","content":"\n1) convenience goods\n2) speciality goods\n3) 70% of new products fail within 3 years because entering the market is the most difficult part of a product lifecycle. In order to enter the market, the product needs successful marketing and to meet the needs or wants of the consumers in order to gain enough recurring sales for the product to be deemed profitable. If the product cannot break through this initial barrier, then it will end up being a drag for the businesses revenue and will have to be discontinued. Also, there are some products that may not be intended to last more than 3 years. Many craze products such as Loom Bands and Fidget Spinners didn't need to last 3 years to make the companies producing them a huge amount of money. So it isn't vital for some products to last 3 years, whilst some more expensive products may need to last for a long time to be seen as successful, such as a watch. If the company stops selling them after 6 months then they seem like a low value product.\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20221212110441.png]]\n4) A star has a very rapid growth rate and a high market share—this makes it the top of the market and suggests it is a desirable/popular product. Whereas a dog is a much slower growing product which is likely to be focused on a much more niche market segment or a less succesful product.\n5) \n\n\n---\n\n**A theoretical model which describes the stages a product goes through over its life.**\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/fh/img/Pasted image 20221215095730.png]]\n\n**Development:** Absorbs significant resources. May not be successful.\n\n**Introduction:** New product launches. Low level of sales. Usually a negative cash flow. Heavy promotion needed.\n\n**Growth:** Fast growing sales. Cash flow may become positive. Market grows, competition enters. Unit costs begin to fall with economies of scale.\n\n**Maturity:** Slower sales. Intense competition. Fight for market share. Cash flow very high, positive. Weaker competitors leave the market.\n\n**Decline:** Falling sales, market saturation. More competitors leave. Decline in profits and overall weaker cash flow. \n\n**Extension:** Lower price, change the packaging. \n\n\n---\n\nConsumer and industrial products\n\n\nOver the stages of the product lifecycle, we measure sales over time.\n\nStages are as follows:\n- Introduction\n- Growth \n- Maturity\n- Decline\n\n\n## Product Portfolio Analysis\n\nProduct portfolio analysis assesses the position of each product or brand in a firm's portfolio to help determine the right marketing strategy for each.\n\n\n- Boston Consulting Group developed this as a tool of portfolio analysis\n- It can be applied to the portfolio of products produced by a firm or the portfolio of businesses owned by a firm. \n- Portfolio is a collection of businesses or products that make up a business.\n\nFirms should analyse their portfolio of products, categorised as:\n\n- Question Marks\n- Stars\n- Cash cows\n- Dogs\n\n- The ideal would be a balanced portfolio, likley with products in every category.\n\nThe Product Lifecycle\n- is concerned with individual products\n\nThe Boston Matrix\n- is concerned with the firms overall cashflow\n\n## Question Marks\n\n- Low share of a rapidly growing market\n- Cash flow is negative\n- Have potential but the future is uncertain\n- Could become either a star or a dog\n\n### Strategy\n\n- Invest to increase market share\n- Substaintial investment to achieve growth at the expense of powerful competitors\n- Invest in promotion and other aspects of marketing\n- Build selectively\n\n## Stars\n\n- High share of rapidly growing market\n- Position of leadership in a high growth market\n- The product/business is relatively strong and the market is growing\n- Require high marketing spending\n- Net cash inflow is neutral or at best modestly positive\n\n### Strategy\n\n- Investment to sustain growth\n- Build sales and/or market share\n- Spend to keep competition at bay\n\n## Cash cows\n\n- High share of a slowly growing market\n- Mature stage in the product lifecycle\n- Mature, successful product\n- Dominant share\n- Little potential for growth \n- Large positive cash inflow\n\n### Strategy\n\n- Defend market share\n- Aim for short term profits\n- Little need for investment\n- Little potential for further growth\n- Reduce investment in order to maximise short term cash flow and profits\n- Use profits from cash cows to invest in new products\n\n\n## Dogs\n\n- Dogs are either\n - Products that have failed\n - Products that are in the decline phase of their life cycle\n- Low share of a slowly growing market\n- Not gowing anywhere and no real potential \n\n### Strategy\n\n- Phase out or sell off (divest)\n- Not worth investing in\n- Any profit made has to be re-invested just to maintain market share\n- Uses up more time and resources that can be justified\n- Divest or, at most, focus on a defendable niche\n\n## How valuable is the Boston Matrix Model?\n\n- A useful tool for analysing product portfolio decisions\n- But it is only a snapshot of the current position\n- Has little or no predictive value\n- Focus on market share and market growth ignores issues such as developing a sustainable competitive advantage.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/ProfitMeasurement":{"title":"To understand the measurement and importance of profit","content":"\n## Pricing considerations\nSetting a price is very important, but can be difficult. The following need to be considered:\n\n- Profit margins\n- Costs involved\n- Competition\n- Target market\n- Type of product\n- *Inflation*\n- Brand image\n- Quality\n\n### Revenue and Price\n\nRevenue—total sales * price of product\n\nA price must be high enough to cover costs and leave a surplus to provide a profit. Bad pricing can cost the business sales.\n\n### Total Revenue\n\nTotal revenue can be described as:\n\n- income\n- revenue\n- sales revenue\n- sales turnover\n- turnover\n\nTotal Revenue (TR) can be calculated by multiplying the average selling price (p) by the quantity sold (q).\n\n## Types of costs\n\nSome examples of costs include:\n\n- packaging\n- rent\n- wages\n- salaries\n- distribution\n- raw materials\n- promotion\n- machinery\n- production\n- running costs\n- administrative costs\n\nOverall, costs can be split into 2 categories -**variable** and **fixed**. A fixed cost does not change based on output, an example of fixed costs is salaries, rent and administrative costs.\n\nVariable costs are costs that do change with output. Examples include raw materials, wages (if hours fluctuate or are piece rate), packaging etc.\n\n**Fixed costs (FC) + Variable Costs (VC) = Total Costs (TC)**\n\n**(Units sold * variable cost per unit) + fixed costs = Total Costs**\n\nAverage costs—how much it costs to produce a single unit or item.\n\nAverage cost per unit = Total costs / Total Output\n\n| Output | FC | VC | TC | AC |\n|--------|------|------|------|-----|\n| 0 | 4000 | 0 | 4000 | - |\n| 10 | 4000 | 500 | 4500 | 450 |\n| 20 | 4000 | 960 | 4960 | 248 |\n| 30 | 4000 | 1610 | 5610 | 187 |\n| 40 | 4000 | 2200 | 6200 | 155 |\n| 50 | 4000 | 2800 | 6800 | 136 |\n| 60 | 4000 | 4400 | 8400 | 140 |\n\n---\n\n£175 per unit\n\n| Output | TR | FC | VC | TC |\n|--------|-------|------|------|------|\n| 0 | 0 | 5500 | 0 | 5500 |\n| 10 | 1750 | 5500 | 500 | 6000 |\n| 20 | 3500 | 5500 | 1000 | 6500 |\n| 30 | 5250 | 5500 | 1500 | 7000 |\n| 40 | 7000 | 5500 | 2000 | 7500 |\n| 50 | 8750 | 5500 | 2500 | 8000 |\n| 60 | 10500 | 5500 | 3000 | 8500 |\n\n## Profit\n\n**Profit = total revenue - total costs**\n\nProfit is a prime objective for most firms.\n\nTo improve profit businesses can:\n- increase sales revenue\n- decrease costs\n\nA combination of both is the ideal way of achieving additional profit.\n\nMany other ways do exist—such as decreasing price to increase sales volume and therefore sales revenue.\n\n### Importance of profit\n\n- Profit is a reward for owners and shareholders\n- Profit is a motivator\n- Profit is a measure of success\n- Profit is a source of finance\n\t- A very good source, because it doesn't require any repayment or investment\n- Profit is a guide for future investment\n- Profit is attractive to stakeholders\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/Promotion":{"title":"Promotion","content":"\n## Forms of Promotion\n\n- Advertising\n- Packaging\n- Sales (Discounts)\n- Sponsorships\n- BOGOF\n- Free samples/trials\n- Limited availability\n- Social Media\n\n\n## Aims of promotion\n\n- Inform—make sure people know it exists\n- Remind—remind them that it's still available \n- Persuade—them to buy it\n\n- The main aim of promotion is to ensure that customers are aware of the existence and positioning of products\n- Promotion is also used to persuade customers that the product is better than competing products and to remind customers about why they may want to buy.\n\n## Above and below the line\n\n- Above the line\n\t- Mass media is used to promote brands and reach out to customers\n- Below the line\n\t- More one to one and perhaps tailored to specific consumers such as merchandising at the point of sale or direct selling\n\n## Public Relations\n\nPublic relations activities are those that create goodwill toward an individual, business, cause or product.\n\n### Sponsorship \n\n- Takes place when a payment for an event, person, organisation is given in return for some consideration of benefit\n- A specialised form of public relations\n- Common in the worlds of arts and sport\n- Sponsorship should benefit both sides\n\n## Direct Marketing\n\nPromotional material directed through mail, email, social media or phone to individuals or businesses.\n\n\n### Technological Impact on Direct Marketing\n\n- Cookies and various digital tracking systems allow highly targeted advertising\n- Viral marketing\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/PublicSector":{"title":"Public Sector Organisations","content":"**Public sector companies** are a relatively small number of companies owned or controlled by the government. \n\nExamples: RBS (Royal Bank of Scotland) (nationalised), Network Rail.\n\n\n**Public sector organisations** are bodies that provide goods and services which are owned and operated by public bodies. These are funded by central or local governments, but may still levy charges for some services.\n\nExamples: NHS, Highways Agency\n\n## Public vs Private sector\n\nPrivate sector companies frequently work to generate profit above all else. However, private sector works to provide a service or selection of goods **for all**.\n\n## Not For Profit Organisations\n\nNot for profit businesses trade to benefit the community. These businesses have social aims as well as trying to make money.\nExamples of social aims are job creation and training, providing community services and fair trade with developing countries.\n\n### Example: Divine Chocolate\n\nDivine chocolate ensures that they pay fair prices to the farmers in Ghana that produce the cocoa. This allows for investment to be made into the local community—improving sanitation and infrastructure. Divine chocolate does not exploit the farmers, whereas historically many have been exploiting by western businesses.\n\n## Case Study: Horbury Plc\n\n1) Horbury had been impacted by economic pressures in the UK, as they sell products in industries such as “music, entertainment, travel, and lifestyle” which are not classed as essential by many. Because of the economic status of the UK at this time people would have had less money to spend, and would have needed to prioritise the purchase of essentials, such as food, mortgages etc. As people would not have been purchasing electronic goods, Horbury plc would have experienced lower sales – resulting in reduced profits or increased losses. Due to this reduction in business performance, shareholders may have been spooked and panic sold shares to recover some of their capital, thus reducing share prices.\n2) For the board to buy the company back and make it private, they would need a significant amount of funding. Whilst the board probably controls a large portion of the company already, it wouldn't be cheap to buy back the rest of the shares. Something that could be beneficial to Horbury going private is that they would gain more control, as they would have shares locked into a group of known individuals. They wouldn't have random investors controlling shares in the company, as every shareholder would have to be invited. This would allow them to benefit from longer term shareholders, who have an interest in the business greater than the chance of making a profit. \n\tAs a private company, Horbury would be under reduced scrutiny as they would no longer have to publicly release as much information about their business, and would be analysed less. However, it would be important for the board to understand that as a public company they can raise capital through the sale of shares, which becomes a much lengthier process if they become a private company—meaning that changing business form would impact their ability to raise capital.\n\tThe company wants to diversify into more markets, and as a private company, they wouldn't be subjected to the whims of the shareholders as much. Instead, Horbury would be able to follow their own internal objectives without being worried about the share price.\n\n\tIn conclusion, Horbury should consider the pros and cons of each option, and take into account their current business plans and financial status before they commit to either decision. If they believe that it is worth it for them long-term, then they should become a private company. However, if they are looking to be able to raise capital quickly, then they should think twice before changing business form.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/RealIncome":{"title":"Real Incomes","content":"\n**Real incomes** measure the amount of disposable income available to consumers (eg, households \u0026 individuals).\n\n### Factors impacting real incomes:\n\n- inflation\n- wage growth\n- employment levels\n- interest rates\n- tax policies\n\n\nHousehold income is only one factor that impacts consumer spending.\n\n### Impacts of lower interest rates\n\n- Costs of servicing loans / debt is reduced—boosting spending power\n- Consumer confidence should increase leading to more spending\n- Effective disposable income rises—lower mortgage costs\n- Business investment should be boosted eg, prospect of rising demand.\n- Housing market effects - more demand and higher property prices\n- Exchange rate and exports - cheaper currency will increase exports\n\n### Impacts of higher interest rates\n\n- Cost of borrowing rises\n- Main effect will be through mortgages \n- Add contraction in retail credit\n- Repayments on other debts\n- Possible slowdown in housing market\n- Higher rates might also cause currency to get stronger\n- Makes UK exports more expensive in overseas markets\n\n## Demographic Factors\n\nDemography is concerned with the size and composition of a population. Changes in population dynamics occur slowly but can be significant for business.\n\n## Practice Exercise 2\n1) Explain terms\n\t- interest rates—the reward for saving or the cost for borrowing\n\t- market conditions—factors that impact the market a business is operating in\n\t- demographic factors—the makeup of the population that the business is operating in\n\t- environmental issues - whether a business can operate in an environmentally friendly way.\n2) Competition will split customers in the market between the competing businesses—this will reduce the revenue of individual businesses, and require them to adapt and outwit their competition to become dominant. This will increase the costs of the businesses. Equally, the demand for goods or services provided in the market will likely increase due to marketing campaigns, however the demand for a specific business's services may decrease if they are not successful in their marketing efforts.\n3) If the average income of the population is decreasing in terms of value (not necessarily numbers), then the amount of disposable income people have will decline. This will result in less money being spent on non-essential or luxury items—causing these businesses to suffer from reduced revenue. Additionally, it will increase the chance of people opting for cheaper products when they have multiple options. So lower income will reduce the demand for luxury items, which will in turn reduce the revenue of businesses producing such items.\n4) If interest rates decline, then people with debts or mortgages will have less to pay back, and will therefore have more disposable income. This will lead to greater consumer spending. However, the long-term implication of this is that people saving will be making lower returns on savings—resulting in possible economic issues for them in future. If people were on a tighter budget before interest rates dropped, they may now have more money available to spend—resulting in an increased demand for luxury items and/or services. It is also possible that the demand for very cheap items will fall off—because people will be willing to spend their money on quality.\n5) If a business relies on borrowing money or trade credit to function, then higher interest rates will increase the amount that the business has to pay back on these borrowings. This will directly impact the costs of the business, and will possibly force the business to restructure their finances. Higher interest rates will also impact the customers that the business relies on to generate revenue, possibly forcing them to spend less or move to cheaper competitors. So when interest rates are high, it becomes important to consider costs to their customers, as if they are charging too much they may experience a sharp decrease in sales.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/SWOTAnalysis":{"title":"SWOT Analysis","content":"\n### What is SWOT analysis?\n\n- A method for analysing a business, its resources and its environment\n- Often used as part of strategic planning\n- Looks at\n\t- Internal **S**trengths\n\t- Internal **W**eaknesses\n\t- External **O**pportunities\n\t- External **T**hreats\n\n#### Personal SWOT Analysis\n\n- Strengths\n\t- Technical ability\n\t- Motivation\n\t- Enthusiastic\n- Weaknesses\n\t- Over reaching\n\t- Repetitive tasks such as revision are difficult\n- Opportunities\n\t- Could get involved in open-source and build up a CV\n\t- Could get a part-time job\n\t- Could set up a small online store \n- Threats\n\t- Hard to stand out\n\t- Burnout\n\n### SWOT Analysis aims to discover\n\n- What the business does better than the competition\n- What competitors do better\n- Whether it is making the most of the opportunities available\n- How a business should respond to changes in its external environment\n\n### The SWOT Matrix\n\n- Positive factors\n\t- Strengths \n\t- Opportunities\n- Negative factors\n\t- Weaknesses\n\t- Threats\n\n### Internal vs External\n\n- Strengths and weaknesses\n\t- Internal to the business\n\t- Relate to the current situation\n- Opportunities and threats\n\t- External to the business\n\t- Related to changes in the environment which will impact the business\n\n### What are strengths?\n\n- Market share\n- Economies of scale\n- High quality\n- Leadership skills\n- Financial resources\n- R\u0026D capabilities\n- Technological representation\n- Brand reputation\n- Protected IP\n- Distribution network\n- Employee skill\n- High productivity\n- Flexibility of production\n- etc etc\n\n### What are weaknesses?\n\n- A source of competitive disadvantage\n\n- Low market share\n- Inefficient plant\n- Outdated technology\n- Poor quality\n- Lack of innovation\n- A weak brand name\n- High costs\n- Cash flow problems\n- Undifferentiated product\n- Inadequate distribution\n- Quality problems\n- Low productivity\n- Skills gap\n- Unmotivated staff\n- etc etc\n\n---\n\n### What are opportunities?\n\n- An opportunity is any feature of the external environment which creates positive potential for the business to achieve its objectives.\n\t- Technological innovation\n\t- New demand\n\t- Market growth\n\t- Demographic change\n\t- Social or lifestyle change\n\t- Government spending programmes\n\t- Higher economic growth\n\t- Trade liberalism\n\t- Diversification opportunity\n\t- Deregulation of the market\n\t- etc etc\n\n#### Emerging Markets\n\n- Developing countries (Pakistan, India etc)\n- Large amounts of change\n\n\n#### The “Grey Pound”\n\n- Pensioners are better off if they retired longer ago\n- Pensions used to be more generous than they currently are\n- Some OAPs have lots of disposable income\n\n#### COVID-19 Pandemic\n\n- Despite many being furloughed\n- Many opportunities for growth have been enjoyed by some\n\n\n### What are threats?\n\n- Any external development that may hinder or prevent the business from achieving its objectives\n\t- New market entrants\n\t- Change in customer tastes or needs\n\t- Demographic change\n\t- Consolidation among buyers\n\t- New regulations\n\t- Economic downturn\n\t- Rise of low cost production abroad\n\t- Higher input prices\n\t- New substitute products\n\t- Competitive pressure\n\t- etc etc\n\n\n### SWOT is more than a list\n\n- It is an analytical technique to support strategic decisions\n- Strategy should be devised around strengths and opportunities\n- The keywords are: match and convert\n\n#### Match and Convert\n\n- Match strengths with opportunities\n- Convert weaknesses into strengths\n\n##### Convert weaknesses into strengths\n\n- Outdated technology\n\t- Acquire a competitor with leading technology\n- Skills gap\n\t- Invest in training and more effective recruitment\n- Overdependence on a single product\n\t- Diversify the product portfolio by entering new markets\n- Poor quality\n\t- Invest in quality assurance\n\n**For every perceived threat, the same change presents an opportunity for a business.**\n\n### IKEA Case Study\n\n#### SWOT Analysis\n\n- Strengths\n\t- Growing customer base\n\t- 433 stores across 25 countries\n\t- Recognised brand\n\t- Low-cost of storage and transport of products due to flatpak\n\t- Franchise system reduces administrative burden\n\t- Committed to being climate positive by 2030\n\t- Prices are low\n- Weaknesses\n\t- Franchisee system decentralises the business\n\t- Requires work to setup their products\n\t\t- Many people are increasingly \"lazy\" and do not want to build their own furniture\n\t\t- IKEA may need to develop a solution to allow them to remain competitive\n\t- Operating across countries and franchisees means that IKEA will need a lot of work to keep a consistent experience\n\t\t- Different countries will have different demographics, looking for different items\n- Opportunities\n\t- E-commerce is growing rapidly, so moving more to the internet could help IKEA's performance\n\t- Diversification of products \n\t- Provide sustainable solutions\n\t- Chinese market growth\n\t\t- Enter other growing markets\n\t- Advertising/marketing could accelerate growth\n\t\t- Viral advertising could be highly effective\n\t- A simpler store layout could lead to more customers coming in\n- Threats\n\t- Partnership with Alibaba could disrupt relations with western countries\n\t- Amazon and similar companies may outcompete them on price\n\t- Legislation changes could force them to ditch their current Chinese-backed e-commerce platform in countries like the USA\n\t- Competitors could rapidly arise in developing countries and other regions where IKEA does not currently operate\n\t- Lower quality products could discourage potential customers\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/SegmentationTargetingAndPositioning":{"title":"Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning","content":"\nMarket segmentation involves dividing a market into parts that reflect different customer needs and wants.\n\n## STP model\n\n- Segmentation\n- Targeting \n- Positioning\n\n---\n\n### What is market segmentation?\n\nThe process of splitting the market into different demographics to help gauge where customer needs and wants.\n\n### Behavioural Segmentation\n\nAnalysing a market based upon factors such as habits like purchase frequency, method of purchase and other characteristics.\n\n### Geographic Segmentation\n\nDefining market categories based upon where people live. Looks at different sizes of regions. IE clothing companies may look at the colder regions of the UK to sell their warm clothing, whilst a farming goods company might look at regions with the highest agricultural activity.\n\n### Demographic Segmentation\n\nSplitting the market based upon the traits of the population. This could be anything from age to religion, gender, race, education.\n\n### Cons of market segmentation\n\n- Can encourage companies to ignore some of their potential customers\n- It can be difficult to break the market into obvious segments\n- It can be difficult to know certain demographics\n- Companies could miss out on wider ranges of opportunities\n\n### Pros of market segmentation\n\n- Advertising can be targeted at specific market segments\n- Least profitable markets can be avoided\n- It becomes easier to identify gaps in the market for new firms\n- It helps the firm to improve existing products and customer service\n\n### 3 characteristics that could be used in demographic segmentation\n\n- Age\n- Education\n- Income\n\n### Income segmentation groups\n\nA—higher managerial such as chief executives and directors\nB—Intermediate managerial such as solicitors, accountants and doctors\nC1—Supervisory, clerical or junior professional such as teachers and junior managers\nC2—Skilled manual such as plumbers, electricians and junior managers.\nD—Semi and unskilled workers such as refuse collectors and window cleaners\nE—Pensioners, casual workers, students and unemployed.\n\n### Segmentation Methods\n\n- Demographic\n- Geographic\n- Income\n- Behavioural\n\n----\n\nMarket Size: The volume of sales for a product\n\nBrand: A name, sign, symbol, design or slogan linked to a particular product or service\n\nPrimary market research: The collection of data on a first hand basis\n\nMarket Mapping: Various market conditions that are plotted on a map.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/TargetMarket":{"title":"Target Market","content":"\nA target market is the set of customers sharing common needs and wants that a business decides to target.\n\n## Three Main Strategies for Targeting a Market\n\n**Mass marketing (undifferentiated)**: Business targets the whole market, ignoring segments. Products focus on the common needs and wants of customers, not focusing on edge cases.\n\n**Segmented (differentiated):** Business targets several market segments within the same market. Products are designed and targeted at each segment. Requires separate marketing plans and often different business units and product portfolios.\n\n**Concentrated (niche):** Business focuses narrowly on smaller segments or niches. Aim is to achieve a strong market position (share) within those niches.\n\n## Case Study: Gymshark\n\nTarget market:\n\nAge: 18-25\nBehavioural: often and how much\n\nIncome: higher levels of disposable income\n\nLifestyle: Lives revolve around fitness, music and fashion\n\nPromotion:\n- Influencers on social media\n- Black Friday: 2 Big Sales\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/Unit1Revision":{"title":"Unit 1 Revision","content":"\n## Different legal forms of business\n\n### Sole Trader\n\n- Dave's Sweets\n- Advantages\n\t- Quick and easy to setup\n\t- Cheap\n\t- Less complicated to run\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Liability is not limited\n\t- Scalability problems\n\n### Partnership\n\n- High Street Dental Practice\n- Advantages\n\t- Good for group ownership of a fairly small firm\n\t- Shared responsibility and reward\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Unlimited liability\n\t- Disputes between owners can have large implications\n\t- Responsible for the actions of other partners\n\n### Private Limited Company (Ltd)\n\n- Green Construction Ltd\n- Advantages\n\t- Limited liability\n\t- Share capital to raise finance\n\t- More control over ownership than a plc\n\t- Option to choose who can buy shares\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Limited fundraising opportunities\n\t- Finance may be harder to raise\n\n### Public Limited Company (Plc)\n\n- isgplc\n- Advantages\n\t- Stocks can be sold easily on the stock exchange\n\t- Rapid finance raising is possible\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Higher transparency requirements\n\t- Requires £50,000 capital \n\n## Market capitalisation\n\nMarket capitalisation = Price per share x Number of Shares (Shares Outstanding)\n\nCalculates the \"value\" of the business\n\n## One reason for a private individual to invest in shares\n\n- Investing in the correct company may result in a share price rise in future, allowing the investor to sell their shares for a profit. It is also possible for them to collect dividend payments from a profitable business that they hold shares in.\n\n## One influence on share price\n\n- Competitor actions – a competitor announcing a new, better product may cause investors in your business to sell their shares in a panic, leading to a decline in your share price.\n\n## One reason why a business would change ownership model\n\n- If a business has grown, then it would be beneficial to them to change to a better ownership model, so a sole trader may change to a private limited company in order to gain the benefit of limited liability.\n\n## Difference between private \u0026 public sector\n\n- The private sector is run by companies\n- The public sector is run by the government \n\n## What is the relationship between mission and objectives?\n\n- Mission is the overall goal of the business. Many businesses have a mission statement that is very high level and long term.\n- An objective is a much more short term and low level target for the business. These are typically very precise and are easily measurable. \n\n### 5 possible business objectives\n\n- Break-even by Q2 2023\n- Increase the revenue of the clothing department by 20% before the end of the year\n- Sell all the stock in warehouse 2 before it closes \n- Release a new smartphone that sells at least 20 million units before the end of Q3\n- Reduce HR complaints by 50% before the end of the year\n\n## Why would someone set up a not-for-profit business?\n\n- A not-for-profit business is typically created to further the interests of humanity as a whole. Maybe the business will work to reduce hunger around the world or they will simply want to provide an ethical alternative to an existing product, and prioritise the ethics over the capitalist desire to make money.\n\n## The Hierarchy of Objectives (descending)\n\n- Mission Statement(s)\n- Corporate Aims\n- Corporate Objectives\n- Functional Objectives\n\n## Why would a business write a mission statement?\n\n- To provide stakeholders with a view of where the business aims to be in the future\n- To guide all internal objectives\n- To hold themselves to certain standards\n- To ensure that they follow a specific long term vision\n\n## Why is profit so important to a business?\n\n- Profit is an undisputed sign of success\n- Profit allows for dividend payments, which would appease shareholders\n- Retained profit is arguably the best source of finance\n- Profit makes it easier to gain new investments\n\n## Explain how external factors impact cost and demand\n\n\n### Competition\n\n- A strong competitor will reduce demand for your product and will also force you to reduce your price\n- A weak competitor will allow you to push them out of the market with superior price and/or quality\n\n### Market conditions\n\n- If the demand for your product decreases, maybe masks after the COVID-19 pandemic, then there is no longer enough space for all the businesses that exist in the market. \n- Whereas if you are at the start of a pandemic, the market for masks would grow rapidly, leading to businesses having to scale their production up and become more competitive as others try to enter the market.\n\n### Incomes\n\n- If the incomes of the population are rising, then employees will expect to be paid more for working for you. In order to remain a competitive employer, you will need to provide a pay rise.\n- However, if people have more money in general, then you may be able to increase the selling price of your product, which will possibly offset the increased wage costs.\n\n### Environmental\n\n- Consumers are increasingly focused on choosing a sustainable option. \n- By ensuring that you have clearly marketed environmentally conscious policies, you can glean customers from the competition\n\n### Interest Rates\n\n- Higher interest rates will make it more expensive to take out loans and owe money to other parties.\n- Lower interest rates will have the opposite effect.\n\n### Demographic\n\n- Targeting the correct demographic for the product will lead to an increase in demand and perceived value, allowing you to get more sales and charge a higher price. \n- Effective market research can result in good demographic decision making.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/WhatIsABusiness":{"title":"What Is A Business?","content":"\n## Definitions\n\nA business is an organisation that exists to provide goods and services on a commercial basis to customers.\n\nGoods are physical products that can be traded.\n\nServices are intangible products, a task is fulfilled by a business to save someone without the time, expertise, or the equipment the effort of sorting it out themselves.\n\nThey come in many [forms](sixth/Business/Units/fh/DifferentFormsOfBusiness.md)\n\n## Benefits to society\n- Sustain economy\n- Creates jobs\n- Increases consumer spending\n- Tax\n- Provide amenities\n- Drives innovation\n- Increased (international) investment\n\n[Public Sector](sixth/Business/Units/fh/PublicSector) businesses tend to exist to benefit society.\n\nBusiness's begin their corporate life as a startup, more information on startups can be found [here](sixth/Business/Units/fh/WhatIsAStartUp.md)\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/fh/WhatIsAStartUp":{"title":"What Is A Startup?","content":"\n**Key Term:** A start-up is a new business enterprise, formed by one or more entrepreneurs.\n\nEntrepreneur:\n\n- A catalyst for the creation and growth of a business\n- fulfil their dreams\n- calculated risk taker\n- organise all the resources\n- find and fill gaps in the market\n\n## Case Study: Olio\n\nAn app that deals with improving waste management in the modern world. \n\n- Part of the solution\n- about carbon footprint, ethics, net 0, level target\n- app - tackle waste by connecting neighbours\n- 30,000+ volunteers\n- Food in 21 minutes (people can send and receive food for free within this time)\n- Nonfood less than 2 hours (same as food, but for shampoo etc etc)\n- Founded by Tessa Clarke\n\n\nAims:\n\n- improve the app\n- B-B proposition\n- international expansion\n- 1 billion user by 2030 \n\nInvolving restaurants, supermarkets, food distributors to reach net 0 waste\n\n\n- 6 million users\n- Their aim is for their customers to be part of the solution, and not just contribute, as to make the system a whole lot stronger and to bring about awareness of food waste.\n\n**Key Term:** A mission is a qualitative statement of the business aims.\n\n**Key Term:** An aim is a long term plan from which objectives are derived.\n\n**Key Term:** An objective is a target which must be achieved in order to realise the stated aim. A time assigned target is derived from the goals and set in advanced of strategy.\n\nThe mission statement is the overriding goal of the business. The reason for the business's existence. A strategic perspective or a vision for the future. Excites, inspires, motivates and guides.\n\n\nContinued in [Business Objectives](sixth/Business/Units/fh/BusinessObjectives.md)\n\n## Mission Statements Homework\n\n**1**: Netflix\n\u003e We promise our customers stellar service, our suppliers a valuable partner, our investors the prospects of sustained profitable growth, and our employees the allure of huge impact.\n\n**2**: McDonald's\n\u003eOur mission is to make delicious feel-good moments easy for everyone.\n\n**3**: Coca Cola\n\u003e to refresh the world in mind, body, and spirit, to inspire moments of optimism and happiness through our brands and actions, and to create value and make a difference.\n\n**4**: Google\n\u003eto organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful.\n\n**5**: Amazon\n\u003eWe strive to offer our customers the lowest possible prices, the best available selection, and the utmost convenience.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.026712453Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/BalanceSheets":{"title":"Balance Sheets","content":"\n**A snapshot of the business' assets (what it owns or is owed) and its liabilities (what it owes) on a particular day**\n\nRequired by any limited liability company\n\nAssets:\n- Current assets (yours for less than a year)\n- Non-current assets\n\nLiabilities:\n- Current liabilities (must be paid back within a year)\n- Non-current liabilities\n\nTotal equity: Capital raised from share sales + retained profit\n\n\n### Assets\n\n#### Current Assets \n\n- Can be quickly liquidised to pay bills etc\n\n- Cash\n- Trade Creditor (receivables)\n- Inventories (stock)\n\n#### Non-current Assets\n\n- Land \u0026 buildings\n- Plant \u0026 Machinery\n- Goodwill (intangible asset)\n\t- Brand etc\n\n### Liabilities\n\n#### Current liabilities\n\n- Trade creditor (Payables)\n- Short-term borrowings\n\n#### Non-current liabilities\n\n- Long-term borrowings\n- Other long-term liabilities\n\n\n\u003e [!note] Net position\n\u003e\n\u003e Net assets = Total assets (value £) - Total liabilities (value £)\n\n\n### Other formulae\n\nTotal assets = current assets + non-current assets\n\nTotal liabilities = current liabilities + non-current liabilities\n\nWorking capital = current assets – current liabilities\n\nTotal equity = share capital + reserves\n\n### Working Capital\n\n- Also called net working capital\n- Is a measure of a company's liquidity and short-term financial health\n- The difference between a company's current assets and current liabilities\n- A positive NWC indicates that a company can fund its current operations and may be able to invest in future activities and growth.\n\n- Too much working capital is wasteful\n\t- You are holding assets that won't make a return, invest the excess\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/BreakEvenAnalysis":{"title":"Breakeven Analysis","content":"\nBreakeven output (units) = Fixed costs (£) / Contribution per unit (£)\n\nContribution per unit = selling price per unit less variable cost per unit\n\nContribution per unit represents how much cash is contributed to the business for each unit sold. If the total contribution is greater than the fixed costs, then the business will make a profit.\n\n- Contribution\n\t- Looks at the profit made on individual products\n\t- It is used in calculating how many items need to be sold to cover all the business's costs\n\nContribution has several formulae:\n\nTotal contribution = total sales less total variable costs\nContribution per unit = selling price per unit less variable costs per unit\nTotal contribution can also be calculated as = contribution per unit x number of units sold\n\n**Profit = Contribution less fixed costs**\n\n\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n### Q1 \n\nFixed Costs = £3600\nSelling price per unit = £72\nVariable cost per unit = £12\nMOS (Margin of Safety) = 200 last month\n\nBreak-even output per month and profit made last month.\n\n200 x 72 = £14400\n200 x 12 = £2400\n\n14400 - (2400 - 3600) = £15600 profit\n\n2400 + 3600 = £6000 total costs\n\n72 - 12 = 60\n\n60 * 100 = £6000\n\n60 units = BEO\n\n260 * 60 = £15600 - 3600 = £2000 profit last month\n\n\n### Q2\n\n£1.50 per unit selling price\n£0.75 per unit variable cost\n£1500 monthly fixed costs\nOutput is 2400 units per month\n\n1.5 - 0.75 = 0.75\n2400 * 0.75 = £1800\n\n1800 - 1500 = £300 profit\n\n\n300/0.75 = 400\n400 u m/s\n\nBreak-even point\n\n1500 / 0.75 = 2000 units\n\nMargin of Safety\n400\n\n\n### Q3\n\nFixed costs = £200\n\n100/20 = £5 var cost per hr\n\nVariable cost and selling price per hour \nProfit made over 35 hours \n\n\nBreak even @ 20 hours worked\n20 hours worked = £100 var costs, so £5 var cost per hour\n£200 fixed costs per week\n\n20 hours = £300 revenue \n300/20 = £15 hourly fee\n\n15-5 = £10 contribution per hour\n\n10 * 35 = £3500 gross profit\n\n3500 - 200 = £3300 net profit\n\n\n\n---\n\n\u003e [!note] Margin of Safety\n\u003e\n\u003e The margin of safety is the difference between the actual output and the breakeven output.\n\nSelling price per unit £10\nVariable price per unit £4\nContribution per unit = £6\nFixed costs per period: £12000\nActual output = 3500 units\n**Breakeven formula: fixed costs / selling price - var cost per unit**\nBreakeven output = 2000\nMargin Of Safety = 1500\n\n\n---\n## Worksheet\n\n### Q1\n\nIf a business is breaking even it is neither making a profit nor a loss. To calculate how many units a business must sell to break-even, they must first calculate their contribution per unit. This equals the selling price per unit minus the variable cost per unit.\n\nBreak-even output is calculated by the following formula: fixed costs / contribution per unit\n\nThe higher the firm's fixed costs, the greater the breakeven output will be. Margin of safety refers to the difference between the break-even output and the number of units sold.\n\n\n### Q2\nAverage selling price £4\nVariable cost per unit £1.5\nTotal fixed costs £50k\nPlanned output 25k\n\n#### Contribution per unit\n\n4 - 1.5 = 2.5\n\n#### Total contribution if planned output is sold\n\n2.5 x 25000 = £62500\n\n#### Break-even output\n\n50000 / 2.5 = 20000 units\n\n#### Margin of Safety if planned output is sold\n\n5000 units \n\n(Break even is 20k, Planned output is 25k, 25k-20k=5k)\n\n### Q3\n*Referencing graph*\n\n1) 4 units\n2) 0 units\n3) £76 - £56 = £26\n4) \n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/BreakEvenAnalysisMerge":{"title":"Break Even Analysis","content":"\n## Break Even Analysis ##\n\nBreakeven tells you the number you have to produce and sell before you make a profit.\nBreakeven level of output is where total revenue = total costs. i.e there is no profit nor loss being made. Or where contribution = fixed costs\n\nUnderstanding the breakeven positions is key to understanding what a business needs to do to operate profitably.\nCalculating contribution and breakeven output is an important analytical method that is used in every type of business, big and small.\n\nIn order to do breakeven analysis, you have to make some important assumptions\n- selling price per uint stays the same, regardless of the amount produced.\n- variable costs vary in direct proportion to output - i.e. variable\n- all output is sold\n- fixed costs do not vary with output - they stay the same\nThese assumptions are not always realistic - a key limitation of breakeven analysis.\n\nMethod 1: Using a table\n\nOutput\tSales\tVariable Costs\tFixed Costs\tTotal Costs \tProfit\n\t\t\t\t\t\n 0\t £0\t £0\t £40,000\t £40,000\t -£40,000 SELLING PRICE: £10\n 1\t £10,000\t £40,000 £40,000\t £80,000 -£34,000\n 2\t £20,000 \t£80,000\t £40,000 £120,000 -£28,000 VARIABLE COST: £4\n 3\t £30,000\t £120,000 £40,000\t £160,000 -£22,000\n 4\t £40,000\t £160,000 £40,000\t £200,000 -£16,000 FIXED COST: £40,000\n 5 £50,000 \t£200,000\t £40,000 £240,000 -£10,000\n 6\t £60,000 £240,000\t £40,000 £280,000 -£4,000\n 7\t £70,000 £280,000\t £40,000 £320,000 £2,000\n 8\t £80,000 £320,000 £40,000 £360,000 £8,000\n \n Margin of Safety - The difference between the amount that you are producing, amd the breakeven point\n \n Method 2: The graph method]\n (if you want a copy of the graph lmk)\n \n Method 3: The formula method\n \n ## Breakeven level of output = Fixed Costs/Price per unit - Variable Costs per unit ##\n \n = Fixed Cost/Contribution per unit\n\nEXAMPLE: using the information from the table above\n\nB.E = 40,000/ 6\n = £6,667 units (always round up, so the breakeven point it reached fully)\n \n \n \n [Business](/Business)\n \n \n \n \n \n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/BudgetResearch":{"title":"Budget Research","content":"\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/1.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/2.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/3.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/4.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/5.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/6.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/7.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/8.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/9.png]]\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/BusinessOrgStructure":{"title":"Business Organisational Structure","content":"\n\n## Business Organisational Structure\n\nan organisational structure shows how people and management are organised in business.\n\nThe structure determines:\n - authority \u0026 responisbility - who is responsible for whom and who is in charge?\n - individual job roles \u0026 titles\n - the people to whom others are accountable\n - the formal routes through which comms flow in the business\n \n Span of control: number of employees for whom a manager is responsible\n \n # Narrow S.O.C#\n - allows for closer supervision\n - more layers in the hierarchy are required\n - helps more effective comms\n \n # Wide S.O.C #\n - gives subordinates the chance for more independance\n - more appropriate if labour costs are significant\n \nChain of command: describes the lines of authority within a business\n\nHierarchy: the number of layers of management or supervision in the organisational structure\n\n# Types of Structure # \n\nTALL\n- AKA traditional, tall or mechanistic structure\n- many layers in hierarchy \u0026 narrow s.o.c\n\nFLAT\n- AKA organistic, wide structure\n- flat hierarchy, wide s.o.c\n- delegation encouraged\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CapitalStructure":{"title":"Capital Structure","content":"\nEquity = amounts invested by the owners of the business (SHARE CAPITAL) (RETAINED PROFITS) LOWER RISK, LOWER REWARD\n\nDebt = Finance provided to the business by external parties (BANK LOANS) (OTHER LONG-TERM DEBT) HIGHER RISK, HIGHER REWARDS (MAKING PROFIT ON OTHERS' MONEY)\n\n## Reasons for higher equity in capital structure:\n\n- where there is greater business risk (startups)\n\n- where more flexibility required (don’t have to pay dividends, with a loan you have to pay interest)\n\n\n## Reasons why high levels of debt can be an objective\n\n \n\n- where interst rates are very low = debt is cheap to finance\n\n- where profits and cash flows are strong; so debt can be repaid easily (unicorn businesses)\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CarrollsCSRPyramid":{"title":"Carroll's CSR Pyramid","content":"- At the bottom of the pyramid, points are required\n- Towards the top, points are more optional\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230926095720.png]]\n- A simple example of how to approach CSR\n- Public limited companies must have a CSR report\n- CSR is built on the foundation of profit, which is why Economic is at the base of the pyramid\n\n### Main responsibilities\n\n#### Economic\n\n- Responsibility of the business to be profitable \n- Only way to benefit society in the long term\n\n#### Legal\n\n- Responsibility to obey laws and other regulations\n\n#### Ethical\n\n- Responsibility to act morally and ethically\n- Going beyond the narrow requirements of the law\n\n#### Philanthropic\n\n- Responsibility to give back to society\n- Discretionary but still important\n\n\n### Strengths and Weaknesses\n\n#### Strengths\n\n- Easy to understand\n- Simple message\n- Emphasis on importance of profit\n\n#### Weaknesses\n\n- Perhaps too simplistic\n- Should ethics be at the top?\n- Subjective/ liable to greenwashing\n- Possibly just window dressing\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyCapacityUtilisation":{"title":"Case Study: Kentmere Paper Mill","content":"\n## Analyse the ways in which the Operations Manager could increase capacity utilisation at KPM in the next year (9 marks)\n\nThe factory is currently only operating at about 71% capacity. This suggests that KPM has room to increase their output without pushing contingency margins too hard. New workers are inefficient until they have got integrated into the organisation fully, so turnover is bad for productivity in the factory. Luckily, the company is already addressing this as the turnover rate is reducing significantly.\n\nHowever, last year they were operating at 99% capacity, so the utilisation has dropped off significantly. KPM has clearly invested in improving the overall condition of their facilities, as well as capacity, but they have not scaled appropriately and now have wasted capacity. This is reflected by the higher unit costs this year. It would make sense for KPM to make the decision to employ more people in the factory, as a way to increase the capacity utilisation. Or if they felt that they did not need the extra capacity, they could reduce costs and scale back to a lower total capacity. This would be unlikely to be a good idea due to to the growing demand for their services. \n\n## To what extent do you agree that the decision to increase capacity from 545 tonnes to 830 tonnes was correct for KPM (16 marks)\n\nI do not believe that this increase in capacity was a good move for KPM. An increase in capacity was necessary, however they may have been overzealous in their increase, as they now have idling resources. Of course, we do not have information on their expected growth, so if they are expecting growth to continue rapidly, or a large spike in capacity demand, then running at 71% capacity may be a good choice for KPM.\n\nFor instance, if the extra capacity is the reason deliveries on time has increased by 6%, then they may see it as a worthwhile sacrifice because it will help their reputation. But the idle resources in the factory could be the reason, or part of the reason, behind the increase in unit costs. KPM are currently dealing with competition, which they have been managing to outcompete in pricing. Therefore, it is vital for KPM to ensure that their costs remain as low as possible, to enable them to profit from selling goods at a low price. Unused factory capacity will contribute to rising costs, which will increase the strain on their pricing model. If KPM falls behind in pricing, they will face a decline in sales and market share—which could be fatal for the business.\n\nBecause of the somewhat precarious situation the business is in—the main objective should be managing competition and retaining or growing market share. It may be wise to temporarily reduce capacity. If possible, turning machines off when they aren't actively required, they could reduce their capacity to lower costs. \n\nAnother issue that KPM needs to consider is that the paper industry is in decline globally as everyone moves towards a digital solution. This means that the lifespan of the company is limited and if the market is shrinking, they need to diversify. Diversifying into another market could help save KPM from dying along with the paper industry, however if their plan is to diversify then they should focus on that rather than increasing factory capacity. The large multi-million pound investments in state-of-the-art machinery and new premises may not have been a wise choice, as these resources may have been better spent on migrating towards a new industry.\n\nIn conclusion, there are many different choices KPM could make, however the increased capacity is unlikely to be a good move in the long run due to market decline.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyDaihatsu":{"title":"Case Study: Daihatsu","content":"\n## To what extent is cutting prices a good way for any business to respond to a fall in the overall capacity utilization in its industry? (16m)\n\nWhen capacity utilization falls in an industry, it suggests that the overall demand🌟🌟🌟 for the products produced by that industry has also fallen. This usually suggests that the business is operating in a market that produces luxury goods, such as Daihatsu producing their small cars. 🌟\n\nBecause people do not need the industry to survive, the only realistic option🌟🌟 for businesses trying to exist in that market is for them to offer lower prices to consumers. A lower consumer price point means that regardless of the state of the economy or the consumer's personal finances, people will be more likely to purchase the business's goods.\n\nThis response will result in revenue being kept as high as possible for the business, which will be very important for keeping things afloat.\n\nThe problem that arises for a business such as Daihatsu offering lower prices is that due to their customizations, they cannot mass produce whole cars, meaning that their unit costs will already be higher than most of the industry. Because of this, they will be subjected to higher costs meaning that reducing their prices may require them to sacrifice some of their USP by reducing the customisability of their cars. Whilst this may be damaging to the business, it is likely that they would be able to continue operation as they would retain their reputation and grow their potential customer base. \n\nEffectively, businesses in industries where overall capacity utilisation is falling need to shift their focuses to different parts of the market to ensure that their longevity is secured. Cutting prices is a good way to reduce the impact of higher unit costs, meaning that for many businesses it will be a viable option.\n\n---\n# Feedback\n\n- Good, but narrow\n- Mention price elasticity of demand\n- Consider demand falling for short term\n\n🌟 Not necessarily\n\n🌟🌟 Really? Marketing, reduce capacity\n\n🌟🌟🌟 Why is this a problem?\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyPassionForQuality":{"title":"Case Study: Passion For Quality","content":"\n## Analyse why Sarah wants to introduce a system of quality assurance into the business? (9m)\n\n1) Sarah wants to introduce quality assurance into the business as it will help to improve the business reputation because customers will receive less faulty goods. It will also help to identify problem areas in the production process, helping the business to eradicate resource drains. \n\nAs quality assurance is a constant process that exists throughout the entirety of production, it would also allow faults to be stopped as soon as they are found, meaning that the business doesn't have to waste materials and employee time working on a faulty product. \n\nA side effect of the quality assurance implementation will be to introduce a sense of increased responsibility upon all employees. This will be because they now have an expanded job role which gives them more insight into the running of the organisation. A positive for the business will be that many people may see themselves as more closely linked/important to the business, however there is a chance that employees will see the increased responsibility as a chance to demand additional pay—adding costs to the business.\n\n## To what extent do you agree with Jamie’s view that Passion for Fashion’s competitiveness depends on the quality of the design of its clothes? (16 marks)\n\n2) Passion for Fashion is operating in the clothing market, towards the mid end of the pricing range. This means that customers will expect quality. Especially in the current economic climate, it will be likely that any shortfalls will have a negative impact on the business, even if they are quick to resolve any issues.\n\nTherefore, the importance of quality is paramount to the business's competitiveness. And the easiest way for the business to ensure quality is to use quality assurance. This methodology will maximise the number of people and time spent on searching for issues, meaning that any problems that impact a client should realistically be spotted and corrected or stopped before any faulty goods leave the production line.\n\nIf they deliver a faulty product to a client, then it means that the business's reputation will be at risk. If somebody decides to post the faulty product on social media, it could have the potential to seriously damage the company's business.\n\nBy delivering consistent quality to their customers, they can also create themselves a reputation where they are seen as a higher quality brand, which will give people a higher perceived value and lead to them being able to charge greater prices for their products.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyPerfectPaper":{"title":"Case Study: Perfect Paper Plc","content":"\n## With reference to the Tannenbaum Schmidt continuum and Blake Mouton Grid, analyze what type of manager Jayne is. (9m)\n\nJayne has received instructions from her superiors and has made a decision to remedy the situation. However, when interacting with her employees, whilst she does listen to feedback, she does not take it on board. To make this work, she likely has to compromise with her subordinates to keep morale up. This places Jayne on the **Task Manager** corner of the Blake Mouton Grid - giving her a significant focus on achieving goals above anything else. Jayne does not adapt her plans based on the requests of her employees. She is told that some staff members may not be happy with travelling long distances (such as Scotland to London) for various reasons, including them being parents of young children. Whilst she does justify her decision as helping to prevent redundancies - she does not adapt it.\n\nIn a similar sense, she falls under the authoritarian segment of the tannenbaum schmidt continuum. This is because she has centralized the decision-making process, and is giving very little control to the people who her decision will impact. \n\nThis does not make Jayne a bad manager, however it does mean people may not feel comfortable around her or taking their problems to her. But at the end of the day, Jayne is not trying to create a Paternalistic environment, all she is focused on is the results. If she can get good results, then her subordinates keep their jobs and everyone can be happy. Because of this, Jayne could be seen as a good manager, but one that works employees hard.\n\n**Feedback:** Tells or Sells? First paragraph is strong, tannenbaum schmidt needs to be more precise.\n\n## To what extent might a change in Jayne's leadership style improve sales volume? (16m)\n\nUnder her current style, she will be suppressing the creativity of her employees. This is because they will feel like they just have to follow her orders and do everything to the letter. As they are working in the sales team, creative freedom will allow for new ideas to come to fruition and will allow all 25 members of staff to benefit the team at a higher level. However, on the flip side, moving to a different model, such as the democratic one, would have other effects than increasing the diversity of ideas. Some people may be less productive with more freedom, and some of the ideas that the team comes up with may not work out. Luckily, with a greater range of ideas the team is more likely to have a few good ones - whereas previously they would have been stuck with trying to make a single idea work.\n\nIf Jayne were to take this to an extreme and take a more Laissez-faire approach to leadership, she would be taking a much higher risk, but also possibly looking at a much higher potential reward. As long as the team she is managing consists of skilled people whom are capable of working well indepndently from each other, then she should be able to increase productivity by taking a backseat on some of the decision making. \n\nDespite all the potential positives of a more relaxed management style, her current approach with her new plan may be just as, if not more, successful. Jayne is a good sales person, who has been promoted to her position for a reason - and therefore the company has trusted her to do a good job. Whilst sales have decreased since last year, this may not be reflective of sales efforts and simply due to an increasingly digital world. Jayne does have a plan, and as long as she can ensure her team executes it effectively - it should have some success. \n\nIn conclusion, Jayne may be perfectly fine where things are - and would be taking the least risk by changing nothing. However, moving towards greater employee freedom may be incredibly beneficial and boost productivity more than Jayne could manage under her authoritarian style. The problem with a new approach is that the outcome is unknown - so the risk is high.\n\n**Feedback:** Good understanding. To get higher marks, make less points and go into more detail. Also needs evaluation.\n\n## Leadership Styles Research\n\n**McDonald's**: They have an effective leadership style, because staff working there are typically low skilled. So they delegate from a business manager to a general manager, and then down to shift managers who give instructions to the crew members. As you move higher up the ladder, it becomes less authoritarian as a higher skill level is assumed. This does cause some issues, but most of them are minor and can be easily resolved.\n\n**Nando's**: Managers are reportedly very imposing and stressed. They are not paid much more than the lowest level workers, but are given a lot more responsibility and are expected to run everything. This results in the managers not caring much for the business or their work and results in a more impoverished management style. Becuase of this there are employees who do not feel satisfied with the Nando's management style.\n\nA significant amount of data for this research was found on [Breakroom](https://breakroom.cc)\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","homework","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyScalingUpForThePlantCurious":{"title":"Case Study: Scaling up for the plant curious","content":"\n\u003e [!info] Info \n\u003e\n\u003e These are draft answers.\n\n\n## Explain how the growth of Allplants might have benefitted from its status as a private limited company (4m)\n\nThey were able to gain share capital by selling shares to venture capitalists, allowing them to gain a significant amount of funding. Share capital is a form of income that they can quickly deploy, because the investors gain a stake in the business. It also might bind an investor to the business, meaning that they involve their skills in the management of the business.\n\n## Discuss two factors that might halt the rise of Allplants ltd (8m)\n\n- Brexit\n\t- Limitations from delayed transit\n\t- Limitations on workforce\n\t- Added burden of tariffs\n\t- Extra red tape\n- Competitors\n\t- Established within the EU, allowing them to undercut prices\n\t- Might provide a broader range of products, leading to Allplants loosing demand \n\n\n## Explain why crowd-funding can be an attractive way for young companies like Allplants Ltd to raise finance (4m)\n\n- It doesn't require you to give any security or risk an asset\n- It helps raise publicity\n- If successful, more cash can be generated than requested.\n- Crowd-funding is easy and reasonably quick\n\n## Jonathon and Alex have had a meeting with a large American venture capital business that is prepared to pay up to £100m for Allplants ltd. It would give them £30m each. They have two options: sell up and end all links to the business or reject the offer and work on the expansion plan. Evaluate and recommend. (20m)\n\n\n- For selling\n\t- Quick cash\n\t- Immediate loss of liability, option of early retirement\n\t- £30m is enough to enjoy a rich lifestyle without the need for any further income\n\t- The business will be more likely to succeed with the finances of a large firm behind it\n- Against selling\n\t- Loss of business, something they've worked on for years\n\t- Loss of focus, the business interests will change\n\t- Loss of income potential, if the business is really successful, they will never get a penny over £30m for it\n\t- Opportunity cost is high\n- Evaluation\n\t- The business is clearly worth a lot of money already; if the founders have plans and believe that they can carry it forward to greater heights without selling it out, then it might be worth considering taking that route. if they got it to this point, they can get it further.\n\t- Selling now is always an option for them to consider, but it would mean giving up on their work and finding a new livelihood (if one was desired). If the business is worth £100m and they would only get £30m each, then there are other parties with a 40% net stake in the business meaning that others will have opinions on the deal as well.\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","casestudy"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CaseStudyStakeholders":{"title":"Case Study: Stakeholders","content":"\n1) The local community would stand to benefit from Roxio's offerings. The availability of food, clothing, electronics and other basic items would improve the quality of life in the local area. This would encourage the community to support the opening of a new store. Whilst there may be drawbacks, such as traffic influxes and rubbish management issues - these will probably be seen as worth it for the availability of more amenities and essentials.\nA large factor that may impact the community views on this proposition is the presence of local businesses that are involved in similar markets to Roxio. If there are a few small, independent shops in the town or village, then Roxio may be viewed as being monopolistic by trying to dominate the market. However, it may be that there is a severe lack of shops, or that the market overlap is not absolute - which would result in Roxio still being able to enter the area without causing friction with the locals.\n\n\n2) Whilst Roxio does initially need to please shareholders, they shouldn't overlook the other stakeholders, nor their combined power. Individually, the shareholders have the most influence over the business, but the customers and employees are both vital to it being able to function, and either group could cease operation of the business. Therefore, it is important for Roxio to prioritize the needs and wants of all of their stakeholders proportionately. Only by properly understanding where people stand with relation to the business will Roxio be able to develop their plans. \nTherefore, Roxio should listen to the complaints of the local communities that they are looking to enter, and instead of ignoring them, they should take steps to meet a compromise. If they appear as a human organisation rather than a robotic one, people will be more likely to accept their presence, even if they initially opposed it. \n\nFurthermore, the government is a powerful entity that could have a massive impact on the business. Roxio should take steps to ensure that the government concerns about their market share do not result in any major action against the company. Again, this will likely result in compromise such as them having to slow their growth plans to fall below the radar of government monitoring agencies.\n\nIn conclusion, the shareholders are only one stakeholder group - in a business the size of Roxio's it is important that they are taking appropriate time to understand and meet the needs of all of their stakeholders. Whilst they may choose their shareholders as priority #1, they cannot be priority 1/1.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CashFlowForecasting":{"title":"Cash Flow Forecasting \u0026 Management","content":"\nLiquidity is important. Having money to spend helps protect against unexpected expenses and keeps the business afloat.\n\nCash flow forecasting links with: budgeting, inventory management, financial objectives, working capital, sales forecasting.\n\nCash flow is important.\n\n- Cash flow is a dynamic and unpredictable part of life for most businesses (particularly start-ups and SMBs).\n- Cash flow problems are the **main** reason why a business fails.\n- Regular and reliable cash flow forecasting can address many of the problems.\n\n### Cash inflows\n\n- Cash sales\n- receipts from trade debtor's\n- sale of fixed assets\n- interest on bank balances\n- grants\n- loans from bank\n- share capital invested\n\n### Cash outflows\n- payments to suppliers\n- wages and salaries\n- payments for fixed assets\n- tax on profits\n- interest on loans and overdrafts\n- dividends paid to shareholders\n- repayment of loans\n\n### Why produce a cashflow forecast?\n\n*Efficient businesses produce accurate cashflow forecasts.*\n\n- Advanced warning of cash shortages\n- Make sure that the business can afford to pay suppliers and employees\n- Spot problems with customer payments\n- As an important part of financial control\n- Provide reassurance to investors and lenders that the business is being managed properly\n\n**Terminology:** Overdraft Facility ⇾ A service provided by a bank to allow a business to go into negative balances and later pay it off with interest.\n\nExample cashflow forecast:\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/cashflow-forecast-example-2340931153.png]]\n\n\u003e [!EXAMPLE] Interpreting the table\n\u003e\n\u003e Closing balance for one month is the opening balance for the next.\n\n- They key to effective cashflow forecasting is reliable information\n- A good cashflow forecast is:\n\t- Updated regularly\n\t- Makes sensible assumptions\n\t- Allows for unexpected changes\n\n---\n## Worksheet\n\n1) Cash flow values\n\nA = 3500 ✓\nB = 8000 ✓\nC = -(4000) ✓\nD = 8000 ✓\n\n2) Calculate net cash flow\n\n**Untrusted data below**\n```\n\n 35000 - 34000= £1500 NOV CLOSE\n4000 NOV OPEN\n\n(£500 + £36000) - 34000 = £3500 DEC CLOSE\n1500 DEC OPEN\n\n(31500+36000)-(34000+34000) = -£500 NET CASH FLOW\n```\n\n---\n\n# Recap\n\n## Liquidity\n\nLiquidity is how close an asset is to cash.\n\n- Cash is the most liquid asset \n- A building is fairly illiquid, as the process to convert it into cash is lengthy\n\n## Cash flow is important\n\n- Cash flow is dynamic and unpredictable \n- Cash flow is **the main cause of business failure**. \n\t- They try and grow too quickly and run out of working capital, they might be profitable, but if they run out of cash they can't pay the bills.\n\nNon-exhaustive lists:\n\n- Cash Inflows\n\t- Cash sales\n\t- Receipts from trade debtors\n\t- Sales of fixed assets\n\t- Interest on bank balances\n\t- Grants\n\t- Loans from banks\n\t- Share capital investments\n- Cash outflows\n\t- Payments to suppliers \n\t- Wages and salaries\n\t- Payments for fixed assets\n\t- Tax on profits\n\t- Interest on loans \u0026 overdrafts\n\t- Dividends paid to shareholders\n\t- Repayment of loans\n\n- **Cash is king** - it is the lifeblood of the business\n- If a business runs out of cash it will almost definitely fail\n- Few businesses have near unlimited cash, so careful management is required\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/CorporateSocialResponsibility":{"title":"Corporate Social Responsibility","content":"\n### What is CSR?\n\n- The extent to which a business addresses the concerns and obligations to its wider stakeholders\n- The actions a business takes over and above the minimum required by law in addressing societal needs and wants\n\n- CSR is based on the idea that the needs of business and society are interdependent\n\n- Society needs business\n\t- Employment \u0026 wages\n\t- Investment \u0026 innovation\n\t- Profits \u0026 taxes\n- Business needs society\n\t- Create demand\n\t- Public assets and infrastructure\n\t- Legal protection\n\n\n### The Debate on Social Responsibility\n\n- Not all business organisations behave in a socially responsible manner\n- Some argue that that it is not the job of businesses to be concerned about social issues and problems\n- Two schools of thought:\n\t- Free market view: the job of business is to create wealth for shareholders\n\t- Corporate social responsibility view: business should be concerned with social issues\n\nWant to turn on fun video effects during your next call? Or do you need to blur your background when you hop on your next online work meeting? You can now do both in Google Meet on Firefox. If you use Firefox version 115 or higher, you can set your visual effects either before or dur\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/DangersofCapacityUtil":{"title":"Dangers of Capacity Utilisation","content":"\n## Initial Questions\n\n1) Capacity utilisation is calculated as\nused capacity/total capacity x 100\n\n2) 13,000 capacity\n11,500 produced (2020)\n14,000 produced (2021)\n\n11,500/13,000 x 100 = 88.46%\n\n14,000/13,000 x 100 = 107.69%\n\nUtilisation change = 19.23%\n\n\n3) Running at high capacity utilisation means high efficency, so you are maximising profits.\n\n4) Running at high utilisation does not protect against contingencies. So you are vulnerable to faults.\n\n---\n\n## High utilisation\n\n- No downtime, high defects\n- Equipment wears out faster\n- Increased stress for employees\n- Unexpected demand increases can cause a loss of sales\n\n## Low utilisation\n\n- High unit costs\n- Wasted resources\n- Difficult to compete effectively\n- Reduced job security\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/DecisionMaking":{"title":"Decision Making","content":"\n**Opportunity Cost:** The cost of missing out on the next best alternative. The benefits that could have been gained by making a different decision.\n\n1) Distinguish between scientific decision-making and intuition/hunch based decision-making.\n- Scientific is easier to justify\n- Scientific will usually be more reliable\n- Hunch based is much faster\n- But may be less reliable\n- It is cheaper to use hunch based\n- Scientific is more common due to the rise of Big Data\n\n2) Not key stages in the decision-making process:\n- Recording data\n- Setting objectives\n\n3) Scientific decision-making is a lot more trustworthy and reliable. It can be backed up with evidence and data that supports or opposes a decision. Scientific decision-making also makes use of a wider set of information than a hunch. Hunches may be based on 1 or 2 things, whereas a scientific decision may be based upon hundreds or even thousands of data points.\n4) Intuition/hunch based decisions can be useful for when action is required quickly. If you don't have the time or resources to make a scientific decision, then intuition is your best chance.\n5) In any decision, you will need to account for all possible risks and uncertainty that may come from a decision, and weigh it up against the possible rewards. If you do this correctly, you are unlikely to make any decisions where you lose more than you can afford.\n6) Opportunity cost is the benefits that have been given up by making a particular decision over another.\n7) Opportunity cost helps you to see what your resources are going towards, and what you're getting back. It allows for a more analytical overview of decision-making.\n\n---\n\n## Decision Trees\n\n- A mathematical model\n- Used by managers to help make decisions\n- Uses estimates and probabilities to calculate likely outcomes.\n- Helps to decide whether the net gain from a decision is worthwhile. \n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221003120813.png]]\n\n**Expected Value:** The financial value of an outcome calculated by multiplying the estimated financial effect by its probability.\n\nExample:\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221003121736.png]]\n\nHigh sales + low sales = Total Expected Value\n\nNet gain = Total Expected Value - Cost\n\n---\n\n(A):\n\n1.4m cost\n\n=\u003e 40% 2.5m payoff\n=\u003e 60% 800k payoff\n\n0.4 * 2500000 = 1000000\n0.6 * 800000 = 480000\n\n1000000 + 480000 = 1480000 (1.48m)\n 1.48 - 1.4 = 0.08m net gain\n\n(B):\n 0.5m cost\n\n=\u003e 30% 1m payoff\n=\u003e 70% 0.5m payoff\n\n0.3 * 1000000 = 300000\n0.7 * 500000 = 350000\n\n\n300000 + 350000 = 650000 (0.65m)\n0.65 - 0.5 = 0.15m net gain\n(C):\n\nDo nothing. Not optimal.\n\n\nOption **B** is the most profitable option.\n\n== {Express in a single unit—everything in millions would have been good}\n\n## Advantages of using decision trees\n- Choices are set out logically\n- Options are considered in parallel\n- Use of probabilities enables risk analysis\n- Likely costs are considered as well as potential benefits\n- Easy to understand \u0026 tangible results\n\n## Disadvantages of using decision trees\n- Probabilities are just estimates—can be erroneous\n- Uses quantitive data only—ignores qualitative aspects of decisions\n- Assignment of probabilities and expected values prone to bias\n- Decision-making technique doesn't necessarily reduce risk\n\nQuality of data inputted is equal to the quality of the data outputted.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/DecisionTreesHwk":{"title":"Decision Trees","content":"\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221005100716.png]]\n\n###### Displayed in millions\n\n - (£8) should have been used as -£8\n1) Germany:\n\t0.75 * 24 = 18\n\t0.24 * 4 = 0.96\n\t18.96\n\tSpain:\n\t0.55* 32 = 17.6\n\t0.45 * 4 = 1.8\n\t19.4\n\tUSA East:\n\t0.45 * 44 = 19.8\n\t0.55 * 8 = 4.4\n\t24.2\n\tUSA West:\n\t0.5 * 37.5 = 18.75\n\t0.5* 6 = 3\n\t21.75\n\nNet gain for all 4: 21.75+24.2+19.4+18.96 = £84.31\n\n---\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221005101243.png]]\n\n2) £850,000 capital is available, additional £175,000 legal expense to be paid with external investments. Find most rewarding option.\nKitchen:\n0.6 * 1340000 = 804000\n0.4 * 125000 = 50000\n\n854000 / 850000 = 1.004705882\n\nSports Club:\n0.25 * 1480000 = 370000\n0.5 * 1220000 = 610000\n0.25 * 155000 = 38750\n370000 + 610000 + 38750\n1018750 / 850000 = 1.198529412\n\n\n\nExtra Capacity:\n0.25 * 1280000 = 320000\n0.35 * 1240000 = 434000\n0.4 * 1190000 = 476000\n320000 + 434000 + 476000 = 1230000\n850000 - 175000 = 675000\n1230000/675000 = 1.822222222\n\nKitchen expansion is most profitable as it has the highest probability of returning the investment.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/DunelmAndHomewaresMarket":{"title":"Dunelm And Homewares Market","content":"1) \n \n Current Ratio: 1.78\n \n ROCE: 30.44%\n \n Gearing: 57.2%\n \n Payables days: 18.6 days\n \n Receivable days: 8.3 days\n \n Inventory Turnover: 3.5\n\nAbove is corrected. May cause discrepancies.\n\n2) \n \n ROCE has declined significantly with a sharper drop in the last year. This suggests that investments are not being earnt back. \n \n Current ratio grew from 2014 to 2014 but fell again in 2018 which showed that the company has higher debts and/or lower asset value towards the end of the period. \n \nGearing has risen massively and is now above the higher optimum bound of 50%, raising an alarm on the company overextending their finances. \n\nPayable days have dropped however which will improve supplier relations as suppliers will be happier to be paid quickly. \n\nReceivable days have risen slightly which means that they may experience some cash flow problems in future as their customers are taking longer to pay them for goods. \n\n\n3) Dunelm are not in a terrible financial situation. However, they are running the risk of running out of cash \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/EconomiesOfScale":{"title":"Economies of Scale","content":"\n**Economies of scale arise when unit costs fall as output increases.**\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221111144900.png]]\n\n## Internal Economies of Scale\n\n- Buying economies—buying greater quantities usually results in lower price (bulk-buying)\n- Technical—use of specialist equipment of process to boost productivity\n- Marketing—spreading a fixed marketing spend over a larger range of products, markets, and customers\n- Network—adding extra customers or users to a network that is already established\n- Financial—larger firms benefit from access to more and cheaper finance\n\n## Labour Productivity\n\nLabour Productivity = **Output per period (units) / Number of employees at work**\n\nThe answer will typically be expressed in terms of output per employee.\nEg: 1000 units per employee per month\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/EdenProjectQ6":{"title":"Eden Project Question 6","content":"\n## To what extent did The Eden Project benefit from the time spent on its budgeting? (16 marks)\n\nThe Eden Project produced a large, detailed budget based on information that they had researched, allowing them to easily approach investors with a plan, showing what they were doing and how they planned to achieve it. Through this method, they managed to provide security to potential investors, ensuring that they are aware of the costs and where money was being allocated. Because of this, more money was given to The Eden Project, ensuring the success of the scheme.\n\nAs they managed to ensure their budgeting was accurate, they reduced the budget variance, meaning that they didn't need to take drastic actions to ensure that they had enough money to complete the project.\n\nAlthough their budget did have variances in it, they quickly disclosed these to the Millennium Commission which agreed to cover some of the additional costs of the project. Had detailed budgeting guidance not been given, then it might not have been possible for additional funding to be released, because the required sums of money were in the millions, they needed to justify the expenditure properly.\n\nSales were much higher than expected, meaning that funds could be gained to finalise the project without the need for investments from third-party organisations.\n\nWhilst the project would probably still have been *possible* without a comprehensive budget, they would likely have struggled with gaining and managing finances much more, leading to reduced efficiency. With only a 16% increase from the expected budget to the actual budget, The Eden Project was successful in their budget management with an incredibly good capital budget management for a project of that size.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","casestudy","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/EmployerEmployeeRelationsAtAirbus":{"title":"Employer-Employee Relations at Airbus","content":"\u003e This page was mostly written whilst my glucose was low. Expect a few abnormalities. \n\n1) Analyze whether Airbus managers were right originally to offer a 2.7% pay rise to staff. [9]\n \n A 2.7% pay rise is very low, considering that inflation was 7%, this means that Airbus were offering employees a below inflation pay rise, so they would have a lower quality of living as a result. In addition to this, the financial performance of Airbus was positive - meaning that they reported record profits providing no reason for them to use poor financial performance as an excuse for their low pay offer. To compound these factors, Airbus's main rival Boeing were experiencing difficulties at the same time, providing Airbus with a comfortable lead. \n \n Airbus was aiming to pay out a dividend of €1.50 per share, which would have been hampered by a larger pay rise to staff. Managers were clearly trying to balance the desires of the shareholders with those of the employees, however they overlooked the economic climate of the country and tried to offer employees and insulting low offer, which lead to disruption at Airbus. \n \n So, whilst managers had a reason for making a low offer, it was a poorly considered decision that would definitely have backfired on Airbus. A competent manager should have seen that employees would be dissatisfied and acted to protect their reputation and avoid the dispute.\n\n2) Assess two reasons why Airbus might benefit from treating staff as an asset not a cost. [8]\n \n Staff are not a typical resource like aluminium or a warehouse. They have much more intricate requirements, rights and feelings. By treating them like an inanimate resource, Airbus looses a key element of their employer-employee relations; they cannot build trust with their staff and nor can they construct an environment where employees feel seen as equals. This will reduce the productivity and the willingness to help of staff at Airbus, seriously damaging the company in future. \n \n By treating staff as as an asset rather than a cost, they can offer luxuries to them to entice them to work harder and to continue working at Airbus, rather than moving to a more appealing competitor. This will lead to greater productivity, lower absenteeism and an overall more appealing environment. \n \n Additionally, the positive environment that they will create for staff will aid in the recruitment process, allowing Airbus to attract more skilled staff to take up jobs within their firm. This requires very little additional effort on top of what Airbus offer their existing employees, so could save on marketing costs for recruitment. Whilst staff **are** a cost, they are also an asset, and by recognising the latter, Airbus can foster a much better relationship, which benefits all involved parties in the long run.\n\n3) Evaluate how Airbus staff may benefit from the collective bargaining efforts of 'Unite' rather than an individual approach to wage negotiations.\n \n Individuals have almost always got no clout, no bite. They can ask their manager for a pay rise and if their manager says no, they can't do anything about it. They can accept it or try and get a different job. However, for most people this is entirely impractical. A union changes this balance by giving the employees power to make their voices heard. The main difference is that instead of an individual employee raising an issue over pay, a large group of employees can raise an issue together, backed by legislation to protect them and a union. A union can also take action to force an employer to comply with certain demands. Strikes and industrial action are the most extreme form of expressing a concern, and should only be used as a last resort. However, the threat of a strike is enough to make most employers seriously try to mitigate a situation. \n \n In Airbus's case, the managers didn't take enough action early on and it lead to strike action happening. This could not have happened without the union, meaning that employees would not have been able to be heard. So for employees, collective bargaining is both a useful and a vital tool. \n \n Individual bargaining *may* have occasionally been effective, but it would have created an uneven pay stratum, leading to inequality within an organisation. \n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/ExamTechniqueAndRevision":{"title":"Exam Technique And Revision","content":"\n- Contribution\n\t- The money in - costs for a specific unit. The contribution is how much money is added to the business's coffers.\n- Breakeven output\n\t- Fixed costs / (price - variable costs)\n- Margin of Safety\n\t- Actual sales - breakeven output\n- Profit\n\t- Margin of safety x contribution\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","revision"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/Finance":{"title":"Finance","content":"\nA financial objective is a specific goal or target of relating to the financial performance, resources and structure of a business.\n\nTypical financial objectives:\n\n- Profit\n- Cash flow\n- Return on investment\n- Capital structure\n- Revenue\n- Costs\n\n\n3 profitability ratios:\n\n- Gross profit margin\n- Operating profit margin\n- Profit for the year margin\n\nIf **gross profit** is positive, then it is still worth you producing a product or offering a service. It is making the business money to provide. If it is negative, then it is costing the business money to provide.\n\nGross profit is revenue from sales minus cost of sales\n\nOperating profit is gross profit - expenses\n\nAnd Profit for the year is operating profit - interest and taxation\n\n\nInterest and taxation covers interest paid on debt or received plus tax payable of profit\n\ngross profit margin = gross profit / sales revenue x 100\n\n\n---\n\n## Statement of comprehensive income\n\n- Public limited companies and private limited companies need to publish their accounts every year, according to UK law.\n- As part of those accounts they need to show their profit and loss and this appears on their \"statement of comprehensive income\" (SOCI)\n\n\n```\nNOTE: Irrelevant to notes, practice.\n\n367.8 / 597.5 * 100 = 61.6\n\n15825000\n13550000\n\n13550000 / 15825000 x 100 = 85.6%\n\n\n**Buy and Save**\ngpm: 4089/64826 * 100 = 6.3%\nopm: 2188/64826 * 100 = 3.4%\npfty: 120/64826 * 100 = 0.19%\n\n**Trolleyworld**\ngpm: 1206/18116 * 100 = 6.7%\nopm: 949/18116 * 100 = 5.2%\npfty: 647/18116*100 = 3.6%\n\nTrolleyworld wins!\n\nTrolleyworld go from 3.6% to 4.2%, meaning a change of +0.8%\n\n```\n\n\n## Methods to increase profitability\n\n- Higher prices\n- Reduce Costs\n- Sell a greater volume of goods\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialPerformanceBudgets":{"title":"Financial Performance Budgets","content":"\u003e [!failure] Low glucose\n\u003e\n\u003e Lesson done with low glucose, output and quality likely lower.\n\n# Case Study: Frank Roseland, dairyman\n\n## What is meant by the term 'variance analysis'? (2m)\n\nVariance analysis is the technique used to analyse the difference between expected units sold and actual units sold, as well as expected price per unit and actual price per unit. By calculating the differences, the business can identify whether or not they need to make changes.\n\n## What is the difference between a favourable variance and an adverse variance? (4m)\n\nA favourable variance means that the deviation is in favour of the business, so more units sold than expected, or sold at a higher unit price than expected. This would benefit the business.\n\nAn unfavourable variance is one that occurs in a way that is detrimental to the business. So maybe units are selling for less than predicted, or less are selling in total.\n\n## Explain two reasons why an adverse variance might not be a sign of poor management by the budget holder. (9m)\n\nAn adverse variance could be caused by unexpected external factors, such as political changes. If a new law is introduced that interferes with the business operations, then it may cause the business to have to pay more per unit sold, leading to higher costs and ultimately lower profits. The adverse variance here isn't something that a budget manager could likely have predicted, and isn't something that they should be blamed for. \n\nAlso, adverse variances also occur because of an issue that has occured somewhere else in the organisation, for instance somebody working in sales may have undersold a batch of units, meaning that the adverse variance was caused by their error, not the budget planners. In this case, the company needs to address the protocols in place to ensure that this kind of underselling does not occur in future.\n\n\n---\n\n# Case Study: Budgeting the Eden Project\n\n## What is meant by the term budget ?(2m)\n\nA budget describes the amount of money set aside for a certain purpose. It can be money that exists in the business currently, or more of a prediction for how money that will enter the business should be used. It allows for cash flow to be managed more intelligently.\n\n## Identifying one favourable variance from Table 17.11 (1m)\n\nSoil and plants, including nursery.\n\n## Calculate the variance between the total budgeted cost and the total total actual cost as a percentage of the budgeted cost (3m)\n\n86/74 = 116%\n\n## Explain one reason why firms find it easier to estimate revenue budgets than capital budgets (4m)\n\nCapital budgets are frequently hard to predict, as they can be caused by equipment failure. Businesses rarely have advance warning on when something is going to break, and therefore don't know exactly how much they will be spending on repairs over one period of time \n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialRatios":{"title":"Financial Ratios","content":"\n## About financial ratios\n\n### Key Stages \n\n- Gather data\n- Calculate ratios\n- Interpret results\n- Take action\n\n### Sources of Data\n\n- Income Statement\n\t- Revenues\n\t- Cost of sales\n\t- Profits\n- Balance Sheet\n\t- Current assets\n\t- Current liabilities\n\t- Inventories \n\n## ROCE\n\n- Return on Capital Employed\n- How to calculate\n\t- ROCE (%) = (Operating Profit (or net profit)) ÷ (Total Equity + Non-Current Liabilities)) x 100\n- Bigger is better\n\n- Useful for\n\t- Evaluating the overall performance of the business\n\t- Providing a target return for individual projects\n\t- Benchmarking performance with competitors\n\n## Liquidity Ratios\n\n- Check for risk of running out of cash\n- Current ratio\n\t- **Current Assets / Current Liabilities**\n- Normally presented as a ratio\n\n---\n\n\n## Practice Exercise 7\n\n1) \n\ta) 1.5\n\tb) 1\n2) Avoiding a low current ratio is important for firms to avoid a cash flow problem. If the current ratio is within the ideal range, then should all the active liabilities for the business come up, there would be enough assets to cover the costs and to keep the business afloat. If the business does not have a favourable current ratio, then they are at risk of going into default and possibly shutting down.\n3) A high current ratio suggests that there are wasted current assets. There is no need to have an excessive amount of current assets in the business because it reduces the investment in ventures with a return. If there is a high current ratio, then there is money not being spent that could be invested into the business. ABF plc has a high current ratio , and the ratio is increasing further. In order to maximise the businesses' long term profitability and viability, it is important that they invest these additional assets into their operations. \n \n It is also possible that the business needs a larger amount of current assets than standard, maybe they have lots of temporary equipment that has a high value, but by selling this equipment off to reduce their current ratio, they could put themselves in a poor situation. So it is important to analyse the use of the resources before redirecting them.\n\n4) 5.9.2018:\n\t Current assets: 5,285\n\t Current liabilities: 3,248\n\t RTotal: 8,533\n\t Asset ratio: 0.61\n\t Liability Ratio: 0.38\n\t **Current Ratio:** 0.61:0.38\n\t13.9.2014:\n\t\tCurrent assets: 3,626\n\t\tCurrent liabilities: 2,684\n\t\tRTotal: 6,310\n\t\tAsset ratio: 0.57\n\t\tLiability Ratio: 0.43\n\t\t**Current Ratio:** 0.57:0.43\n\n5) ABF plc has managed their liquidity adequately. They are in a positive current ratio, which means that they are not in any immediate financial risk. They have improved their liquidity over the 4 years between the two datasets, which is a positive sign for the overall health of the business. They are however not at the ideal ratio of 1.5:1, which is realistically very hard to achieve, but they could put resources towards trying to get closer to this value than they currently are. It is financially smart to ensure that their current ratio is as good as possible to ensure that the business is capable of adapting much more dynamically to changes in the environment and to unexpected charges. \n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialRatiosForRevision":{"title":"Financial Ratios for Revision","content":"\n*Screenshots are taken from past exam papers.*\n\nFind [more papers](https://www.savemyexams.co.uk/a-level/business/aqa/-/pages/past-papers/)\n\nSee the answer snippets [here](sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialRatiosMarkscheme)\n\n### Payable days\n\nPayables = Trade Payables / Cost of Sales x 365\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626145027.png]]\n[Source paper](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/sample-papers-and-mark-schemes/2021/november/AQA-71321-QP-NOV21.PDF)\n\n\n\n### Receivable days\n\nReceivables = Trade Receivables / Revenue x 365\n\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626145339.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626145416.png]]\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626145307.png]]\n\n[Source paper](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/sample-papers-and-mark-schemes/2021/november/AQA-71322-QP-NOV21.PDF)\n\n### ROCE\n\nROCE (%) = Operating Profit / Total Equity + Non-current liabilities x 100\n\n- Bigger is better\n- Useful for\n\t- Benchmarking\n\t- Overviews\n\n### Inventory turnover\n\nInventory Turnover = Cost of Sales / Inventories\n\n\n\n\n### Current ratio\n\nCurrent ratio = current assets/ current liabilities\n\n- Determine the risk of running out of cash\n- Normally presented as a ratio, but can be shown as a decimal or a fraction\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626150826.png]]\n\n[Source paper](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/sample-papers-and-mark-schemes/2020/november/AQA-71322-QP-NOV20.PDF)\n\n\n### Gearing ratio\n\nNon-current liabilities / total equity + non-current liabilities x 100\n\n- Optimum is between 20-50%\n- Below 20% is too low\n- Above 50% is too high\n- The above is usually correct, there can be exceptions however\n\n*For question, see current ratio.*\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialRatiosMarkscheme":{"title":"Financial Ratios Markscheme","content":"\nQuestions found in [revision questions](sixth/Business/Units/nd/FinancialRatiosForRevision) have answer snippets here. Look at that page first.\n\n### Payable days\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626150007.png]]\n\n### Receivable days\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626150217.png]]\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626150253.png]]\n\n### Current Ratio and Gearing Ratio\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230626151007.png]]","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/Gearing":{"title":"Gearing","content":"\nGearing focuses on long term liquidity and shows whether a firm's capital structure is likely to continue to meet interest payments and repayments on long term borrowing.\n\n**Capital structure** — What proportions of capital originate from each source\n\n\n### Two ways of measuring gearing\n\n- Debt/equity ratio\n- Gearing ratio\n\n### Debt to equity ratio (%)\n\nDebt/Equity * 100 \n\n- Higher is riskier\n- Higher can lead to much more profit, or much more catastrophic failure\n- Lower is safer, but earnings are unlikely to spike\n- The best choice depends on the business\n\n### Gearing ratio (%)\n\nNon-current liabilities / Total equity + non-current liabilities * 100\n\n#### Evaluating\n- If ratio is 50% or above, normally said to be high\n- Gearing of less than 20% normally said to be low\n- But levels of acceptable gearing depend upon the business and industry\n\n---\n\n1) 50%\n2) 20%\n3) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/GovernmentPolicy":{"title":"Government Policy","content":"### New Businesses\n\n- There are many government initiatives to support businesses\n- The UK government supports small businesses by offering New Enterprise Allowances.\n- These aim to:\n\t- encourage more people to consider becoming self-employed as a way to get back into work\n\t- encourage entrepreneurs, employers and retired professionals to consider volunteering as a business mentor\n- NEA is now defunct\n\n### Infrastructure\n\n- The government has a new infrastructure and projects authority they are the centre of expertise for infrastructure and major projects\n- They support the successful delivery of all types of infrastructure and major projects; ranging from railways, schools, hospitals and housing, to defence, IT and major transformation programmes.\n- They work with the government and industry to ensure infrastructure and major projects are delivered efficiently and effectively and to improve performance over time.\n\n### Environment\n\n- The government has a department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)\n- They are the UK government department responsible for safeguarding our natural environment, supporting our world-leading food and farming industry,and sustaining a thriving rural economy.\n- Their broad role means they play a major role in people's day-to-day life, from the food we eat, and the air we breathe, to the water we drink.\n\n#### The Environment Agency\n\n- The environment agency was established under the Environment Act 1995 to act as a regulator to make sure the law is adhered to by businesses.\n\n### International Trade\n\n- Free and fair trade is fundamental to the prosperity of the UK and the world economy.\n- It leads to higher wages and ensures more people can access a wider range of goods and services at a lower cost, making household incomes go further, especially for the poorest in society.\n- The UK's trade with the world is equivalent to over half of the country's GDP\u003e\n\n\n### Impact of government policy\n\n#### On enterprise\n\n- School curriculum boosts interest in business operation\n- Television programmes such as *Dragon's Den* have also encouraged public enthusiasm for running a business\n- Successful enterprise culture with many small or medium businesses (SMEs) is very positive for the UK economy and the government work to encourage that\n\n#### On regulators\n\n- Regulators are appointed by governments\n- Regulators are tasked with monitoring and regulating prices\n- Maintaining high standards of customer service\n- Opening up markets to competitive forces\n\n#### On infrastructure\n\n- Major infrastructure challenges listed by the government:\n\t- Smart Power\n\t- Transport for a World City\n\t- High Speed North\n\t- Connected Future\n\t- Partnering for Prosperity\n\t- Data for the Public Good\n- Infrastructure changes typically require large up-front investment followed by a long period in which these costs are repaid by taxpayers.\n- The National Infrastructure Commission (NIC) was established in 2015 to assess the UK's long-term infrastructure needs and provide advice on how to meet these needs.\n\n#### On international trade\n\n- International trade is vital for the UK's prosperity.\n- The EU used to be the most important international trade party that the UK was a member of, however after leaving the EU, the UK has had to scramble to create new agreements.\n- In 2018, the EU accounted for 46 percent of UK exports and 53 percent of UK imports, so the impact of Brexit was significant and required much reshuffling\n\n### Practice exercise 2\n\n1) An enterprise is a business, started by an entrepreneur with the aims of producing profit\n2) An entrepreneur is “an educated risk taker\", who starts a business by investing their time and money.\n3) Successful entrepreneurs are willing to take risks but also use their own knowledge and understanding to ensure all risks are taken with caution and prior consideration.\n4) Taking risks is vital to developing a business because without taking any risks you cannot --\n\n\n6) Government policy offers subsidies to new enterprises to help them covers their startup costs. This leads to businesses being more likely to succeed, and entrepreneurs to be more likely to make the decision to start a business. Similarly, by providing business advisers for free, entrepreneurs without formal training or skills can consult with somebody to ensure they are making the correct decisions. \n7) Regulators operate in water, industrial manufacturing and telecommunications industries, as well as many others.\n8) Regulators can intervene by fining a company that has violated a regulation, creating a financial incentive for companies to follow regulations. In more extreme cases, regulators can also split companies up into smaller, competing companies to prevent monopolies or duopolies. This ensures markets do not stagnate, and consumer choices are preserved. Some regulators also create artificial competition by imposing tariffs and taxes to give competitors an advantage over a dominant player, forcing actual competition.\n9) Infrastructure refers to the basic resources provided in an area such as water, electricity and internet.\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/ImportanceOfQuality":{"title":"Importance of Quality","content":"\n## Measures of Quality\n\n### Tangible\n\n- reliability\n- functions and features\n- support levels and standards\n- cost of ownership (repairs etc)\n\n### Intangible\n\n- brand image\n- exclusiveness\n- market reputation\n\n## Importance of Quality\n\n- Markets are **highly** competitive\n- Customers are increasingly:\n\t- knowledgable and demanding\n\t- prepared to complain about poor quality\n\t- able to share information about poor quality via the internet\n- If a business can develop a reputation for high quality then it may be able to create an advantage over its competitors.\n\nQuality is every stage, not just the product. It includes:\n\n- the buying process\n- product reliability\n- cost of ownership\n- after-sales service\n\nJust having a high quality product may not be enough. People won't be happy about the product if they have to wait 6 months for delivery, for instance.\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\nQuality Control → Inspecting finished products for any faults and removing them\n\nQuality assurance → Designing a process in such a way that defects do not happen\n\nTotal Quality Management → An approach which recognises the contribution made by everyone in the organisation.\n\nQuality Standards → A system of monitoring achievement in relation to certain targets.\n\n### Not benefits of improving quality\n- better skills for employees\n\n### 3 ways in which better quality may help a business to be more profitable\n\n1) Better reputation means more repeat customers and word of mouth marketing\n2) Higher quality products will likely last longer, meaning that they may provide better value to customers than the competition\n3) People are willing to pay a higher price for a quality product, meaning markups could be increased\n\n### Briefly explain why a business might have an increase in the number of fault goods being returned\n\nIf a fault has occurred somewhere in the production process and has not been picked up by any quality management processes, then they may have batches of products that are faulty and do not meet the expectations of their customers. This may result in many customers being unsatisfied with the product and will likely lead to a spike in returns. \n\nIt is also possible that an external factor to the production process may be causing issues, such as careless handling of the products in logistics, which could cause damage to perfectly fine units and require the business to replace them.\n\n**Other options:** New staff, problems with raw materials, faulty machinery etc\n\n\n---\n\n## Quality and the Law\n\n- Products must meet a minimum standard set out by the law.\n\nThis includes the likes of:\n\n- Satisfactory Quality\n- Fit for purpose\n- As described\n\n\n## Quality Control - detecting faulty output\n\n- The traditional way of managing quality and means a business will be checking and reviewing work that has already been done.\n\nIncludes:\n\n- Inspection\n- Testing\n- Sampling\n\n- Quality control is mainly about \"detecting\" faulty output rather than preventing it\n\n- Quality control can also be a very expensive process as there may be a large number of rejects before a problem is spotted.\n\n---\n\nYou could measure low quality by looking at:\n\n- Customer feedback/reviews\n- Customer surveys\n- Returns\n- Quality checks at the end of production\n- Mystery Shoppers\n\nFor Quality Assurance see the QA doc via search.\n\n## Benefits to improving quality\n\n- If a business improves the quality of their processes ir the products and services offered it may:\n\n - Motivate the employees to be working with better machinery or systems\n - reduce the cost from waste and reworking faulty goods\n - less time wasted sorting customer complaints\n\n## Difficulties of improving quality\n\n- Once a quality assurance system has been implemented it will need to be checked regularly to make sure employees are filling in the paperwork and following new principles.\n- New quality procedures may require an entire company culture shift which will take time.\n- Can be expensive at the start especially if better machinery has been purchased.\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/InternalAnalysisFinancials":{"title":"Financial Ratio Analysis","content":"\n## SWOT analysis\n\n- Strengths\n- Weaknesses\n- Opportunities \n- Threats\n\n\nSW → Internal\nOT → External\n\n## Financial Statements\n\n### Management accounting\n\n- The creation of financial information for use by the internal users within the business in order to predict, plan, review and control the financial performance of the business.\n\n- Management accounting data:\n\t- Revenue, cost and profit objectives\n\t- Decision trees\n\t- Investment data\n\t- Capital structure data and source of finance\n\t- Cash flow forecast and outcomes\n\t- Budget and outcomes\n\t- Break-even charts\n\t- Etc\n\n### Financial accounting\n\n- The provision of financial information to show external users the financial position of the business; it concentrates on historical data.\n\n- Financial accounting data:\n\t- Cash flow statements\n\t- Data on profitability\n\t- Capital structure\n\t- Sources of finance\n\t- Income statements\n\t- Balance sheets\n\n## Income Statements\n\n- Profit and loss accounts\n- Historical record of the income and expenditure over a period of time (typically the preceding year or quarter)\n- Sole trader, private limited company, public limited company\n- Gross profit, gross profit margin, net profit, net profit margin\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20230509100900.png]]\n*Example income statement*\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/InterpretationOfVariances":{"title":"Interpretation of Variances","content":"\n\n- The difference between a budget and the actual result is described as a variance. They can be favourable (in favour of the business) or adverse (not in favour of the business).\n- Variance Analysis is the process of calculating and interpreting these variances.\n- Notes on variances exist in [Budget Research](sixth/Business/Units/nd/BudgetResearch)\n\n### Examples of variances\n\n#### Adverse\n\n- Expenditure higher than budget\n- Income lower than budget\n- Profit lower than budget\n\n\n#### Favourable\n\n- Expenditure lower than budget\n- Income higher than budget\n- Profit higher than budget\n\n### Interpreting Variances\n\n- Once a variance has been identified it is important to:\n\t- Identify the cause of the variance\n\t- Consider the effect of the variance\n\t- If appropriate look for a solution\n\n- Possible causes of variances\n\t- Actions of competitors\n\t- Internal inefficiency \n\t- Action of suppliers\n\t- Changes in the economy\n\t- Internal decision making\n\n- Having identified variances managers now need to respond:\n\t- Change budgets\n\t- Staff training\n\t- Reward Staff\n\t- etc\n\n\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n#### Q1\n\nA budget is a **financial plan** for the future concerning the revenues and costs of a business.\n\nBudgets for sales/revenues and **expenditure** are prepared in advance and then compared with the actual performance to establish any **variances**.\n\n**Managers** are responsible for controllable costs within their budgets and are required to take remedial action if **favourable or adverse** variances arise, and they are considered excessive.\n\nThere are many management uses for budgets. For example, budgets are used to:\n- Control income and expenditure (the **traditional** use)\n- Establish priorities and set **targets** in numerical terms\n- Provide direction and co-ordination, so that business **objectives** can be turned into practical reality.\n- Assign responsibilities to budget holders (managers) and allocate **resources**.\n- Communicate targets from management to **employees**.\n- Monitor **performance**.\n\n#### Q2\n\n1) Variance Analysis\n2) Sales Revenue Budget\n3) Financial Forecast\n4) Adverse Variances\n\n\n#### Q3\n\n1) False\n2) True\n3) True\n\n\n#### Q4\n\nSales discrepancy: £50,000\nExpenditure discrepancy: -£11,000\nProfit budget: £255,000\nActual profit: £294,000\nProfit discrepancy: -£39,000£255,000\nActual profit: £294,000\nProfit discrepancy: £39,000\n\n#### Q5\n\n*Why might a sales revenue budget be higher than forecast?*\n\nA sales revenue budget might be higher than expected if the demand in the market is very changeable. If the market is for a product such as masks, then planners before the covid pandemic would not have been able to predict the sharp increase.\n\nA sales budget is also based on extrapolated data, so changes in the real world may differ greatly from assumptions made by a budget planner.\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/InventoryTurnover":{"title":"Inventory Turnover","content":"\n**Inventory turnover measures how often each year a business sells and replaces its inventory.**\n*Bigger is better.*\n\n\n### Main types of inventory\n\n- Raw Materials \u0026 Components\n- Work in progress\n- Finished goods\n\n### Calculating inventory turnover\n\nInventory Turnover = Cost of Sales / Inventories\n\nSo if cost of sales was £500,000 and inventories was £50,000 then inventory turnover would be 10 (times per year).\n\nCost of sales from income statement\nInventories from balance sheet\n\n### Receivables \n\n\nReceivables (days) = Trade receivables / revenue (sales) x 365\n\n### Payables\n\nPayables (days) = Trade payables / cost of sales x 365\n\n### Evaluating inventory turnover\n\n- Varies between industries\n- Holding more inventory may improve customer service\n- Seasonal fluctuations in demand during the year may not be reflected in the calculations\n- Inventory turnover is not relevant to most service businesses\n\n### How can inventory turnover be increased?\n\n- Sell-off or dispose of slow-moving or obsolete inventory\n- Introduce lean production techniques to reduce amounts of inventory held\n- Rationalise the product range made or sold\n- Negotiate “sale or return” arrangements with suppliers – so inventory can be returned if it does not sell\n\n### Limitations of Ratio Analysis\n\n- One data set is not enough\n- Unknown reliability of data\n\t- Window dressing\n- Based on the past\n- Comparability\n\n### Why might ratio data not be entirely reliable?\n\n- Financial information involves making subjective judgements\n- Different businesses have different accounting policies\n- Potential for manipulation of accounting information (window dressing)\n\n### What ratios don't show\n\n- Competitive advantages (brand strength etc)\n- Quality\n- Ethical reputation\n- Future prospects\n- Changes in the external environment\n\n\n### Ratios Summary\n\n- Very useful analytical tools\n- Widely used and understood\n- Identify issues but don't solve problems\n- Part of a range of indicators of business problems\n\n---\n*Following is work not notes*\n\n### Practice Exercise 11\n\n- Which ratio would be best for:\n1) how effective inventory control is -\u003e Inventory Turnover\n2) whether shareholders are likely to be happy with their share of the profit: ROCE\n3) whether a business is likely to be able to avoid a liquidity problem in the short term if it can convert all of its liquid assets into cash: Current Ratio\n4) how effective a business is in turning its raw materials or finished products into products with higher value: Gross Profit Margin\n5) whether a business is likely to experience a liquidity problem in the long term: Gearing\n6) how successful the business is in using its capital to generate profit: ROCE\n7) how quickly a business is receiving money from customers who buy its good on credit: Receivables days\n8) whether a business is successful in generating profit from its usual business activities, in comparison to the sales revenue that it receives: Operating Profit Margin\n9) whether suppliers are providing the business with good credit terms: Gearing\n10) how vulnerable the business might be if there is a dramatic increase in interest rates: Gearing\n\n\n### Practice Exercise 12\n\n*Planned responses only.*\n\n1) Explain two factors that may cause the information used in a firm's ratio analysis to be unreliable.\n \n Window dressing is capable of masking the true financial situation of the business, so if used correctly a firm may be able to appear as though it is in a better situation than it actually is.\n \n Financial reports are also historical, which means they only reflect what the situation of the business *was*, not what it is currently. This makes them ineffective at identifying any short term trends or changes in the business.\n\n2) State two types of comparison used in ratio analysis\n \n - Direct comparisons of ratios – works within an industry\n - Historical comparisons – look at trends between companies\n\n3) Explain three reasons why comparisons of ratios may provide misleading results.\n \n - It is possible to manipulate figures by using ratios that place a business in a more favourable light (window dressing)\n\t - The business may choose to try and show their best side in financial reports to increase the chance of people investing in the business and to protect themselves from fear amongst shareholders. \n- Not all ratios are always relevant to all situations\n\t- It makes sense for specific businesses and industries to use certain formulae, however for other businesses that formulae may not provide any valuable insight into the state of the business.\n- Data may contain inaccuracies or be interpreted wrong\n\t- It is possible that a figure was written down wrong or a formula was followed improperly, leading to untrue statistics being used in a financial report. Whilst this is unlikely as these reports should be checked, it is still definitely a possibility. \n\n4) Identify two external factors that can affect company performance. Using a particular ratio, show how it might be affected by the two external factors that you have identified.\n \n - Inflation\n - A change in foreign policy (tariffs/customs)\n \n - Inventory turnover may reduce if there are frequent delays at customs\n - If inflation rose, then people might have to ration their usage of your products\n\n5) Analyse how changes in a car manufacturer's corporate objectives might influence the ways in which a car manufacturer uses ratio analysis.\n \n \n If a corporate objective goes from being breaking even to maximising profit, then switching from current ratio to receivable days might have a positive impact on the business.\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/InvestmentAppraisal":{"title":"Investment Appraisal","content":"**The process of analysing whether investment projects are worthwhile.**\n\n### Annual Average Rate of Return (ARR)\n\n- The annual percentage return on an investment project based on average returns earned by the project\n\n#### Calculating and interpreting ARR\n\n- Calculate the **average** annual **profit** from the investment project\n- Divide the average annual profit by the initial investment outlay\n- Compare with the target percentage return\n\n\n### Discounted Cash Flow (NPV)\n\n**Net present value (NPV) calculates the monetary value now of a project's future cash flows.**\n\n- Discounting is the method used to reduce the future value of cash flows to reflect the risk of inflation or the investment not working out.\n\n#### The Time Value of Money\n\n- Better to receive cash now than in the future\n- Future cash flows are worth less\n- Use discount factors to bring cash flows back to their present value\n- Relevant discount factor determined by required rate of return\n\n#### Calculating the present value of a future cashflow\n\n\u003e [!note] Formula\n\u003e\n\u003e Cash Flow x Discount Factor = Present Value \n\nIf NPV is positive, then the investment is worth doing.\nIf NPV is negative, then the investment is not worth doing.\n\nIf you have a choice between two positive NPV projects, then you want the one with the highest NPV.\n\n### Payback Period\n\n- Identify the net cash flows for each period (eg, a year)\n- Keep a running total of the cash flows\n\t- Initial investment is an outflow\n\t- When does the running total move from negative to positive (outflows)\n\t- When the total net cash flow becomes positive, that is the end of the payback period.\n\n\n| Year | Cash Flow Detail | Cash flow £ | Cumulative Cash Flow | Payback? |\n|------|-----------------------|-------------|----------------------|----------|\n| 0 | Investment (cash out) | (500,000) | (500,000) | No |\n| 1 | Net Cash Inflows | 100,000 | (400,000) | No |\n| 2 | Net Cash Inflows | 150,000 | (250,000) | No |\n| 3 | Net Cash Inflows | 175,000 | (75,000) | No |\n| 4 | Net Cash Inflows | 150,000 | 75,000 | Yes |\n\nIn this case, there is an overshoot. It took 3 and a bit years to reach payback. We can tell because there is more than 0 at the end of year 4. \n\n\u003e [!note] Formula\n\u003e\n\u003e Payback Period = Initial Investment / Annual Cash Flow\n\n#### Benefits of payback period\n\n- Simple and easy to calculate\n- Focus on cashflows\n- Easy to understand the results\n- Emphasises speed of return; good for fast moving markets\n- Straightforward to compare competing products \n\n#### Drawbacks of payback period\n\n- Ignores cash flows after payback has been reached\n- Takes no account of the \"time value of money\"\n- May encourage short-term thinking\n- Ignores qualitative aspects\n- Does not actually create a decision for the investment.\n\n### Calculating and Interpreting ARR\n\n- Calculate the total net inflow from the project\n- Deduct the outlay (initial investment) to get the annual profit\n- Divide the total annual profit by the total number of years to get the average annual profit\n- Divide the average annual profit by the initial investment (“outlay”)\n- Compare with the target percentage return\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/Labour":{"title":"Labour","content":"\n**Labour Intensive**\n- Food processing\n- Hotels and restaurants\n- Fruit farming\n- Hairdressing\n- Coal mining\nLabour costs are higher than capital costs\nCosts are mainly variable = lower breakeven output\nFirms benefit from access to source of low-cost labour\n\n**Capital intensive**\n- Oil extraction and refining \n- Car manufacturing\n- Web hosting\n- Intensive arable farming\n- Transport infrastructure\nCapital costs are higher than labour costs\nCosts are mainly fixed = higher breakeven output\n\n\n## Capital Intensity\n\n### Benefits\n- Greater opportunities for economies of scale\n- Potential for significantly better productivity\n- Better quality \u0026 speed (depending on product)\n- Low labour costs\n\n### Drawbacks\n- Significant investment\n- Potential for loss competitiveness due to obsolescence\n- May generate resistance to change from labour force\n\n\n**Luddite:** A term used for workers afraid that technology and automation will take their jobs.\n\n## Labour Intensity\n\n### Benefits\n- Unit costs may still be low in low-wage locations\n- Labour is a flexible resource—through multi-skilling and training\n- Labour at the heart of the production process—can help continuous improvement\n\n### Drawbacks\n- Greater risk of problems with employee/employer relationship\n- Potentially high costs of labour turnover\n- Need for continuous investment in training\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeadershipOrManagement":{"title":"Leadership or Management?","content":"\n**Leaders**: Inspire people, build relationships, take risks and have followers.\n\n**Managers**: Enact the plan, use their authority, manage risks, have subordinates\n\nBoth are closely linked and one person may have to do both roles.\n\n\u003e Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things - **Peter Drucker**\n\n## Traditional Levels of Management\n\n**Senior Management:** \n- Board of Directors\n- Set corporate objectives and strategic direction\n- Board is responsible for shareholders; led by the CEO\n\n**Middle Management:**\n- Accountable to senior management\n- Run business functions and departments\n\n**Junior Management:**\n- Supervisory role, accountable to middle management\n- Monitor and control day-to-day tasks, and manage teams of workers\n\n### Moving away from Autocratic Styles\n\nWhy is this happening?\n\n- Changes in society's values\n- Better educated workforce\n- Focus on need for soft HR skills\n- Changing workplace organisation\n- Greater workplace legislation\n- Pressure for greater employee involvement\n\n## Blake Mouton Managerial Grid\n\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20220913095215.png]]\n\nThe \"*Blake Mouton Managerial Grid*\" shows how management styles differ between the balance between a concern for people and concern for results.\n\nProduce or Perish Management is also called Task Management.\n\n### Impoverished Management\n\nLaissez-faire style; minimal effort on management; looking to avoid blame for errors. \n\nLow concern for people and task\n\n### Country Club Management\nFocus on creating safe, comfortable working environment with minimal conflict.\n\nHigh concern for people, low concern for task\n\n### Task Management\nAutocratic style, consistent with McGregor Theory X. Workers have to complete tasks - nothing else.\n\nLow concern for people, high concern for task.\n\n### Team Management\nStaff closely involved in decision-making and feel valued; consistent with McGregor Theory Y.\n\nHigh concern for both people and task.\n\n### Middle of the Road Management\nCompromises made to achieve acceptable performance; thought to be the less effective leadership style.\n\nMedium concern for people and task.\n\n---\n\nGood decisions should be made with consideration towards [stakeholders](sixth/Business/Units/nd/Stakeholders.md).\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeadershipStyles":{"title":"Management and Leadership Styles","content":"\n**Authoritarian:** Absolute power to the boss, gives orders, does not delegate responsibility. Frequently used in highly regulated industries, low skilled jobs and areas where there is no time for debate (military, emergency services etc).\n\n**Paternalistic:** Guides and helps subordinates and acts as a fatherly/motherly figure for people. Tends to see staff as part of the family - lots of staff like this management style. Higher staff loyalty is genuinely a result of this. Businesses that are smaller and where the employees have a very close link with their manager frequently employ this management style.\n\n**Democratic:** Delegates most decision making to the group and doesn't directly order people to do much. Everything is fairly open and negotiable. Staff are typically highly skilled in jobs where this leadership style is employed.\n\n**Laissez-faire:** Very little care is taken, employees are told what to do and left to get on with it. Staff have to be very trusted and should know what they're doing for this to work.\n\nLeadership styles are important and should be considered by [new businesses](sixth/Business/Units/fh/WhatIsAStartUp.md)\n\nThis is developed upon in [Management and Leadership](sixth/Business/Units/nd/ManagementAndLeadership.md)\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeanManagement":{"title":"Lean Management","content":"\n## Time based management\n\n- Looks to reduce wasted time\n- Faster development of new products\n- Reduced lead times\n\nRequires flexible, multi-skilled staff and the ability to change production at short notice. \n\nTime-based management focuses on optimising the usage of time to the greatest extent possible. \n\n### Simultaneous Engineering\n- An element of time-based management, simultaneous engineering is a project management methodology. Instead of moving through the project in a linear way, all stages are handled simultaneously.\n- Suppliers will be involved in the process as well, meaning that the final product can be produced much faster—and the time to market can be greatly reduced.\n\n## JIT (Just in Time) production\n- Products are produced on demand rather than in advance. \n- This process is much more vulnerable to supply chain disruptions.\n- Costs are reduced, because less storage space and management of inventory is required.\n- Lead times can be reduced, as products are not being produced in large batches or way in advance, so people could order products and have them in days rather than weeks or months.\n\n## Cell Production\n\n- A typical flow production line is split into many units (or cells). Each cell is responsible for one element of the finished product\n- Cells tend to be isolated away from the main company—potentially being able to manage hiring and holidays internally.\n- Cells interact with other cells as customers, meaning quality is ensured within the production line.\n\n**KAIZEN** =\u003e Continually removing waste from your system\n\n## KAIZEN\nKAIZEN is to continuously improve\n\n### Kaizen morning routine\n- 7.30 - alarm\n- 7.35 - get woken up by dad\n- 7.45 - get woken up by dad\n- 7.55 - get pulled out of bed by dad\n- 8.00 - contemplate life\n- 8.05 - breakfast\n- 8.10 - get changed\n- 8.15 - brush teeth\n- 8.17 - standby mode\n- 8.45 - leave for school\n\n- Optimisations\n\t- ignore dad until shaken out of bed\n\t- wake up later to avoid standby mode\n\n### 7 deadly wastes\n\n- Over-production\n- Waiting time\n- Transportation time\n- Extra processing\n- Excess motion\n- Excess inventory\n- Quality\n\n---\n\nProductivity = output per input\n\nEfficiency = output for all inputs\n\nFirms with a **higher** output per employee are more efficient, but they tend to gain a competitive advantage.\n\nQuality of inputs in the production process can stop the line and lose the company money whilst out of action.\nHaving the right number of staff at peak times will increase productivity overall, because stretched employees are demotivated by being overloaded.\nInvestment in new technology; robots can work 24/7 without rest breaks and so will increase productivity levels dramatically.\n\n## How to increase productivity and labour productivity\n\n**Some** of the ways in which you can increase labour productivity are:\n\n- productivity bonuses\n- productivity deal (for whole workforce)\n- staff training\n- investment in new machinery and equipment\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeanProduction":{"title":"Lean Production","content":"\n**An approach to management that focuses on cutting out waste, whilst ensuring quality. This approach can be applied to all aspects of a business—from design, through production to distribution.**\n\n## In a Nutshell\n*Not quite Kurzegasgt though*\n\n- Doing the simple things well\n- Doing things better\n- Involving employees in the continuous process of improvement\n- ...and as a result, avoiding waste and therefore reducing costs\n\n\n## Effective lean management\n\n### Requirements to be effective\n- Good relations with suppliers\n- Committed, skilled and motivated employees\n- A culture of quality assurance; continuous improvement \u0026 willingness to embrace change\n- Trust between management and employees\n\n### Various methods of lean production\n- Time based management\n- Simultaneous engineering\n- Just in time production (JIT)\n- Cell production\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/M2P5JosieNotes":{"title":"M2P5 Josie Notes","content":"\n## Labour VS Capital Intensity\n\nLabour intensity – product relies on using labour resources\nCapacity intensity – product relies on using capacity resources\n\n# Benefits of Labour Intensity\n- unit costs may still be low in low-wage locations\n- labour is a flexible resource-through multi-skilling and training\n- labour at the heart of the production process – can help continuous improvement\n\n# Drawbacks of Labour Intensity\n- greater risk of problems with employee/employer relationship \n- potentially high costs of labour turnover (recruitment etc)\n- need for continuous investment in training\n\n# Textbook Exercise\n\n1)\tA\n2)\tB\n3)\tD\n4)\tA\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/ManagementAndLeadership":{"title":"Management and Leadership","content":"\n**Leadership**: A relationship through which one person influences the behaviour and actions of other people.\n\n## Leadership Skills\n\n- Confidence (Laissez-faire)\n- Perserverance \n- Decisive\n- Caring (Paternalistic)\n- Discipline (Authoirtarian)\n- Intelligence (EQ/IQ)\n- And many others\n\nDifferent kinds of leader [(leadership styles)](sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeadershipStyles.md) will show different leadership skills to complement their style.\n\nThe traditional view of good leadership (Victorian) is that you will take *Command and Control* and be good at *Decision-making*. However, the more modern view is that a leader will:\n\n- inspire employees\n- create a vision\n- shape core values and culture\n- build effective teams\n\n\n## Tannenbaum and Schmidt\n\nA \"continuum of leadership\" that goes from complete authoritarianism to laissez-faire. \n\nAs you move along the continuum, it moves from the manager telling staff what to do to, them selling the idea and then the next section is consulting. When a manager asks employees about a decision for advice. The final stage is join - where the group makes a decision.\n\nThe extremes of the spectrum are Manager-centered leadership and subordinate centered leadership.\n\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20220912151118.png]]\n*Tell, sell, consult, joins*\n\n**Tells**: Leader identifies problems, makes decisions and announces to subordinates.\n\n**Sells**: Leader still makes decision, but attempts to overcome resistance through discussion and persuasion.\n\n**Consults**: Leader identifies problems and presents them to the group and listens to advice before making a final decision.\n\n**Joins**: Leader defines problems and leaves the staff to decide on a solution.\n\nTo compare, see [Leadership or Management](sixth/Business/Units/nd/LeadershipOrManagement.md)\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/MethodsForImprovingCashflow":{"title":"Methods for improving cashflow","content":"\n### Warmup\n\na) 360 ✓\nb) 540 ✓\nc) 720 ✓\nd) 960 ✓\ne) 960 ✓\nf) -(500) ✓\ng) 1120 ✓\nh) 1120 ✓\ni) -(420) ✓ \nj) 700 ✓\nk) 700 ✓\nl) -(240) ✓\nm) 460 ✓\n\na) 1200 ✓\nb) 1100 ✓\nc) 2600 ✓\nd) 600 ✓\ne) 1600 ✓\nf) 2600 ✓\ng) 4200 ✓\n\n## Cash flow problems\n\n- When a business does not have enough cash to pay its liabilities\n\n### Common issues\n\n- Sales prove lower than expected\n\t- Easy to be over-optimistic about sales potential\n\t- Market research may have had gaps\n- Customers do not pay up on time\n\t- A notorious problem for businesses, particularly small ones\n- Costs prove higher than expected\n\t- Perhaps because purchase prices turn out higher\n\t- Maybe also because the business is inefficient\n- Imprudent cost assumptions\n\t- A common problem for a start-up\n\t- Unexpected costs always arise - often significant\n\n### Causes of cash flow problems\n\n- Too much capacity\n\t- Spending too much on fixed assets\n\t- Very low liquidity on fixed assets\n\t- Worse if short term finance is used\n- Excess inventories held\n\t- Excess stocks tie cash up\n\t- Increased risk that stocks become obsolete\n- Allowing customers too much credit and too long to pay\n\t- \"Trade debtors\"\n\t- Offer credit = grow sales\n\t- Late payment is a common problem\n\t- Worse still, debt may go bad\n- Overtrading - growing business too fast\n\t- Where a business expands too quickly, putting pressure on short-term finance\n\t- Classic example - retail chains\n\t\t- Keen to open new outlets\n\t\t- Have to pay lots in advance\n- Unexpected changes in the business\n- Seasonal demand\n\n### Terminologies\n\nSuppliers:\n- are creditors - you owe them\n- payables\n\nCustomers:\n- are debtors - they owe you\n- receiveables\n\nTo optimise cash flow, a business will look to speed up payments from customers and slow down payments to suppliers.\n\n\n### Managing cash flow problems\n\n- Choose the right source of finance\n- Make and action reliable cash flow forecasting\n- Manage working capital effectively\n\n\nReceivables - Amounts owed by customers\nPayables - amounts owed to suppliers\nInventories - Cash tied up in raw materials, work in progress and finished goods\n\n### Managing amounts owed by customers\n\n- Credit control\n\t- Policies on how much credit to give and repayment terms and conditions\n\t- Measures to control doubtful debtors\n\t- Credit checking\n- Selling off debts to debt factors\n- Cash discounts for prompt payment\n- Improved record keeping - eg accurate and timely invoicing\n\n### Debt factoring\n\n- The selling of debtors (money owned to the business) to a third party\n- This generates cash\n- It guarantees the firm a percentage of the money owed to it\n- But it will reduce income and profit margin made on sales\n- Cost involved in factoring can be high\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/OrganicFVBuis":{"title":"Organic Fruit and Veg Business","content":"\n## Organic Fruit and Veg Business ##\n\n*calculate the marginal cost of producing one box of vegetables*\n- 9/2 = 4.5 (one box)\n4.5+4 = $8.50 (actual cost of the vegetables)\n\n*state the formula for break-even in boxes (units)*\n- fixed costs/contribution per unit\n\n*calculate the break-even point in boxes (units)*\n- $4,500+$10,500+$2,00 = $17,000 (fixed costs)\n- $12 - $8.50 = $3.50 (contribution)\n- 17000/3.50 = 4857 boxes (breakeven point)\n\n## Sibon plc Manufacturers ##\n\n*contribution per unit sold*\n- 4 units\n*break-even in units*\n- 2250 units\n\n## 3 things that you could do to reduce the break even output ##\n\n1. LOWER FIXED COSTS (rent/hire machinery instead of buy)\n2. REDUCE VARIABLE COSTS (increases contribution/unit, however may cause lower quality)\n3. INCREASE SELLING PRICE (increases contribution/unit, however demand may decrease)\n\nEFFECTS ON BREAK-EVEN\n- higher selling price = higher contribution/unit = lower breakeven output\n- lower selling price = lower contribution/unit = higher breakeven output\n- higher variable cost/unit = lower contribution/unit = higher breakeven output\n- lower variable cost/unit = higher contribution/unit = lower breakeven output\n- increase in fixed costs = no change to contribution/unit = higher breakeven output\n- decrease in fixed costs = no change to contribution/unit = lower breakeven output\n\n## strengths of breakeven analysis ##\n\n- focuses on what output is required before a business reaches profitability\n- helps management and finance-providers better understand the viability and risk of a business or business idea\n- margin of safety calculation shows how much a sales forecast can prove over-optimistic before losses are incurred\n- illustrates the importance of keping fixed costs down to a minimum\n- calculations are quick and easy\n\n## limitations of breakeven analysis ##\n- unrealistic asumptions - products are not sold at the same price at different levels of output; fixed costs do vary when output changes\n- sales are unlikely to be the same as output - there may be some build up of stocks or wasted output too\n- variable costs do not always stay the same. for example as ouput rises the busienss may benefit from being able to buy inputs at lowers prices (buying power)\n- most businesses sell more than one product\n- a planning aid rather than a decision-making tool\n\n## plenary ##\nprofit = contribution - fixed costs\ntherefore profit + fixed costs = contribution\nand contribution - profit = fixed costs\n\ncontribution = £15900\nprofit = 22500 - £20650 = £1850\nFIXED COSTS = £15900 - £1850 = £14050\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/PESTLE":{"title":"PESTLE","content":"**P**olitical\n\n**E**conomic\n\n**S**ocial\n\n**T**echnological\n\n**L**egal\n\n**E**nvironmental\n\n## Political/Legal\n\n- A rule of regulation that is legally enforced upon a business can be referred to as a regulation.\n\n### Main roles of business legislation\n\n- Regulate the rights and duties of people carrying out business\n- Protect customers from harmful business activities\n- Ensure employees are treated fairly\n- Provide protection to investors and creditors\n- Deter and prevent unfair competition\n\n### Labour Market\n\n#### Employment Rights\n\n1) National Living Wage for 23 and over: £10.42/h. At 25, you become eligible for the National Living Wage instead of the National Minimum Wage.\n2) The Equality Act of 2010's main areas are: (protection from discrimination based on): sexual orientation, age, disability, non-equal pay, race.\n3) The employment Act of 2008 aimed to reform existing laws and protect the rights of workers by more strictly enforcing basic rights such as minimum wage.\n4) The Small Business, Enterprise and Employment Bill 2015 pushes additional liabilities onto company directors as well as ensuring that public sector procurement is effective and efficient. (Makes it easier for smaller business to receive public sector contracts)\n\n\n### Pay - Right to Equality\n\nRegardless of gender, age, religion or any protected characteristic, people are entitled to equal pay for work of equal value.\n\n## Industrial Relations\n\n- Protection from unfair dismissal\n- Employers must recognise union is \u003e50% of staff \n- Regulation of procedures for industrial action\n- Role/powers of Employment Tribunal\n- EU—Works Councils requirements\n\n## Task\n\n1) Explain the general purpose of legislation from the point of view of a business.\n- To protect workers and consumers from unfair or unsafe practices\n- To ensure that business is conducted properly and honestly\n- To prevent exploitative or anti-competitive practices\n- Stop mergers that could give a single business a dominant market position\n\n2) Explain two advantages of business legislation in relation to competition.\n\n- Monopolies can be reduced and broken up\n\t- A monopoly would allow a single business to completely dominate a market, exploiting the consumers by charging any price they want and not having to innovate. Competition regulation tries to prevent the creation of monopolies through large mergers and through a single business rising to dominate the market. Businesses can have mergers blocked and in extreme cases can be broken into smaller competing businesses by a regulator. \n\n- Anti-competitive agreements can be blocked or removed\n\t- When large companies in a market agree to conditions to not directly compete with each other, it creates an oligopoly. This is extremely damaging to the competition in the market and the choice of consumers, so regulators will take action to break these agreements up.\n\n3) Using an example, explain how legislation related to the labour market might affect strategic or functional decision-making in a business.\n\n- The Small Business, Enterprise and Employment Act reinforces basic employee rights such as minimum wage. This means that businesses are required to pay employees over 25 a national living wage at minimum, leading to increased costs in the business.\n- The business **has** to comply with these regulations, which may force them to cut costs elsewhere. It could also require them to pay even more than the minimum in order to compete and attract a stronger, more motivated workforce.\n\n4) Explain two advantages to a business of legislation related to the labour market.\n\n- Employee happiness will be higher as they know they are entitled to certain rights, meaning that they don't need to worry as much about mistreatment.\n\t- This will lead to higher productivity and will make the business's job of managing employees easier in the long run, because legislature defines how \n\n### Competition\n\n#### Aims of competition policy\n\n- Promote competition\n- Make markets work better\n- Improved efficiency\n- Ensures\n\t- Technological innovation which promotes dynamic efficiency in different markets\n\t- Effective price competition between suppliers\n\t- Safeguard and promote the interests of consumers through increased choice and lower price levels.\n\n#### Main elements of competition policy\n\n- Anti-trust \u0026 cartels\n\t- Elimination of agreements that restrict competition including price-fixing by firms who hold a dominant market position\n- Market liberalisation\n\t- Introducing competition in previously monopolistic sectors such as energy supply, retail banking, postal services, mobile and telecommunications and air transport\n- State aid control\n\t- Policy analyses state aid measures such as airline subsidies to ensure that such measures do not distort competition in the Single Market\n- Merger control\n\t- Investigation of mergers and take-overs between firms which could result in them dominating the market\n\n#### Regulatory Authorities\n\n- In the UK, there is the CMA (Competition and Markets Authority) who have enormous powers to force companies to cancel deals, sell parts of themselves and is tasked with moderating the UK market, keeping it competitive.\n- Most countries and blocs (such as the EU) have their own regulators.\n\n- Other regulators in the UK\n\t- OfWat - Water regulation\n\t- Ofcom - Telecoms \u0026 Broadcasting\n\t- FCA - Financial Services\n\t- ORR - Rail Regulator\n\t- OfGem - General Energy Markets\n\t- \u0026 many others\n\n#### What regulators actually do\n\n- Monitor and regulate prices\n- Standards of customer service\n- Open up markets\n- The “Surrogate Competitor” – Introduce artificial competition\n\n#### Price Fixing \n\n- Businesses may not:\n\t- Agree prices with competitors\n\t- Share markets or limit production to raise prices\n\t- Impose minimum prices on different distributors such as shops\n\t- Agree with competitors what purchase price will be offered to suppliers\n\t- Cut prices below cost in order to force a smaller or weaker competitor out of the market\n\n#### Dominant Position\n\n- A market share of 50% or above indicates that you are dominant\n- Oligopolies behave similarly, however there must be few companies with high market share\n\n#### Abuses of a dominant position\n\nWhilst in a dominant position, you may not:\n\n- Impose unfair trading terms such as exclusivity\n- Excessive, predatory or discriminatory pricing\n- Refusal to supply or provide access to essential facilities\n- Tying \n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/PoliticalAndLegalEssay":{"title":"Political And Legal Essay and Worksheet","content":"\n### To what extent do you think Government investment in infrastructure will impact the strategic and functional decision-making in the UK? Explain your reason.\n\nA lot of modern infrastructure, such as internet services, provide a lot of opportunities for businesses. If the government increases investment in fibre delivery, then businesses will be able to more easily migrate to an internet centred business. Whether this is in terms of closing an office and switching to online work, or whether it means conducting business with clients digitally. If you want to have a meeting with someone on the other side of the UK, then instead of one party having to travel and spend a long period of time being unproductive, a simple web-based meeting could be setup to allow both parties to discuss from their own locations. With higher investment in the internet, this becomes much more achievable.\n\nHowever, far more important is traditional infrastructure like roads. Take a company like Tesco for example, they offer a home delivery service to customers to make it much easier to shop with them. However, in order for them to effectively offer this service, they rely heavily upon roads. If roads are poor, then their delivery vehicles will be forced to move slower and will be more likely to sustain damage. Therefore, Tesco will not offer this service in areas where roads are of poor quality. If the local authority or wider government takes action to improve road quality, then Tesco is likely to start offering home delivery in the area. Not only will this provide an additional service to residents, but it will also provide jobs and additional income generation to the area. Because of this, we can assume that an increase in infrastructure quality in an area will result in an increase in quality of life for residents and an increase in local GDP. \n\nForeign businesses are also more likely to decide to bring their future ventures to the UK if there is a more reliable, modern, and stable infrastructure situation across the country. So investing in infrastructure now may lead to more industry entering the country in future. This, in turn, will provide jobs and value to the economy, whilst also generating additional tax revenues for the government which will repay the costs of infrastructure development and then fund future projects and expenditures.\n\nIt may not always be the best option to invest heavily in infrastructure, however. More remote areas of the UK such as the Scottish highlands are not well suited to industry and are also extremely sparsely populated. This means that any major infrastructure improvements here won't have much benefit at all. Whilst there are people living there, and they would appreciate the change, there are no major business functions that would provide real benefit to the country as a whole.\n\nFunctional decision makers will want to operate near good infrastructure, whilst strategic decision makers may be more inclined to begin operation near upcoming infrastructure improvements in an attempt to reduce initial costs. \n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","homework"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/Revision":{"title":"Leadership And Management Revision","content":"\nWork on Anki.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/SensitivityAnalysis":{"title":"Sensitivity Analysis","content":"\n**Sensitivity analysis is a technique which allows the analysis of changes in assumptions used in forecasts.**\n\n### Assumptions\n\n**Cash flow forecast:** Timing and amounts\n**Budgeted profit:** Sales volumes and unit selling prices\n**Investment appraisal:** Timing and amount of project cash flows over a period\nEtcetera\n\n- What if assumptions are worse by 10%?\n\n### Benefits and Drawbacks\n\n#### Benefits\n\n- Identifies the most significant assumptions\n- Helps assess risk and prepare for a less favourable scenario\n- Helps make the process of business forecasting more robust\n\n#### Drawbacks\n\n- Only tests one assumption at a time (many assumptions may be linked)\n- Only as good as the data on which forecasts are based\n- A somewhat complicated concept—not understood by all managers\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/SettingOperationalObjectives":{"title":"Setting Operational Objectives","content":"\nOperations is the core of the business. It is the fulfilment of the purpose of the business.\n\nIn operations inputs, such as raw materials go through a transformation process to convert them into the output—the output being the final product or the finished service.\n\nOperations is the transformation process.\n\nExamples of operational objectives:\n\n- Cost/Volume\n- Quality\n- Efficiency \u0026 Flexibility\n- Environmental\n\n## Internal and External Influences\n\n### Internal\n- Corporate objectives\n- Finance \n- HR\n- Availability of resources\n- Nature of the product\n\n### External\n- Market factors\n- Competitor actions\n- Technological change\n- Economic factors (interest rates etc)\n- Political factors\n- Legal factors\n- Environmental factors\n- Suppliers\n\n\n**The capacity of a business is a measure of how much output it can achieve in a given period.**\n\n\nCapacity is a dynamic concept, which may change based on certain factors. For example if a machine breaks it may reduce the production capacity until it is fixed.\n\n\nCapacity utilisation is **the proportion of a business' capacity that is actually being used over a specific period.\n\nCapacity utilisation can be calculated using the formula:\n\n#### Actual level of output / Maximum possible output x 100\n\n### Worked Example\n\nActual output = 127500 units\nPotential Output (Capacity) = 150000 units\nCapacity Utilisation = 127500/150000 = 85%\n\nSo 15% of the capacity is unused, meaning that the business is not as efficient as possible here. If demand has reduced, reducing capacity may save costs, however if people are being less productive, workers may need additional motivation.\n\n## Why does capacity utilisation matter?\n\n- It is a useful measure of productive efficency since it measures whether there are idle resources in the business\n- Average production costs tend to fall as output rises - so higher utilisation can reduce unit costs, making a business more competitive\n- Businesses usually aim to produce as close to full capacity as possible in order to minimise unit costs. Many focus on 95% to give room for handling of issues.\n- A high level of capacity utilisation is required is a business has a high break-even output due to significant fixed costs of production.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/SocialChanges":{"title":"Social changes","content":"### Migration\n\n- Movement of people between countries or regions\n- Immigration – movement of people into the country\n- 1/7 of people are migrants\n### Urbanisation\n\n- Movement of people from rural areas to urban areas (towns and cities)\n- Degree of urbanisation: the percentage of the population living in urban areas\n\n\n### Key Business Implications of Demographic Change\n\n- Rising population will increase demand for goods and services\n- Impact on per capita income\n- Rapid growth in urbanisation in emerging economies is linked with growth of a more affluent middle class\n- Impact of net inward migration on public services—pressure on government spending\n- Ageing population will provide increasing opportunities for businesses targeting older consumers\n- However these changes occur slowly\n- Ageing population has implications for labour supply - how will businesses source their workforce requirements\n\n#### Business Responses to Demographic Change\n\n- Close stores, open smaller\n- Pricing decisions\n- Establishing alliances\n- New product development—throw away society, leisure, holidays\n- New market development—cooking boxes\n- Use of social media and online business 24/7 society\n\n### Qs\n\n#### Identify and explain two examples of how social change in relation to urbanisation and migration might affect business in the UK or globally.\n\n- Increasing urbanisation would increase the size of cities. Bigger cities means that it makes more sense for businesses to deploy more stores in urban areas, whilst closing more remote locations as there popularity would decrease\n- If people are migrating to a country, they may not be adept at communicating in English which could put strain on businesses trying to hire them. Therefore, it might make sense for businesses to either offer to fund English lessons for these people, or provide accommodations for people who do not wish to use English. If the business does this, they can likely increase productivity.\n\n#### Identify and explain three examples of how changes in consumer lifestyles and buying behaviour might affect business in the UK.\n\n- If a country becomes more urbanised, then people will likely reach more affluent lifestyles. This will increase the demand for luxury products and decrease the demand for budget ones. This change could threaten pound stores, possibly encouraging them to offer some higher end items, whilst it will also likely boost more premium stores, especially those selling commodities. \n- As the internet becomes an increasingly popular as a place to shop, consumers will become less likely to make purchases in stores and more likely to prefer online purchases. This will incentivize businesses to provide online shopping options, and possibly even close stores. \n- In an ageing population, the demand for certain products like skateboards will likely decline. Because of this, businesses that sell products targeted at youths will likely need to diversify their offerings to provide value to older members of society, or they will need to outcompete other players in the market to hold their revenue.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/SourcesOfFinance":{"title":"Sources of Finance","content":"\n## Potential Sources\n\n### Long-term\n\n- Finances the whole business over many years\n\n- Share capital\n- Retained profits\n- Venture capital\n- Mortgages\n- Long-term bank loans\n\n\n### Medium-term\n\n- Finances major projects or assets with a long life\n\n- Bank loans\n- Leasing\n- Hire purchase\n- Government grants\n\n### Short-term\n\n- Finance day to day trading of the business\n\n- Bank overdraft\n- Trade creditors\n- Short-term bank loans\n- Factoring\n\n\n## Types of sources \n\n\n### Internal\n\n- Founder finance\n- Retained profits\n- Friends and family\n\n#### Founder Finance\n\n- Cash and investments\n- Redundancy payments\n- Inheritances\n- Personal credit cards\n- Re-mortgaging\n- Putting time into the business for free\n\n#### Importance of personal sources to startups\n\n- Cheap (comparatively)\n- Entrepreneur keeps more control over the business\n- The more the founder puts in, the more others will invest\n- Little red tape or delay\n- Skin in the game\n\n### External sources\n\n- Bank loan\n- Bank overdraft\n- Business angels\n- Loans and grants\n\n\n## Internal Sources—Detail\n\n### Retained Profits\n\n- An internal source of long-term finance\n- A good indicator of the firm's success\n- Allows surplus profit to be used for future activities\n- If used properly, can cause share prices to rise, appeasing shareholders\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Cheap\n\t- No security required\n\t- Independent and confidential\n\t- Shareholder goodwill\n\t- Management of dividend payments\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Impact on dividends to shareholders\n\t- Misuse of funds\n\t- Possibility of overcapitalisation and ineffective use of funds\n\t- Opportunity cost\n\n\n### Ordinary Share Capital\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Limited liability encourages shareholders to invest\n\t- It is not necessary to pay a dividend\n\t- Bringing new shareholders into a small business can add further expertise\n\t- Increasing ordinary share capital can make it easier to borrow more funds from the bank\n\t- Ordinary share capital is permanent\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Possible high dividend payments\n\t- Conflict of objectives\n\t- Loss of control of original owners\n\n\n### Asset Disposal \n\n- Selling an asset that is not vital to the core business to raise capital quickly\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Quickly reduce the responsibility of the business\n\t- Quickly gain working capital\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Sacrifices part of the business\n\t- May reduce ability to compete in future\n\t- May reduce the size of your portfolio\n\n### Working Capital\n\n- Money that already exists within the business\n\n- Advantages\n\t- The money is already available \n\t- No agreements or repayments needed\n\t- Quick\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Requires the cash to already exist within the business\n\t- Isn't guaranteed\n\n\n\n\n\n## External Sources—Detail\n\n### Bank overdraft\n\n- Widely used and flexible\n- Useful for businesses with seasonal sales \n- Rate of interest is always variable\n- Security typically not required\n- Banks can demand immediate repayment, but this is rare\n- Overdraft agreements can be revised and are typically treated as a reliable source of finance\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Extremely flexible\n\t- Interest is only paid on the amount of the overdraft being used\n\t- Particularly useful to seasonal businesses\n\t- Security is not usually required\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Level of interest rate charged\n\t- Flexible interest rates\n\t- Banks can demand immediate repayment\n\t- Paperwork demands\n\n### Loans\n\n- Bank agrees to lend a sum of money to the firm or individual for an agreed, specific purpose.\n- Creditors are providers of loan capital\n- They charge interest and must be paid before any dividends are received by shareholders\n- If a business goes into liquidation, creditors must be paid in full before anyone else\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Easy for budgeting\n\t- Lower interest rates\n\t- Designed to meet the company's needs\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Limitations on amount available \n\t- Inflexibility\n\t- Potential expense\n\n### Venture Capital\n\n- Typically, between £50,000 and £150,000\n- Provided by individuals, usually known as *business angels*\n- High risks but frequently has very good returns\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Suited to high-risk companies\n\t- Venture capitalists may allow interest or dividends to be delayed\n\t- Source of advice and contacts\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Giving up some ownership of the business\n\t- Possible high finance costs\n\t- Excessive influence\n\n### Debentures\n\n- Long term loans made to a business\n- Fixed interest rate (%)\n- Repayable on a selected date\n\n- Advantages\n\t- Very explicit, guidelines and times need meeting\n\t- Fixed repayments \n- Disadvantages\n\t- Finance must be returned by a certain date \n\n### Debt Factoring\n\n- Selling debts to a debt factoring company for a percentage of the full amount \n\n- Advantages\n\t- Quick return\n\t- Works with potential bad customers, not repaying their debts to you\n- Disadvantages\n\t- You don't get the full amount back\n\t- Might damage reputation with customers\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/Stakeholders":{"title":"Stakeholders","content":"\nA **stakeholder** is anybody with an interest in the business.\n\n**Starbucks Stakeholders:**\n- Employees\n- Shareholders\n- Customers\n- Government\n- Suppliers\n- Local community\n- Competitors\n- Pressure groups\n- Charities\n\n\nStakeholders can be categorized as either *internal* or *external*. An internal stakeholder is part of the business, whereas an external stakeholder is not.\n\nInternal:\n- Employees\n- Shareholders\n\nExternal:\n- Customers\n- Suppliers\n- Local Community\n- Competition\n- Charities\n- Pressure groups\n\nStakeholder needs should be considered when making decisions. This can help to avoid resistance to change.\n\n- Businesses use stakeholder mapping to help inform decision-making\n\t- Stakeholder mapping the relative power of each stakeholder group against the degree of interest\n\t- This helps inform managers pm how important each stakeholder group is and therefore how involved they should be in the decision-making process.\n\n![[content/sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20220923144942.png]]\n\n---\n\n| Stakeholder | Example of needs |\n| --------------------- | ------------------- |\n| Customers | Product or service |\n| Employees | Good pay |\n| Shareholders | Dividend Payments |\n| Government | Tax and Regulations |\n| Community | Respect local area | \n| Suppliers | Frequent sales |\n| Financial Institution | Loan repayments |\n\n## Influences on the relationship with stakeholders\n\n- Leadership style\n- Mission and objectives including:\n\t- Financial\n\t- Social\n\t- Ethical\n\t- Environmental\n- Stakeholder power and interest\n- Market conditions including competition\n- External influences (eg, legislation)\n- Business Form\n\n\n## Decision-making\n\n### Hunch\n- Based on intuition, gut feel and experience\n- Key benefit - very quick!\n- But hard to justify for business decisions involving significant risk.\n\n### Scientific\n- Based on data and analysis\n- Downside: time-consuming and costly; no guarantee of the right decision.\n- Increasingly common and automated, supported by Big Data and data analytics\n\nDecision-making is continued [here](sixth/Business/Units/nd/DecisionMaking.md)\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/StockControl":{"title":"Stock Control","content":"\n### Inventory Types\n\n**Stock**: Finished products\n**Raw materials:** Components required to make stock\n**Work In Progress:** Stock that has not been finished\n\n### Challenges of inventory management\n\n- Costly to store\n- Needs securing\n- Climate controlled environment (dependent on inventory contents)\n- Retrieval and deposit\n\nLeading to:\n\n- Negative impact on profit when storing lots\n- Cash flow problem (cash will leave, but money won't come in on stored stock)\n\n\u003e [!danger] Holding too much stock is bad\n\u003e\n\u003e Leads to various issues with cash flow and can lead to perishable goods expiring\n\n### Positives to having inventory\n\n- Avoids production interruptions and inefficiencies \n- Resilience—protection from supply chain disruptions\n- Quality-having a product available maintains customer relations and perception of quality\n\n\n\u003e [!tip] Inventory Ideals\n\u003e\n\u003e Make sure you have *enough* stock, but not too much. Optimise your workflow without negatively impacting your business's cashflow.\n\n## Inventory Control Charts\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/th-1145081636.jpg]]\n*Bar Gate Stock Graph*\n\nThe time between the reorder level and the restock is the **lead time**. This is the amount of time it takes for the stock to be delivered after the order.\n\n---\n\n## Worksheet\n\n### Business A\n\n1) Minimum stock level: 20\n2) Reorder level: 30\n3) Weekly Sales: 10 \n4) Lead time: 1 week\n5) Holding buffer stock gives them the ability to handle any increased demands or supply chain disruptions without impacting their customers. This will lead to an overall higher quality service provided by the business, and likely a better reputation.\n\n### Business B\n\n1) Maximum stock level: 1500\n2) Reorder Quantity: 1100 units\n3) About 110 units per week\n4) Lead time: About 3 weeks\n5) If demand declines or the stock is perishable, they will face the risk of wasting stock, which will result in a negative impact on revenue and cash flow. It is important that the business does everything it can to avoid this.\n\n### Business C\n\n1) Daily sales until day 220: about 80/day\n2) Lead time: 40 days\n3) An unexpected increase in demand has caused them to enter their buffer stock and hit a stock level of 0 before the resupply order could arrive. \n4) To prevent this, they could have tried to predict this increase in demand and order more units in the previous order. They could also have seen units were selling faster than usual, and ordered new units early or simply maintained a higher buffer stock level to give them more time to deal with high demand.\n---\n\n## Cost of Holding Stock\n\n**Cost of storage:** Paying to hold all the stock, warehouses etc\n\n**Interest costs:** Money that could have been gained from interest by not holding stock.\n\n**Obsolescence Risk:** The longer the inventory is held, the more likely the product is to become outdated and worth less.\n\n**Stock out costs:** A stock out happens if a business runs out of inventory. This results in lower customer reputation and loss of sales.\n\n\u003e [!EXAMPLE] Why use inventory control charts?\n\u003e\n\u003e The overall objective of inventory control is to maintain inventory levels so that the total costs of holding inventories is minimised.\n\n## Factors that make an effective supplier\n\n### Price\n\n- Often considered the most important\n\n### Quality\n\n- Consistently high quality\n\n### Reliability\n\n- Delivers the correct product on time\n- Goods and services work as described\n\n### Communication\n\n- Easy to communicate with supplier\n\n### Financially secure\n\n- Long-term trading relationship requires supplier to stay in business, also more likely to offer better trade terms/credit.\n\n### Capacity\n\n- Ability to handle increased volume of supply\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/SupplyChain":{"title":"Supply Chain","content":"\nA good supply chain should:\n- meet needs and wants of customers\n- be efficient\n\n## Flexibility\n\n- Flexibility is the ability to respond to change\n\t- To meet a sudden increase or decrease in demand\n\t- Change an aspect of the product to meet changing consumer tastes\n\t- Respond to erratic demand\n\t\t- Seasonality\n\t\t- Fashion\n\t- Flexibility can be improved through managing inventory and supply chain management\n\t\t- Good relationship with suppliers to respond quickly to changing needs\n\t\t- Just in time operations\n\t\t- Technology to quickly change re-order levels\n\t- A trend in increased flexibility is the ability of firms to use mass customisation\n\t- Mass customisation is the ability to tailor goods made in bulk to meet the requirements of individual customers\n\n## Benefits and Difficulties of Mass Customisation\n\n\n### Four types of mass customisation\n\n- Collaborative Customisation\n\t- The business works closely with the customer to meet their precise needs\n- Adaptive Customisation\n\t- A standardised product which can be customised or adjusted by the customer.\n- Transparent Customisation\n\t- This type of customisation occurs when unique products are produced for each customer but these are not identified as mass customised products.\n- Cosmetic customisation - where standard products are produced but marketed to different customers in different ways.\n\n### Benefits\n\n- Higher revenue\n- Cost reductions\n- Greater customer loyalty \n- Competitive advantage\n- Improved understanding of customer's wants\n- Improved workforce motivation\n- Higher profile\n\n### Factors required for mass customisation\n\n- A market in which customers value variety and individuality\n- Quick responsiveness to market changes\n- Ability to provide customisation (a wide variety of alternative versions of the same product).\n- Scope for mass efficiency/economies of scale.\n\n### Drawbacks/Difficulties related to mass customisation\n\n- Requirement for sophisticated information systems\n- Greater expense in terms of IT, capital equipment and staff training\n- Problems with rejected products\n- Unsuitable supply chains\n\n\n## Speed of response and dependability\n\n- Speed of response\n\t- To meet customers needs within a set time period\n\t- Ability to make changes to products to reflect changing consumer tastes\n\t\t- This will only be achievable if inventory levels are low a d suppliers can change order sizes and components quickly\n\t- Dependability\n\t\t- A business operating a just in time system will be reliant on suppliers to deliver the right quantity and quality on time to ensure supply meets demand.\n\n## How to make supply meet demand\n\n- Lots of stock/capacity\n- Outsource\n- Temporary Labour\n- Produce to order\n\n## Practice exercise 1\n\n1) c\n2) c\n3) d\n4) b\n5) A business trying to use mass customisation might face issues relating to lead times, as suppliers may struggle to deliver products on time when changes have to be made on a per unit basis. \n\n---\n\nA strategic supplier is a supplier that is essential for the running of a business, whereas a commodity supplier is not completely essential.\n\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/TBSContinuum":{"title":"Tannenbaum-Schmidt continuum revision questions","content":"\nTell -\u003e Sell -\u003e Consult -\u003e Joins\n\n\n## To what extent do you think leadership style would be the most important factor in successfully implementing such a controversial decision? Justify.\n\nIf people are able to relate to their manager and have a friendlier relationship with them then they will be more willingly to accept a controversial decision so:\n\n- more team based approaches will likely have a higher success rate\n- more task focused approaches will likely be met with greater resistance\n\nTherefore:\n\n- adopting a more reasonable approach, and listening to subordinates as well as having some room to negotiate an alternative will probably lead to a more motivated workforce. \n\n\n## What is meant by “subordinate”?\n\n- Somebody who is below a manager in a hierarchy, typically directly\n\n## What is the term \"manager-centred leadership\"?\n\n- A manager makes a decision and announces it to subordinates. There is no room for negotiation.\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","revision"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/TechnologicalFactors":{"title":"Technological Factors","content":"- In PESTLE analysis, technological factors are variables which relate to the existence, availability and development of technology. \n- This could include things from computational power to engine efficiency.\n\n### Impact on business\n\n- Improved efficiency and reduced waste\n- New, better products and services\n- Advances in communication\n- Improved working environment\n- Wealth creation and higher living standards\n\n### What might the problems in introducing new technology be?\n\n- The cost of keeping up to date with the latest technology\n- Choosing the right new technology\n- Industrial relations\n- Personnel issues\n\n### Practice exercise 3 (NF)\n\n#### Identify and explain one example of the impact of technological change on each functional area within a business\n\n- The warehouse team at a distribution company would benefit from more capable technology. If all the items in the warehouse are tracked digitally, then a phone-type device could be used by workers to navigate to and quickly locate any item. \n- This would lead to a temporary decrease in productivity whilst workers get used to the new system\n- There would be higher costs as the handhelds would need purchasing and powering, and the system would have license fees\n- However, in the long-term there will be increased productivity across the organisation as more orders can be fulfilled more efficiently. \n\n\n#### Identify and explain one example of the impact of technological change on business strategy.\n\n- Artificial Intelligence (AI) will be able to provide lots of previously human only labour at much lower costs, much faster and likely at a more reliable quality.\n- If a business adopts AI as a replacement for a human role, they will likely be able to outcompete other businesses in the area, **assuming that AI is capable enough to perform the role properly**. This will put pressure on competitors to make the same change.\n- This may also demoralize employees, as they may feel their job security has been weakened.\n- The business will likely have to plan for making a smooth transition towards AI technologies at the correct time for each area of the business.\n\n#### Explain two benefits to consumers of the use of new technology.\n\n- Less waiting time. New technology typically increases productivity, as people have to do less manual work due to automation. This improves customer experience because their interactions with the business will be faster and have less friction.\n- Less work, an automated order form on a website is easier than sending an email or a letter and having a back and forth with a sales rep.\n\n#### Explain two benefits to firms of the use of new technology.\n\n- Lower costs. Fewer people are needed to fulfil the same roles, as a computer system can probably take on some of the previously human workload. AI threatens to completely replace many human roles in the future.\n- Greater productivity. Employees can spend their time doing the more complex tasks as the repetitive or menial tasks can be automated. This saves time for everyone, improves employee motivation and makes employees more efficient.\n\n#### Identify and explain four factors that illustrate the pressure for socially responsible behaviour.\n\n- Customers want to buy ethical products. This might be people looking for something like a Fairtrade badge or organic foods. In other industries, it may be a matter of looking for products that are produced without any slave labour, where people across the whole production chain are treated well. \n- Businesses want to trade with reputable partners. If a business is considering a deal with another, they won't want to be affiliated with someone who has negative ethical credentials, and will actively favour businesses with positive ethical credentials. Therefore, acting ethically will provide businesses with greater opportunities.\n- Staff want to work for an ethical business. If a business treats their staff well, and their partners ethically, staff are more likely to enjoy working there, which will in turn lead to improved employee productivity and a better reputation. \n- Markets are not shaped by the business, but by the consumers and the investors. If a business cannot comply with the expectations of both of these stakeholder groups, then they cannot succeed. Increasingly frequently, all stakeholders want business to act transparently and in an ethical way. \n- “The Court of Public Opinion” is an increasingly relevant concept, with the advent of social media and instant global communication, if someone finds something out about a business behaving unethically, it can spread extremely rapidly around the globe and impact a business's ability to function. \n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/TechnologyOperations":{"title":"Technology use to improve operational efficency","content":"\n- High quality\n- Lower cost\n\nIncludes:\n- robotics\n- automation\n- digital communications\n- apps and software advances\n\n## Computer Aided Design (CAD)\n\nThe use of computers to improve the design of products. CAD is frequently combined with CAM to provide a business with optimal efficiency.\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221205120713.png]]\n\n## Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)\n\nTypically, using robotics or some form of automation, CAM utilizes computer systems to control parts of or all of the manufacturing process.\n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221205121019.png]]\n\n## Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS)\n\nA full till system, potentially including features such as stock control and signalling to employees to inform them of whats they need to be doing. It includes basic functionality such as products, pricing and monetary calculations. \n\n![[sixth/Business/Units/nd/img/Pasted image 20221205121107.png]]\n\n## Benefits of technology\n\n- Testing can be performed without wasting a physical product. thanks to simulations.\n- Efficiency can be improved.\n- Faster iteration.\n- Improvements can be suggested automatically.\n- Inefficiencies can be ironed out quickly.\n- Manufacturing can be sped up.\n- Manufacturing can continue 24/7.\n\n## Drawbacks\n\n- Technology can require high upfront investment.\n- Requires skill to use.\n- Requires maintaining by someone with equipment and training.\n- Dependent on electricity and internet connectivity.\n- Can be too rigid for certain systems—meaning that if a business adds a new product with lots of customisations, it may not be reflected properly on their till.\n- Technology moves quickly, may only last several years before replacements are needed.\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business"]},"/sixth/Business/Units/nd/ZeroHoursCaseStudy":{"title":"Zero Hours Case Study","content":"\n1) Analyse the reasons for protests against the use of zero-hours contracts by firms (12m)\n \n Zero-hour contracts harm the workers by reducing their job stability. If their employer doesn't want to give them any hours, they don't have to. This means that many vulnerable workers who need to work so many hours in order to achieve a living salary are not guaranteed the hours they need to work. This will add unnecessary stress to their lives and also reduces their bargaining power, as they may have to persuade their employer to offer the additional hours to them rather than another employee. Some employees have also been cut out of benefit/bonus schemes due to being on a zero-hour contract. These contracts do not guarantee them the same benefits employees on other, more standard, contracts might expect. Because of this, many people on zero-hour contracts suffer from various forms of mistreatment by management.\n \n The industries where greater numbers of employees are being moved to zero-hour contracts are typically characterised by high labour turnover, low employee skill and low morale. Because of this, there is higher absenteeism and companies such as McDonald's would argue that offering casual workers sick pay and guaranteed hours would create additional problems as employees frequently do not attend shifts anyway.\n\n\u003e Feedback: Good knowledge, lacking application, needs more depth\n\n1) To what extent do you believe that governments around the world should follow New Zealand in banning zero-hour contracts? Justify your view. (20m)\n \n In my opinion, the existence of zero-hour contracts is not bad. Many casual workers benefit from not being stuck working a strict set of hours, and it gives employers greater flexibility to adapt to demand. However, older employees or people who are working out of necessity rather than for some extra cash deserve to be protected and promised a certain degree of stability in their working life. \n \n Companies like \"Outdoor Sports\" are arguing for the continued use of zero-hour contracts due to the flexibility it offers their staff. Unfortunately, some employees from Outdoor Sports reported being excluded from the company's bonus scheme, which suggests that Outdoor Sports sees employees on a zero-hour contract as cheap labour rather than a valuable asset. By excluding their lowest employees from bonus schemes, they are forcing people who already likely earn less than the national average to sacrifice the ability to earn more for their hard work. This system seems backwards and is something that should be corrected by the government or a regulator. \n \n It is worth also noting that companies like Outdoor Sports claim that the presence of zero hour contracts enables them to perform business viably, by allowing them to reduce costs and decide upon shifts at short notice. If removing or over regulating zero-hour contracts would genuinely lead to the collapse of employers, then there are other issues that need to be addressed. Retailers reporting slow or no financial growth are already struggling and as the UK high street continues to decline due to the rise of internet shopping it is possible that enforcing strict regulations could result in the death of the remaining physical stores. Whilst this issue would be wider than the one being discussed, it might prevent the government from being able to legislate effectively.\n \n In summary, I would oppose a ban on zero-hour contracts due to the fact that I believe many casual workers do benefit from them and due to the fact that many companies seem to be in a struggling financial situation. However, it is important that workers are not exploited and that appropriate measures, including new legislation, is taken to ensure workers on these contracts are protected from abuses and have clear rights to allow them to work with a bit more peace of mind.\n \n \u003e Accurate knowledge, good response, more depth required, insufficient evaluation (evaluate each point)\n\n\n\n[Business](/Business)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.038712418Z","tags":["business","casestudy","homework"]},"/sixth/Careers/WritingAPersonalStatement":{"title":"Writing a Personal Statement","content":"### Starting out\n\n- Why have you chosen this course?\n- What excites you about the subject?\n- Is my previous or current study relevant to the course?\n- Have you got any work experience that might help you?\n- What life experiences have you had that you could talk about?\n- What achievements are you proud of?\n- What skills do you have that make you perfect for the course?\n- What plans and ambitions do you have for future careers?\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/BuildingBlocks":{"title":"Building Blocks","content":"\nAn algorithm is an unambiguous, repeatable set of instructions that can be followed to complete a given task in a finite time.\n\nProgramming is the process of converting an algorithm into computer code.\n\n## Building Blocks\n\n### Sequence\nA series of instructions that must be completed in order.\n\n### Iteration\nRepeating a sequence zero or more times.\n\n### Decision\nZero or one sequences that can be chosen from a range of options.\n\n\nA [plan](sixth/CompSci/Programming/Planning) is vital to producing a good program if it has any complexity.\n\n# Worksheet\n\nAn algorithm is an umabiguous, repeatable set of instructions that can be followed to complete a task in a finite time. [*5/5*]\n\nSequence -\u003e To carry out a set of instructions in the order that they are given.\nDecision -\u003e To choose between, and perform, zero or one from a range of options.\nIteration -\u003e Repetition of a sequence of commands zero or more times. [*3/3*]\n\n**Definite iteration:** Iterating a set number of times, determinable without executing the algorithm. ☑\n\n**Indefinite iteration:** Iterating an unset number of times, in programming this is usually shown as a while loop. The loop only ends when a condition is met, not when a task has been performed X times. ☑\n\n[*10/10*]\n\n## Exam Style Questions\n\n1. An algorithm is an unambiguous, repeatable set of instructions that can be followed to complete a given task in a finite time. [*2/2*]\n2. May run zero times. (TRUE about iteration) ☑\n3. There are 28 pupils in Miss Green's class. She would like to award each pupil a house point. What sort of iteration should be used?\n\nDefinite iteration would make sense, because we know how many pupils are in the class. In terms of programming, we can use a for loop to assign a house point to each pupil before the loop terminates. This allows us to perform a simple logical operation many times without having to write the logic out 28 different times. [*3/3*]\n\n\n[*15/15*]\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Graphs":{"title":"Graphs","content":"\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628115431.png]]\n\nGraphs are used to represent data visually. They require relations between the data.\n\nCircles or nodes are called vertices and the lines between them are called edges.\n\nLarger graphs might look like this:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628115623.png]]\nIf an edge has a value associated with it, such as 6, then that edge is weighted. Typically, if one edge is weighted, you would expect all other edges to have a weight. You can describe a graph that includes weights, intuitively, as a weighted graph.\n\nYou can also represent data from a graph as an [adjacency matrix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjacency_matrix#Undirected_graphs)\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628115830.png]]\n\nIf a graph would be symmetrical, so all weighted values are equivalent both ways (so A to B and B to A both have a value of 5), then you only need to complete half of the graph, giving you a triangular shape to your adjacency matrix.\n\nThe graph below only defines one value for each route, meaning it would be symmetrical.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628120332.png]]\n\nData can also be represented as an adjacency list, such as the one shown below.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628120204.png]]\n\n\nAn adjacency list makes more sense when there are few connections between vertices as it will use less space.\n\nA cycle occurs if you can move from a vertex without crossing an edge twice. \n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628123235.png]]\n\nA **tree** is another kind of graph.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230628123352.png]]\n\nTo be a tree, a graph must:\n- have no cycles\n- be fully connected (one structure)\n- cannot be directed or weighted\n\nA tree will have a root, which is designated.\n\nThe vertexes at the end of a tree are called leaves, whilst the edges between vertexes are called branches.\n\n## Binary Trees\n\n\n### Constructing a tree\n\n- We take the data in the order that it arrives in and add it to the tree\n- If the tree already has a vertex, then we have to compare the data to the previous entry. \n- If the data comes **BEFORE** the previous vertex, we create a vertex to the **left** of the vertex. If it comes **AFTER** the previous vertex, we create a vertex to the **right** of the vertex.\n\n- A tree is typically more efficient than trying to sort your data. \n- Usually used for smaller datasets and stored in RAM\n\n### Tree traversal\n\n#### Pre-order\n\n- Process the root of the tree first\n- Then the left branch of the tree\n- Then the right branch of the tree\n\n- Uses:\n\t- copy\n\n#### In-order\n\n- Process the left branch first\n- Then the root\n- Then the right branch\n\n- Uses:\n\t- sort\n\n#### Post-order\n\n- Process the left branch first\n- Then the right branch\n- Then the root\n\n- Uses:\n\t- delete\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230704145502.png]]\n\n- Process is different depending upon what the program is doing\n- When moving down a tree, you effectively create sub-trees, which have their own root. You use this to repeat the traversal process down the tree.\n\nAnd time for the beautiful hand-drawn tree, with sorted examples.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/tree.png]]\n\n### Storing a binary tree\n\n- You could use an adjacency matrix or list, however a **linked list** is the proper method.\n\n#### Linked list\n\n- Items do not have to be next to each other in memory, unlike an array.\n- A pointer simply indicates where each item is stored in memory.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20230706122524.png]]\n\n\n\n\n\n[Computer Science](/ComputerScience)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/LiteralsVariablesConstants":{"title":"Literals, Variables and Constants","content":"\n## Literals\nA literal is a directly defined value. ``\"25\"`` is a literal. So is `true`\n\nIn Python, this is an example of a literal:\n\n```py\nprint(5 + 3) \n```\n\nBoth 5 and 3 are literals in this context, because they are definied exactly where they are used.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220908115725.png]]\n\n## Variables\nA variable is an object with an assigned value that can be referenced elsewhere in the program. It is useful for dynamically updating a value.\n\n`bobAge = 50` is a variable.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220908115815.png]]\n\nNaming conventions should be followed when naming variables to prevent misunderstandings.\n\nIf your variable is called `penisland` there may be issues with people not reading Pen Island.\n\nSo naming a variable `pen_island` would be better. This is what PEP8 recommends, and is therefore the best option for naming variables in Python (if you want people to like you).\n\nConventional naming would be `penIsland` though. Camelcase means the first word of a variable is lowercase and then all additional words in the name should start with a capital.\n\n\u003e [!note] Note\n\u003e\n\u003e Variable names can also be called an identifier.\n\n## Constants\nA constant is a variable that CANNOT be changed after definition. The idea of a constant is to define a reused value once at one point in the code, and then allow for it to be used everywhere. if you want to change the speed of the player in your game, you can change the constant at first definition, avoiding a huge amount of refactoring.\n\n\u003e [!bug] Python does not support constants natively\n\u003e\n\u003e Instead, use a fully capitalised variable name and do not change it. This method is flawed, but it's the best one avaliable.\n \n\n`SPEED = 5.0`\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220908115902.png]]\n\nThe next page is [subroutines](sixth/CompSci/Programming/Subroutines)\n\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Modules":{"title":"Modules","content":"\n## Importing a module\n\nUsing the `import` keyword, you can bring a module into your code. You can then call any subroutines included within that module, in your code.\n\nHere's an example using the `random` module:\n\n```py\nimport random\n\nmyNum = random.randint(0,10)\nprint(myNum)\n```\n\nEvery time you run this script, it will print out an integer between 0 and 10.\n\n## Installing modules\n\nUsing `pip` you can install a Python module from the repositories. \n\nSimply run the command `pip install module-name` to download a module. You can then import it into your program and use it.\n\n[PyPi](https://pypi.org/)\n\n## Making a module\n\nMake a new python file with the following content\n\n```py\ndef say_hi(first_name):\n\tprint(f\"Hi, {first_name}\")\n```\n\n\nThen save this in the folder that you wish to call the module from - *or the Python module library to call anywhere.*\n\nIf you called this file `hello.py` then you can import it using `import hello` and call the procedure it includes using `hello.say_hi(\"Bob\")`.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220913105509.png]]\n*Code to import and call*\n\nAnd here is the output:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220913105612.png]]\n\n\u003e [!tip] Hint \n\u003e\n\u003e Make sure you've saved both files in the same folder, otherwise this won't work. Additionally, you can save the file you want to import in your Python path or environment, with the core libraries. (Or add your modules folder to your PATH variable)\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Planning":{"title":"Planning","content":"\nTaking time to think through what we intend to do will nearly always raise questions and usually helps you to understand the full scale of the problem that you are trying to solve.\n\n## Methodologies\n\n### Waterfall\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220914121626.png]]\nWaterfall is flexible because you can go up or down the chain as needed. \n\n### Lifecycle/Agile\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220914121746.png]]\nA large project may use multiple instances of the agile pan to work on subprojects. It's also possible to cycle around if an issue is found.\n\nMore subject to issues than Waterfall, as waterfall allows for queries to go back up the chain.\n\n### Scrum\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220914122207.png]]\n\nContinuous reviews of the project result in faster problem detection and resolution. Scrum immitates a much more natural working style. Sprints are used to focus on getting things finished bit by bit and allow everybody to stay on schedule.\n\n### Flowcharts\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220914123033.png]]\n\nA diagram that explains the flow of a program.\n\nShapes represent actions that must be perfomed.\n\nThe shapes are connected together with arrows - defining the flow route.\n\nFlowcharts are much easier for the layman to understand.\n\nThe shapes all represent a specific action. In a flowchart, the shape is important. The key is shown below:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220914123717.png]]\n\n### Pseudo Code\n\nLaid out roughly like code, with some form of uniform syntax. HOWEVER - there is not set syntax rules and ideas can be expressed more freely.\n\nIt is more natural for programmers to work with pseudo code than any of the other methods.\n\nNo rules as such, but it is conventional to declare the end of an IF, WHILE or something else.\n\n\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Programming":{"title":"Programming Theory","content":"\nAlgorithms are instructions.\n\nComputer process instructions.\n\nProgramming is the process of turning algorithms into instructions that can be followed by a computer.\n\nInstructions are binary codes that represent the operations that the computer can perform.\n\nSo `0001` could be ADD and `0010` could be SHIFT.\n\nEach type of computer has its own set of instructions - creatively called an instruction set, examples of these include x86 and ARM.\n\n## Programming Languages\n\n### 1st Generation\n- Machine code\n- Binary\n\t- Eg - 0001010 could be the code for `ADD` on your processor.\n\n### 2nd Generation\n- Assembly code\n- One-to-one equivalence to machine code\n\t- We would use a command word like `ADD` instead of a binary representation, because it is easier to remember\n\n### 3rd Generation (or high level)\n- High level languages are portable\n\t- They will run on different platforms (such as Linux x86 and Android ARM)\n- They are natural-like\n\t- A single high level instruction (such as `print`) would turn into many low level instructions.\n\nIn 1st and 2nd generation languages (the low level languages) the programmer needs to know and think about how the computer works.\n\nWith 3rd generation/ high level languages - the programmer focuses on solving the problem more than on how the computer works.\n\n\n### Low level languages\nAlways called:\n\n- Machine code: the binary codes that instruct the computer on what to do.\n- Assembly code: the code word equivalent of machine code\n- Sometimes they may include the chipset, eg x86 machine code.\n\n### High level languages\nUsually referred to by the language name:\n- Python, C, Basic, Pearl, PHP, Java, C++, C#, JavaScript, HTML etc etc etc\n\n#### Why so many?\n- Different languages have different strengths and weaknesses\n- Some are compiled, some are interpreted.\n- Some are focused on particular applications, such as business, engineering or games etc.\n\n## Rosetta Code\nA stone was discovered holding the \"Rosetta code\" which includes a message in 3 different languages, 1 of which was hieroglyphs. We couldn't understand hieroglyphs until we found this stone, however once we used the Rosetta code to translate the message on the stone, we managed to crack hieroglyphs.\n\nSimilarly, the website [RosettaCode.org](https://rosettacode.org/wiki/Rosetta_Code) allows you to compare programming languages similarly. It has solutions to different tasks in many different languages.\n\n\n## Translators\n\n- Source code **needs** to be translated into object code.\n- Object code is combined with other object code to create machine code before it can run.\n\t- Examples of object code could be other translated source code or standard libraries provided with languages.\n\n| **Source Code** | _Machine Code_ | _Assembly Code_ | _High Level Code_ |\n| --------------- | -------------- | --------------- | ------------------------------------------------------ |\n| **Translate** | N/A | Assembler | Compiler / Interpreter |\n| **Combine** | Linker | Linker | Linker (usually automated) Interpreter bypasses linker |\n| **Executable** | Machine Code | Machine Code | Machine Code |\n\nAssembly has a 1:1 equivalence with machine code. It is the exact same, just represented with keywords rather than binary.\n\n## Compiler or Interpreter\n\n- Compiler\n\t- The source code is translated into object code\n\t- This only needs to be done once\n\t- The result is machine code that will run very quickly\n\t- No other software is needed to be supplied to the user\n- Interpreter\n\t- The source code is interpreted by a special program at run time.\n\t\t- The source code, effectively, calls upon pre-built routines in the interpreter.\n\t- This must be done every time the program is run\n\t- Interpreted programs do not execute as quickly as compiled code.\n\t- You must provide the end user with a copy of the interpreter AND your source code.\n\n## Errors\n- When writing code, we should expect a few errors\n\n- Errors fit into three classifications\n\t- Syntax Errors: the grammar of the statement is wrong\n\t- Runtime Errors: the program has received some wrong data that it cannot process\n\t- Semantic Errors (logical errors): the program gives the wrong result.\n\n## Exceptions\n- Exceptions happen when something exceptional (unexpected) happens.\n- This is often an error, although it doesn't mean the error is unexpected\n\t- The programmer can write exception handling routines to deal with these situations\n- Throwing, catching and fatal errors.\n\t- When an exception happens, we describe this as throwing an error.\n\t- Having a routine to deal with it is called catching an error.\n\t- A fatal error would be an error that is thrown but for which there is no catch routine.\n\n- When an error gets thrown:\n\t- The current process gets suspended.\n\t- The exception handling routine is called—if it exists.\n\t\t- If there is none, the program crashes.\n- The original routine is restored.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220928120809.png]]\nThe above diagram shows the flow if the exception is caught. If it is uncaught, then it will just crash.\n\n## Development Lifecycle\n\n- Initiation—what needs to happen. \n- Feasibility study—can I solve this problem? Is it affordable?\n- Analysis—what is the problem? Legal limitations?\n- Planning—how are we going to achieve the goal? What needs changing? Who is doing what?\n- Design—Creating flowcharts, pseudocode, FSMs etc.\n- Development—Writing the code, creating databases etc\n- Installation/ roll-out—Put everything into a production environment, ensure it is working.\n- Training—Make sure the people who need to use the product can use the product.\n- Maintenance—Fixing issues, ensuring performance and security are up to standard. Keeping the system ticking over.\n\nThis is not a rigid list, not everyone uses every stage, and not everybody does them in the order used here. Some people may collapse stages into larger categories.\n\nYou can go back through phases if an issue arises.\n\n[Planning is important!](sixth/CompSci/Programming/Planning)\n\n\n[Majority of programming work is found on GitHub](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingChallenges)\n\n\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingChallenges":{"title":"Programming Challenges","content":"\n\nSee programming challenges from Comp Sci here: [Crispy Fiesta](https://github.com/isaluki/crispy-fiesta)\n\n\n\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster":{"title":"Programming","content":"\n**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Computer Science](/ComputerScience)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Recursion":{"title":"Recursion","content":"**Recursion**—Defining a subroutine in terms of itself.\n\tThe subroutine calls itself.\n\nRecursion ≠ iteration\n\nDanger: the call stack may be exhausted\n\nThe call stack is a stack onto which we place a new stack frame each time a new subroutine is called. The stack frame contains information such as:\n- the state of each variable in the calling subroutine\n- a return address to start executing once the called subroutine is finished\n\n\n\n\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/StateMachines":{"title":"State Machines","content":"\n## Finite State Machines\n An FSM shows the states in which a system can exist, what causes the system to move from one state to another, and what outputs or changes the transition causes.\n\nThe system must have a known (finite) number of states.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220920143733.png]]\n\nFSMs can be converted into a circuit, meaning that they can be used to control things such as traffic lights without the need for actual code.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220920145051.png]]\nStates are connected by transitions (arrows). Transitions should be labelled with the trigger for the transition.\n\nThey can be useful for debugging an algorithm or representing it in a way that people who don't work with code will be able to understand more easily. Start can be indicated with an -\u003e coming from nothing.\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/doorbell.drawio.png]]\n\n---\n## Mealy vs Moore Machine\n\n### Mealy Machine\nThe output is determined by its current state and current inputs.\n\n### Moore Machine\nThe output is determined solely by the current state.\n\n\n\n## State Transition Table\n\nA state transition table shows the current state, the input that is received, the state to move to (next state) and any output produced in the process.\n\nEg\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/mooremealy.png]]\n\n\n| Current State | Input | Next State |\n|---------------|-------|------------|\n| Se | 0 | Se |\n| Se | 1 | So |\n| So | 0 | So |\n| Se | 1 | Se |\n\n\n\n### Producing a table\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/haveago.png]]\n\n\n\n| Current State | Input | Next State |\n|---------------|-------|------------|\n| S0 | a | S1 |\n| S1 | b | S2 |\n| S2 | c | S1 |\n| S1 | b | S2 |\n| S2 | a,b | S3 |\n| S3 | - | - |\n| S0 | c | S0 |\n| S0 | b | S3 |\n\n\n## State Transition Practice\n\n\t![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/transitionpractice.png]]\n\n| Current State | Input | Next State |\n|---------------|-------------------|------------|\n| S1 | I | S2 |\n| S2 | P | S3 |\n| S3 | 1\\|2\\|3\\|4 | S4 |\n| S4 | Numeric Digit | S6 |\n| S6 | Numeric Digit | S7 |\n| S7 | Letter | S9 |\n| S9 | Letter | S11 |\n| S11 | - | - |\n| | | |\n| S1 | I | S2 |\n| S2 | Letter (except P) | S13 |\n| S13 | Numeric Digit | S16 |\n| S16 | Numeric Digit | S17 |\n| S17 | Letter | S19 |\n| S19 | Letter | S21 |\n| S21 | - | - |\n| | | |\n| S1 | Letter (except I) | S14 |\n| S14 | Numeric Digit | S16 |\n| S16 | Letter | S22 |\n| S22 | Numeric Digit | S23 |\n| S23 | Letter | S19 |\n| S19 | Letter | S21 |\n| S21 | Any character | S12 |\n| S12 | Any character | S12 |\n* Not all possible routes are listed in the above table\n\n## Flowchart, Pseudo Code of Finite State Machine?\n\n- Flowcharts are a great way to present information to non-specialists\n- Pseudo code is great if your audience are programmers\n- Finite State Machines are best suited to control systems\n\n## Natural Languages vs Formal Languages\n\nA natural language is your typical-spoken language - English or Spanish are good examples. They are ambiguous and can be interpreted in multiple ways.\n\nWhereas a formal language is like a formula in maths or science and programming languages. It can only be interpreted in a single way and is very rigid.\n\n\n### Algorithms\n\nTypically, an algorithm will use a formal language (or will be much closer to formal than natural). A recipe is an example of an algorithm that can be represented using natural languages, with a more formal structure. A recipe can be misinterpreted, a program cannot.\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Subroutines":{"title":"Subroutines","content":"\nInstead of writing a huge, monolithic piece of code, you can break a program down into smaller pieces, called subroutines. These allow for increased modularity in an application. It also makes it much easier to work on a project with multiple people involved because they can each write subroutines to work together and produce a complex system quickly.\n\nIt is much easier to solve a problem by breaking it down into subroutines.\n\nAll subroutines are reusable, meaning that if you write a utility to authenticate a user, you can call the same subroutine from multiple places, keeping code tidy and reducing time-wasting.\n\nHere is an example subroutine written in Python:\n\n```py\n# Define the subroutine\ndef AddNum(num1,num2):\n return (num1+num2)\n\n# Call the subroutine\naddition = AddNum(1,2)\nprint(addition)\n```\n\nWhen this code is executed, it will return the literal `3`. This is because we pass the values `1` and `2` to the subroutine, which then adds them together. The answer is printed out because we save the result in a variable and then display it with the `print` command.\n\nHere is a demonstration of the program being executed:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220908123946.png]]\n\nTaking this a step further, we could ask the user to pick the values to add together. We would do this using the following code:\n\n```py\n# Define the subroutine\ndef AddNum(num1,num2):\n return (num1+num2)\n\n# This could be more efficient, and will crash if we enter an invalid input.\nnum1 = int(input(\"Enter num1: \"))\nnum2 = int(input(\"Enter num2: \"))\n\n\n# Call the subroutine\naddition = AddNum(num1,num2)\nprint(addition)\n```\n\nAnd the result looks like this when we run it:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Programming/img/Pasted image 20220908124522.png]]\n\n## Types of subroutine\n\n\u003e [!abstract] In terms of Python\n\u003e\n\u003e The following uses Python keywords as examples, but the same logic can be applied to any language.\n\nBecause this code uses the `return` keyword, it is a **function**.\n\nThe other type of subroutine is a **procedure**, this would not use the `return` keyword.\n\nA procedure does not return any value to the logic that called it, whereas a function does. This is the only difference between the two types.\n\nA function would typically be used where a response is needed or the status of the action needs verifying. If you do not need an answer, then a procedure may be the best choice.\n\nSubroutines are made out of the basic [building blocks](sixth/CompSci/Programming/BuildingBlocks) found here.\n\n## Task: Write a subroutine\n\nA procedure that:\n- Receive a person's name\n- Adds \"from PHHS\" to the name\n- Prints the product\n- Ends\n\n```py\ndef FromPHHS(name):\n\tprint(name+\" from PHHS\")\n```\n\nNext, a function to convert celsius to fahrenheit:\n\n```py\ndef CelToFaren(celsius):\n\tfahren = celsius * 1.8 + 32\n\treturn fahren\n```\n\n\u003e [!info] Identifiers\n\u003e\n\u003eJust like with variables, the name of a subroutine is officially called an identifier. Also - just like with variables - the identifier should be descriptive as it improves code readability.\n\nTo extend the functionality of a subroutine (or any of your code), modules are very useful. Find out more [here](sixth/CompSci/Programming/Modules)\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Programming/ValuesExpressionsAndStatements":{"title":"Values, Expressions and Statements","content":"\n\n## Value\nA **value** is a single piece of data. It can be used as a [literal](sixth/CompSci/Programming/LiteralsVariablesConstants) or stored in a variable.\n\nExamples:\n\n- 45\n- \"Liam\"\n- True\n- 64.52\n- [\"apple\", \"kiwi\", \"pear\"]\n\nVariables can *only* contain values. So if it is contained within a variable - it is a value.\n\n---\n## Expression\nAn **expression** is an operation of values and/or variables that will result in a value.\n\nTypically, you get a different value output than the input - as you are performing a mathematical operation usually (and most of the time you won't be doing a * 1 operation).\n\nExamples:\n\n- 32 * 4\n- 15 - 2\n- 43 / 7\n- 3 == 5\n- \"hello\" + \"world\"\n- 4 \u003e 2\n- \"hello\" * 4\n- input(\"What is your name? \") * 6\n- ((12 * 6) /4 ) + 8\n\nExpressions are used to modify or compare values. They may contain a function call (ie, `int(3.4) * 5` is still an expression).\n\nData Types do matter in expressions - so whilst you can multiply a string by an integer, you cannot divide a string by an integer.\n\nSo `Bob * 4` is valid and results in \"BobBobBobBob\"\n\nBut `Bob / 2` is not valid and will return an error.\n\nA division operation will **always** return a float - even if the inputs were integers.\n\n---\n## Statement\nA **statement** is any valid fragment of code. (A command, any line of code etc).\n\nExamples:\n\n- print(\"Hello world\")\n- import random\n- 25 == 30\n- if int(age) == 30:\n\n\n\n\n---\n\u003e [!question] Multiple types \n\u003e\n\u003eSomething can be or contain multiple types. So a statement may contain an expression which may then contain a value.\n\n[Programming](sixth/CompSci/Programming/ProgrammingMaster)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.074712315Z","tags":["compsci","programming"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/BinaryLogic/BinaryLogic":{"title":"Binary Logic","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/BinaryLogic/BooleanAlgebra":{"title":"Boolean Algebra","content":"\nNOT\nXOR\n\n000\n011\n101\n111\n\nNOT A OR B AND C\n\nOR\n0\n1\n1\n1\n\n\nNAND\n1\n1\n1\n0\n\n\n# Adders and flip-flops\n\n\n## Half adder\n\n- The ALU in a CPU uses a half-adder logic circuit for performing the binary addition of two bits.\n- The input consists of two bits, A and B, and hence 2^2=4 input combinations are possible.\n\n- Two output bits are required to denote the sum and the carry.\n- The output Sum(S) is 1 when both inputs A and B have different values.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230130104834.png]]\n\n- S is true under two conditions:\n\t- A is false and B is true\n\t- A is true and B is false\n- The Sum is an XOR operation between A and B.\n\n- The output carry is only 1 when A and B are also true\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230130105236.png]]\n\n## Full Adder \n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230130105758.png]]\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230130105833.png]]\n\n## Expanding full adders\n\n- Full adders can be expanded to adders of any number of bits. \n- *n* full adders shall be combined to form an *n-bit* adder.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230130111135.png]]\n\n## Combinational vs Sequential Circuits\n\n### Combinational circuit\n\n- The output is dependent on the combination of inputs.\n\n### Sequential Circuit\n\n- The output is not only dependent on the present state of input variables, but also on the past state of output variables.\n- To store the past state of input variables, we need a memory unit in the circuit.\n\n---\n\n## Recall\n\n- Two bits in, 1 bit out and 1 carry out (half) - A AND B in -\u003e S AND C out\n- Two bits in, 1 bit out and 1 carry out (full) - A AND B AND C in -\u003e S AND C out\n\n\n1) AND\n2) NOR\n\n## SR Latch\n\n- The circuit diagram and truth table for an SR latch.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203134912.png]]\n\n## Sequential Circuits - Clock\n\n- For synchronous sequential circuits, we require a clock signal.\n- A clock is a type of sequential circuit that changes state at regular intervals.\n- A clock signal synchronises the components in sequential circuit. A positive-edge triggering clock signal is given below. The output responds to the changes in the input only at the positive edge of the clock pulse.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203135721.png]]\n\n### Falling Edge\n\n- Alternatively, a negative-edge triggering sequential circuit can also be designed.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203135958.png]]\n\n## D flip-flop\n\n**Requires the clock pulse.**\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203140109.png]]\n\n- The input and output waveforms of a positive-edge triggered D flip-flop are given.\n- The output Q follows the input D at the positive edges of the clock pulse.\n- Assume the value of Q is 0 initially.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203140538.png]]\n\nD = Delay\n\n## JK Flip Flops\n\n- The input J acts as the set input and K acts as the reset input. When both J and K are equal to 1, the value of Q is switched. \n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230203141813.png]]\n\n\n\n[Binary Logic](sixth/CompSci/Theory/BinaryLogic/BinaryLogic)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory","boolean"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/BinaryLogic/BooleanLogic":{"title":"Boolean Logic","content":"\n\n- Logic gates are combined to form transistors\n- Transistors combine to form integrated circuits\n- The integrated circuit is a silicon wafer that consists of various microelectronic components\n- An integrated circuit is usually made of a single type of gate only\n\n\n### Set representation\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230209115049.png]]\n\n### Order\n\n\u003e Bidmas for logic gates\n\n\nOrder for gates:\n\n- Brackets\n- NOT\n- XOR\n- AND\n- OR\n\nBig Noonoo Xtreme Apetite Orange\nBring Now, eXtremely Angry Otters\nBehold Newly eX Assistant Orthodontists\n\n**If you want to prioritise OR over AND then brackets are required.**\n\n### Commutive Laws\n\n\n- The order of the operands does not matter\n\n\n### Associative Laws\n\n- When all the operators are the same, it does not matter what order they are applied in.\n\n### Simplifying boolean expressions\n\n- Simplifying means rewriting the expression in a way that uses fewer logic gates but keeping the exact same functionality.\n\nA+(-)A=1 - A OR NOT A IS TRUE\nA+A=A\nA.0 = 0\nA.1 = A\nA.A = A\nA.(-)A=0\n(-)(-)A=A\n\n1) A\n2) B\n3) A.B\n4) D.F+G+A.(-)B\n5) \n---\n#### Starter\n\nA AND NOT A IS FALSE\n\nThis is correct because A is TRUE and NOT A is FALSE. So an AND operation on a TRUE and FALSE will result in FALSE due to one of the inputs being FALSE.\n\n## Boolean Laws (continued)\n\n### Absorption Laws\n\n- If a term is ANDed or ORed to itself, then it is equivalent.\n\nA + A.B = A\nA.(A+B) =A\n\n\n\n#### Practice\n\nC + C.D = C\nD + C.D.B = D\nA.(C+A) = A\nD.F + D.1 = D.\nE.F.(E.F+D) = E.F\nA.A+A.1+B.-B = A\n\n### Distributive Laws\n\n- Like mathematical algebra, you should expand brackets where needed.\n\n- It is also possible to expand brackets in Boolean algebra expressions when an expression is ANDed with an expression enclosed in brackets.\n\n- This can often help to simplify an expression (though sometimes it might not—just because you can expand brackets does not mean it is always right to do so.)\n\nA.(B+C) = (A.B) + (A.C)\n(A+B).(C+D) = (A.C) + (A.D) + (B.C) + (B.D)\n\n### Inverse Distributive Laws\n\nAlso known as: **factoring**\n\n- In algebraic expressions you will have seen that sometimes an expression can be simplified by adding brackets, the same is true for boolean algebra.\n\n#### Practice\n\nC.(D+B) = (C.D) + (C+B)\nC.D.(B+A.E) = (C.D.B) + (C.D.A) + (C.D.E)\nA.(B+C+D)+A.\n\n### DeMorgan's Laws\n\n- Two **most important** laws.\n\n### DeMorgan's First Law\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230210123806.png]]\n*Law 1 and Law 2 in a Venn diagram*\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20230210123833.png]]\n\nTherefore, N\nT A OR B is the same as NOT A AND NOT B\n\n\n### De Morgan's Second Law\n\nEssentially the inverse of the first law.\n\nTherefore, NOT A AND B is the same as NOT A OR NOT B\n\n[Binary Logic](sixth/CompSci/Theory/BinaryLogic/BinaryLogic)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory","boolean"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/CharacterSets":{"title":"Character Sets","content":"## Recall\n- Convert 12 to bin\n\t- 0000 1100\n- -12 2s complement\n\t- 1111 0100\n- 12.5 to fixed point\n\t- 0000 1100.1\n- Normalize 12.5 to floating point\n\t- 0.11001 0100\n\n# What is a character?\nA character or a symbol that is present on a keyboard.\n\nA code is generated for each character or symbol while typing on a keyboard. This code is then converted to its character or symbol for displaying and printing purposes.\n\n## ASCII\nAmerican Standard Code for Information Interchange\n- 7-bit character set, can represent 128 different characters.\n- ASCII is English only\n\n### Error checking \u0026 Correction\n- The 8th bit of ASCII is a *parity check bit* which ensures that there is no data corruption. It indicates whether there should be an odd or even number of bits turned ON (binary 1s). If the check bit does not match the rest of the word, then the data is corrupted.\n- The sender and receiver must agree to use parity checking and whether this is to be odd or even. (The parity check could be for an odd number or an even number—usually even).\n\nA *checksum* is a number calculated (hashed) from a long message.\n\n## Extended ASCII\n- ASCII realised that there was an issue only being able to type in English graphemes, so they added more codes to support foreign languages.\n- Extended ASCII code consists of an 8-bit character set, and hence 256 different characters can be encoded.\n- Characters used in European languages can also be represented in this coding.\n\nIt added more characters, but still couldn't fit every character needed for every language. \n\n## Unicode\n- Unicode is the industrial standard for encoding characters in most of the world's writing systems.\n- Initially, this was a 16-bit system (UTF-16) that permitted over 65,000 characters.\n- The number of bits has now been extended up to 32 (UTF-32), permitting coding of several billions of characters.\n\n- The just wasn't enough character space to include all the combinations of graphemes and scripts particularly in far East Asian countries.\n- This system uses 8 to 32 bit per character\n- Because of a higher number of bits per character in Unicode, the files occupy more memory space.\n- A grapheme is a letter.\n- The ASCII character codes for the characters and symbols remained unchanged in Unicode.\n- Unicode is used online as users communicate in different languages.\n- It would not have been possible with older computer systems due to memory limitations.\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/ComputerArchitecture":{"title":"Computer Architecture","content":"\n## Von Neumann Architecture\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221215104812.png]]\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221215105033.png]]\n\n**ALU:** Arithmetic Logic Unit\n**Accumulator:** Does addition\n\n\n## Buses\n\n**Address Bus:** Transmits the address from the processor to the memory or I/O controller. Unidirectional: from the processor to memory and input-output devices.\n\n**Data Bus:** Sends data between the processor, memory and input-output devices. It is bidirectional.\n\n**Control bus:** Signals sent by the processor to control the memory and peripheral devices. Bidirectional: From the processor to the memory and input-output devices.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221215105539.png]]\n\n\n### Address Bus\n- Memory is divided into several fixed segments called words.\n- The words may be sized at 16,32 or 64 bits, depending on the processor.\n- The addresses of operands are sent via the address bus.\n- The results are calculated by the processor and stored in a particular memory location, the address of this is transmitted via address bus.\n\n### Data Bus\n- A bidirectional bus consisting of 8,16,32,64 parallel lines.\n- Transmits instructions and data between the processor and the, memory and I/O devices.\n\n### Control Bus\n- A bidirectional bus that transmits timing, status signals and commands between the processor, memory and I/O devices.\n- Makes sure that data is travelling to the correct place at the correct time. \n- Different control signals are:\n\t- Clock: Synchronise the operations of the computer.\n\t- Memory Read: The contents in the specified address are copied to the data bus.\n\t- Memory Write: The contents of the bus data bus are copied to the specified address.\n\n## Registers\n\n- Program Counters: Holds the address of the next instruction to execute.\n- Current Instruction Register: Holds the current instruction being executed.\n- Memory Address Register: Holds the data address of the register from which data is read, or to which data is to be written.\n- Memory or Data Register: Temporarily stores the data being read from or written to the memory.\n- Status Register: Holds the bits that are set or cleared based on the results of an instruction.\n\n---\n\nStored program concept: Machine code instructions stored in main memory are fetched and executed serially.\n\nGeneral purpose registers are named R0-R12\n\n## Memory Unit\n\n- A memory unit consists of a number of partitions\n- Each partition consists of data and and address\n\n## Read Operation\n\n- To read the contents from any location, the registers MAR (memory address register) and MDR (memory data register) are used.\n- A read signal is sent by the processor to the memory. The contents are then copied to the MDR.\n\n## Write Operation\n\n- To write data into a particular address, the data is first written to the MDR.\n- The address is then written to the MAR.\n- A write signal is sent by the processor to the memory unit through the control bus and the location is written to with the data in the MDR.\n\n## Processor ALU \u0026 CU\n\n- The processor contains ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and CU (Control Unit).\n- The ALU is responsible for arithmetic functions such as addition, subtraction, multiplication etc and logic operations such as AND, OR, NOT etc.\n- The Accumulator (ACC) is the register that stores the result of arithmetic and logical operations performed by a processor.\n\n## Processor: CU\n\n- The control unit (CU) is responsible for controlling the memory, processor and input-output devices. \n- It contains the CIR (Current Instruction Register) and PC (Program Counter).\n- The CIR contains the current instruction carried out by the processor.\n- The PC contains the location of the instruction that is to be executed next.\n- The control unit reads the instruction from the memory, decodes it and sends control signals to the memory and I/O devices.\n\n## I/O Controller\n\n- Each device has its own controller which is connected to a control bus. I/O controller is responsible for receiving the requests from the processor and sending control signals to the device specified for that operation. \n\n- it consists of:\n - An interface to connect it to the system or I/O bus.\n - a set of data, command and status registers/\n - an interface \n\n## Assembly Language\n\n- Assembly is a low level programming language equivalent to machine code or binary instructions on a 1:1 basis.\n- It uses some word like structures to represent the instructions given to the CPU.\n- Mainly used in embedded systems because it is time consuming specialist work.\n- Assemblers translate it into machine code.\n\n- Different CPUs have different different machine and assembly codes.\n- Assembly operations are split into an opcode and an operand—LDR 2A\n\n- Opcodes are instructions. Ie, LDR = Load\n- Operands are locations or data values. Ie, 2A = 42 in Hexadecimal\n\n\n### Assembly Language Addressing\n\nImmediate addressing:\n- The operand is the data\n- LDR R1, #42 = Load 42 into register 1\n- Hash specifies a decimal value\n\nDirect addressing:\n- The operand is the address of the data\n- LDR R0, 103 = Load the data at memory address 103 to register 0\n- This can be a main memory address or one of the registers\n\nOther forms of addressing do exist, but are not relevant for A Level.\n\nAssembly instructions are provided in an exam, you do not need to learn them.\n\n## RISC vs CISC\n\nRISC:\n\n- complex instruction set processors have more and more of the commands at assembly level\n- they can interpret high level languages more directly\n- they run complex algorithms more effectively\n- this leads to more complex chip designs and higher energy use but simpler code conversion\n\nCISC:\n\n- reduced instruction set processors can't directly translate the high level instructions\n- this leads to more lines of code at the assembly level\n- they are more simply designed processors and run simple commands faster\n- RISC processors can use pipelining, simple commands can be run simultaneously\n\n---\n\n## Control Bus Signals\n\n- The different control signals transmitted by the control bus are:\n- Clock: Synchronise operations of the computer\n- Memory Read: The contents in the specified address is copied to the data bus\n- Memory Write: The contents of the data bus is copied to the specified address\n- Bus Request: A device requests to use the data bus, so it can perform a read/write operation\n- Bus Grant: Signal from the processor indicating that the device is granted access to use the data bus.\n- Interrupt Request: An interrupt is a signal sent by a device requesting access to the processor.\n\n### CBS questions\n\na) 9D needs reading. \n- Increment PC\n- MAR 9D\n- Bus request sent to request a read operation.\n- Control Unit approves read operation.\n- Bus Grant returned to authorize bus usage.\n- Memory Read performed to copy the contents of address 9D into the data bus.\n- Data saved to the MDR (memory data register)\n\nb) To write the data 76 to address 99, you would need to:\n- Increment PC\n- Bus request for write operation\n- Control Unit approves write operation.\n- Bus Grant returned to approve write operation\n- Memory Write to store the literal #76 in the address 99\n- Data bus moves data to address and saves it\n\n## Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle\n\n### Fetch\n- The program counter contains the location of the instruction that is to be executed next. This address is copied to the MAR.\n- The instruction is fetched from the memory and copied to the MDR.\n- Then the contents of the MDR is copied into the CIR.\n- The value in the PC is incremented by 1 and the instruction in the next memory location is processed.\n\n### Decode\n- The instructions are decoded so that it can be executed.\n\n### Execute\n\n- The processor sends appropriate control signals to the memory unit and input-output devices in the computer system according to the decoded instruction.\n\n## Registers (RECAP)\n\n**PC:** Program counter contains the allocation of the instruction which has to be fetched.\n**MAR:** Using the address bus, the contents of the PC is copied to the MAR\n**MDR:** The instruction at that particular location is copied to the MDR temporarily\n**CIR:** Stores the currently processing instruction\n\n## Interrupts\n\n- Interrupts allow the computer to carry out many tasks at the same time\n- When the interrupt is serviced, the status of the current job is saved. The contents of registers PC and CIR are saved onto the system stack.\n- Once the interrupt is serviced using the interrupt service routine, the current job is serviced according to its status when it was saved before the interrupt service.\n\n### Vectored Interrupt Mechanism\n\n- Each interrupt is associated with a vector, which points to the code associated with that interrupt\n- When an interrupt occurs, the current values of the registers are saved to a stack memory structure and the processor identifies the type of interrupt.\n- Then the processor points to the vector and processes the interrupt service routine. This technique is called vectored interrupt mechanism.\n\n### Interrupted Interrupt\n\n- Sometimes, when an interrupt is being serviced, another interrupt occurs.\n- The processor may save the status of the current interrupt processing and proceed to service the new interrupt.\n- Another methodology that can be used is priorities. In this methodology, we prioritise the most important interrupts first.\n\n---\n## End of Topic\n\n1) What are the three types of bus and their functions? \nData bus -\u003e Transports data between components\nControl bus -\u003e Carries control signals and instructions\nAddress bus -\u003e Allows referencing of memory locations\n\n2) How are memory locations addressed? Each memory location has a unique ID which allows for it to be referenced through a memory address bus.\n3) The ALU is responsible for various arithmetic and logical functions within the processor. \n4) The control unit controls the memory and peripheral devices through control signals sent over the control bus (lots of control). It also receives interrupts over the bus.\n5) List different registers\n- CIR - Current Instruction Register\n- PC - Program Counter\n- MBR - Memory Buffer Register\n- MDR - Memory Data Register\n- MAR - Memory Address Register\n- SR - Status Register\n- ACC - Accumulator\n\n---\n\n## Processing Speed\n\n- Depends on the speed of the CPU, memory and bus speed.\n\n### CPU Performance\n- Four impacting factors are:\n\t- Cores\n\t- Clock rate\n\t- Cache size \n\t- Processor type\n\n### Cores\n\n- A CPU consists of multiple processing units. Each processing unit is known as a *core*.\n- A core consists of a processor (ALU and CU) and registers.\n- Computers may be dual, quad or higher core counts.\n- As the number of cores increases, the computer has more power to execute multiple programs at once.\n\n### Cores Linked\n\n- As more cores are used, communication channels between cores increase exponentially.\n- These communication channels drain some performance from each core, as every core must communicate with every other core.\n\n### Clock Rate\n\n- Clock rate indicates the number of instructions processed by a CPU in a second.\n- It is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)\n- A 4GHz processor handles around 4 billion instructions a second\n- A faster CPU requires more power and produces more heat\n\n\n### Overclocking\n\n- The speed of a computer can be overridden by the BIOS,\n- Increasing the clock speed of your CPU is called over-clocking\n- There are circuitry limitations regarding the speed. If a computer is forced to work at a higher speed, more than its limit, the instructions might not get executed completely. This leads to data corruption and overheating.\n\n### Cache\n\n- Cache is a small memory part located closer to CPU when compared to RAM\n- Cache temporarirly holds the data and instructions that the CPU is likely to use more frequently\n- To reduce the access time, the control unit checks cache first before requesting any instructions from RAM or main memory.\n- Cache is located directly on the CPU chip.\n\n- Due to the presence of cache, the speed of CPU increases.\n\n### Cache Types\n\nLevel 1:\n- 8KB to 64KB\n- On the CPU chip\n- Fastest access time\n- Smallest cache in the CPU\nLevel 2:\n- Bigger than L1\n- Between CPU and RAM\n- Slightly slower than L1\nLevel 3:\n- Further from the CPU but still closer than the RAM\n- More storage than L2 cache\n\nL1 and L2 cache are dedicated to each core, however L3 cache is shared between all cores.\n\n### Cache Size\n\n- It is important to note that cache occupies only a small space compared to RAM\n- Cache is also expensive when compared to RAM.\n- L3 cache is typically around 4MB\n\n### Data Word Size\n\n- Each word has its own specific address\n- In case of read and write operation it is important for us to know the address of the memory location.\n- The larger the data word size, the more RAM you can use, the more operations you can handle at once, the larger the number of available opcodes on the instruction set etc\n- Typical sizes: 32-bit,64-bit,128-bit\n\n### Embedded Systems\n\n- Programmed during manufacturing stage\n- Users operate these using interfaces such as buttons or touch screens\n- The software cannot be modified, it is typically bult into the physical chip\n\n## Input devices\n\n### 2D Scanners\n\n- Read head moves over the page, detects light and converts dark and light patches into a digital image.\n\n### 3D Scanners\n\n- Similar to a 2D scanner, but also using lasers and building a three dimensional model of the object—creating an asset that can be used in games, movies or any other purpose.\n\n### Barcode Reader\n\n- Read by a laser\n- Light reflected back into the sensor\n- Light and dark areas can be distinguished\n- This is then used to distinguish between different products and communicate what product is being purchased to a PoS system.\n\n### QR Codes\n\n- A binary pattern encoded into an image\n- QR Codes are up to 7000 digits whereas normal barcodes can only store 30 digits\n- With Internet access, QR codes can be scanned anywhere.\n- They are widely used for advertising products on public transport in public areas.\n\n### Digital Cameras\n\n- Microprocessor automatically adjusts shutter speeds, focus the image, operate the flash, adjust the aperture etc etc\n\n\n### Microphone, Keyboard and Mouse\n\n- Not noted, basic.\n\n### Voice Recognition System\n\n- Used in security systems\n- It has software to compare the wave pattern of the sound from the user to the wave pattern stored in its memory.\n- If the two wave patterns match, then the user is identifies.\n\n- Breaks different sounds into *phonemes*.\n\n### Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)\n\n- A technology to identify and track tags attached to items such as cars, animals, bank cards etc\n- Identified using electromagnetic fields without a line of sight\n- Consists of a transponder and an antenna\n\n#### Passive tags\n\n- Powered by the energy from the RFID reader's radio waves.\n- Cheaper compared to active tags\n- Used when reader is less than one meter away\n\n#### Active tags\n- Powered by batteries and can send signals at a greater distance from the reader.\n- Used for tracking catds etc\n\n\n### Sensors\n\n- Read physical information and produce a digital output that cna be used by a computer\n\n## Output\n\n### Inkjet Printer\n\n- Sprays ink onto a page to convert a digital file to a physical document.\n\n#### Piezoelectric\n\n- A crystal at the back of the ink reservoir is given an electric charge and a vibration is created.\n- This vibration forces the ink to be ejected onto the paper.\n\n#### Thermal Bubble\n\n- Tiny resistors produce localised heat that vaporises ink.\n\n\n### Laser Printer\n\n- Uses powder instead of ink.\n- Uses static electricity to print.\n- Prints the whole page in one go.\n- Carries large print jobs out at higher speeds than inkjet.\n\n### 3D Printers\n\n- Layer plastics on a base in a specific way to result in a model being produced.\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/DataRepFundamentals":{"title":"Data Representation Fundamentals and Maths","content":"\n## Types of numbers\n\n### Natural Numbers\nWhole, integer numbers used for counting. It is an infinite set of numbers - including zero. \n\n𝑵 = {0,1,2,3}\n\n### Integers\nNatural numbers, including negatives.\n\n𝐙= {-3,-2,0,1}\n\n### Rational Numbers\n\nAny value that can be represented as a fraction or ratio is called a rational number.\n\nRecurring numbers like 0.333333.... are also rational, as they can be represented as a fraction (1/3)\n\nIncludes integers.\n\nThey are represented with Q.\n\n### Irrational Numbers\n\nCannot be represented using a finite number of digits or fractions.\n\n### Real Numbers\n\nDenote the set of natural numbers, irrational numbers and rational numbers.\n\nRepresented using the letter R.\n\nImaginary numbers such as infinity are not real numbers.\n\nReal numbers are used for measurement.\n\n### Ordinal Numbers\nUsed to indicate the position of an item.\n\nFor example: first, second, third etc etc\n\nThey are used in array pointers.\n\nCharacters in a string can be numbered using ordinal numbers.\n\n### Sets (Finite)\nAn unordered collection of values and symbols where no value or symbol occurs more than once. \n\nA set is denoted using A \n\nA finite set consists of a number of elements that can be counted using natural numbers.\n\nCardinality denotes the number of elements in a set.\n\nFor example, chess pieces are a set.\n\n### Sets (Infinite)\n\nAn infinite set may be countable or uncountable.\n\n\n#### Solving a set \n\nA = {2,4,6,8,10,12}\nB = {3,6,9,12}\nC = {4,8,12}\n\nA∪B∪C = {2,3,4,6,8,9,10,12}\n\n`∪` is the symbol for union.\n\n### Empty Set\nConsidering sets A = {1,3,5,7} and B = {2,4}\n\nThe intersection of two sets represents the common elements in both the sets.\n\nIn this case, there are no common elements, therefore the intersection of sets A and B is represeted as A N B = ɸ\n\nɸ = null\nɸ is phi\n\n### Defining sets\n A set can be represented using set comprehension.\nThe vertical bar (|) represents \"such that\" and the symbol 𝐸 denoted \"belongs to\" or \"is a member of\". The symbol ^ denotes and operation.\n\n### Cardinality of sets\n\nA = {𝑥 𝐸 𝐙 | -2 \u003c 𝑥 \u003c 7}\n\n### Subsets and Supersets\nIf every member of A is also present in B, then A is a subset of B. This relationship is also represented as:\n\nA ⊆ B\n\nA super set would be \n\nA ⊃ B\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20220915111406.png]]\n\nThink of substrings, sublists etc\n\n### Cartesian Products\n\nThe cartesian product of two sets (P and Q) is written as P x Q and consists of ordered pairs (p,q) where p is a member of set P and q is a member of set Q.\n\nFor example, P = {1,3,5,7} and Q = {2,4}, then P x Q = {(1,2), (1,4), (3,2), (3,4), (5,2), (5,4), (7,2), (7,4)}\n\nUsed in substrings where there is a set of rules to give the total number of combinations possible. Useful for choosing a scheme for a billion user social site.\n\n### Union\n\nAn OR operation between two sets results in the union (∪) of both sets.\n\n### Intersection\n\nThe similarities between two sets\n\n### Difference\n\nA / B represents the difference between A and B\n\n### Symmetric Difference/ Disjunctive Union\n\nThe resulting set consists of elements that are in either set but not in their intersection. \n\nA Δ B\n\n\n[Storing this as binary](sixth/CompSci/Theory/NumberBases)\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/ConcurrentAccess":{"title":"Concurrent Access","content":"\n## The Problem\n\n- Concurrent access is concerned with how we deal with multiple changes to the database happening at the same time.\n\t- This usually hapens because multiple client processes are making changes.\n\t\t- Amazon order processing. Multiple clients are placing orders at the same time. These orders need to update the same piece of information (such as current stock level).\n\n\n## The Solution(s)\n\n### Record Locks\n\n- Each record that needs to be updated is locked by the updating process.\n\t- A lock means that only that process can change the locked process\n- Lock all records needed for the transaction **before** any changes are made.\n\t- Downside: you may need to lock hundreds of records before you can proceed\n- Lock each record as it is updated but always process records in the same order.\n\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Deadlocks\n\t\t- Process A locks record 1\n\t\t- Process B locks record 2\n\t\t- Process A tried to lock record 2 but cannot because it is locked by Process B. Process B tried to lock record 1 but cannot because it is locked by Process A. Both processes wait for the record to become unlocked, causing the program to hang.\n\t\t\t- If a process crashes, then when should records be unlocked? Will they be unlocked?\n\n### Timestamp Ordering\n\n- Each record in the system has a timestamp that indicates the last time it was updated.\n- All changes are similarly timestamped to show when they were issued.\n- Rules to determine if the transaction can proceed:\n\t- If a change arrives that has a timestamp before the current record timestamp, it is discarded.\n\t- If a read is requested that has a timestamp before the current record timestamp, it is discarded.\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Important changes might be lost\n\t- Clocks must be effectively synchronised\n\n### Serialisation\n\n- Only allow the DBMS to process one transaction at a time.\n- Each transaction is processed in the order they arrive.\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Performance\n\t\t- If lots of transactions occur in a short time period then a long queue can build up and it may be some time before the changes are made.\n\n### Commitment Ordering\n\n- A minor tweak to serialisation.\n- Each update is given a priority.\n\t- Stock updates should happen before stock queries for example.\n- The system can also be made aware of invalid sequences of updates and programmed to avoid these.\n\t- For example, a stock check might be given a high priority. Other stock updates that have a lower priority but that happened before the stock stock check may exist and be blocked.\n- Disadvantages\n\t- Performance\n\n\n\n\n[Databases](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases":{"title":"Databases","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Design":{"title":"Databases: Design","content":"\n## Setting up\n\n- You need to understand the purpose of the database\n\n- This means knowing\n - What data it needs to store\n - How the data is going to be used\n - What the relationships are between different pieces of data\n\n- We start by talking to the customer to get as complete a picture as we can\n\n## Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)\n\n- Once we've spoken to our customer, or even as we speak to our customer, we make an ERD.\n\n- This shows which entities the system needs to model.\n - It also shows the relationships between these entities.\n\n**Example:** *A school has classes that are taught by a single teacher and attended by one or more students. Each class is taught in a single room. Students can study more than one subject but teachers can only teach one subject.*\n\n\u003e Identify the entities.\n \n- What is an entity is a discussion, not a given. Things that the database needs to track are entities.\n- Some entities may be physical—such as a teacher—whilst some are just concepts—such as a subject.\n\n\n**Entities:** school, classes, teacher, room, students, subject\n\nThe school may want additional entities, such as reports, registers, books, invoices etc. It simply depends upon the use case for the database and what the school wishes to track/do with the database.\n\nSome entities may not be needed. So for instance a school would not be required in this database as all data is stored solely for the school—if multiple schools needed to use this database then the school entity might make sense. So we can exclude **school** from our entity list.\n\nNext, we take **all** of the entities and think about how they are related to **all other** entities.\n\n### Naming conventions\n\nEntities should be named in a uniform way. The convention is to be consistent, and people typically name everything in the singular. \n\nSo we would store *classes* as *class* and *students* as *student*.\n\nThis does not technically matter in terms of database performance or functionality, it's just something that makes it easier for humans to understand.\n\n### Relationships\n\nThere are 3 types of relationship possible between entities.\n\n#### One-to-one\n\n- For each single item a link exists to another single item. \n- So one alarm links to one house. An alarm cannot be installed in multiple houses, and the imaginary security company only installs one alarm per house.\n\n#### One-to-many\n\n- For one single item, a link exists to multiple other items. \n- For example, a supplier may have mutliple products.\n\nHeinz is the supplier of baked beans and ketchup. However ketchup and baked beans only have 1 supplier, whilst Heinz has 2 products in this scenario.\n\n*Each product can only have 1 supplier.*\n\n#### Many-to-many\n\n- For each single instance, there are links to and from multiple other instances of a different entity.\n- A subject can be taught by many teachers, and teachers can teach many subjects.\n\n![Relationship Types](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/img/relationshiptypes.png)\n\n\u003e [!caution]\n\u003e Avoid any relationship except one-to-many.\n\u003e It is significantly easier to work with one-to-many and it makes your database more flexible.\n\n---\n\nMany-to-many relationships are difficult to model.\n\nSo we break up the relationship and make a link entity\n\nSo instead of having a many-to-many link between *subject* and *teacher*, we have a one-to-many relationship between *teacher* and *subject teacher* and *subject* and *subject teacher*. This reduces wasted space to 0 in our model and also makes queries easier to manage.\n\nWith a one-to-one relationship, there is exactly one instance of each entity for each instance of another entity. Although this is OK and does provide the possibility to expand the system in future, it might make sense to combine the two.\n\nSo *House* and *Alarm* (with a one-to-one relationship) could be replaced with a single entity called *Alarm Installation*.\n\n\n\nNormalization is required to ensure that data is stored in the most proper way. So for any one data point, there is only one way it should be stored.\n\nIf the same type of information is stored more than once - ie, product details for an order, then this is a **repeating group**. It should NOT be stored in the same entity as the order. So you would make a new entity to store the repeating group.\n\nAn instance of the repeating group entity will be created for every new line required.\n\n\n---\n\n## Data Dictionary\n\n- Once we know what the entities are, we need to identify their attributes.\n- This means working out what information we need to store about each entity and what data type we need to store this as.\n- We would also need to consider, at this stage, what validation rules would be needed for each attribute.\n\n### Primary Key Fields\n\n- For each instance of an entity we need some way of identifying it\n\t- Each pupil needs an ID\n\t- Each car needs an ID\n\t- etc\n- The information we use to identify a single instance of the entity must be unique\n- Sometimes there exists some attribute that fulfils this requirement.\n\t- The VIN on a car for example\n- But often, and sometimes even if an attribute could be used, we want to make our own unique ID.\n\n- The ID value when seen in the entity that is identifying is called the **Primary key**.\n- When used in another entity, it is used to link two things together and is called a **Foreign key**.\n\n\n- Sometimes we can't use a single attribute to uniquely identify an instance of an entity.\n- In this case we might need to use two or more attributes.\n- This is called a **Composite Key** (sometimes a *Compound Key*).\n\n- A key can be a primary key **and** a foreign key.\n\nKeys are how we create relationships in a relational database.\n\n## Normalization\n\n- We've identified the entities and the data that we think should be stored in them.\n- Normalization is the process of ensuring that the data is stored in the most efficient way possible.\n- When we're finished, the data is said to be in Third Normal Form.\n\t- First and Second Normal form are not relevant.\n\n\u003e [!tip] Important\n\u003e\n\u003e A database is in third normal form if every attribute in every entity is dependant on the key, the whole key, and nothing but the key.\n\n*Reference to the key is primary or composite key.*\n\n### Third Normal Form\n\n- We make sure that each entity only has attributes that depend on the whole key.\n- Remove any repeating groups.\n- We make sure that we have no many-to-many relationships.\n- All data is atomic\n\t- Atomic meaning that no attribute contains more than one piece of information\n\nA name is not atomic because it contains at least 2 pieces of information \"FirstName\" and \"LastName\". Storing it just as \"Name\" would be possible, but would greatly complicate things later on. \n\nIt is also possible to break information into more pieces of information than necessary. For example, if your address was “23 Chester Close\"” you might try and break it down into \"23\" and \"Chester Close\". However as it is the first line of their address, it is a single piece of information. This does depend upon use case of course, because if you just want to find people living on a certain street, then you might wish to collect street names as seperate entities.\n\n## Reasons for normalization\n\n- Eliminate duplication\n\t- Make sure each piece of information is only stored once\n\t\t- Only store the customer details once\n\t\t- Don't store the same details in another table\n\t\t- Link back to the customer entity with a foreign key\n- Eliminate redundancy\n\t- Storing the same information twice but in different forms\n\t\t- Storing an engine power in horsepower and torques\n\t\t- Storing a length in meters and feet\n- Eliminate anomalies (insertion, update or delete)\n\t- If there are no duplications, we can't get anomalies\n\t\t- I have a customer's address stored twice in two entities\n\t\t- When I update this information I only update one instance\n- Eliminate inconsistencies\n\t- An inconsistency is the result of an anomaly.\n\t\t- Having had the anomaly mentioned above I now have two addresses for the same customer\n\t\t- How would I determine which one is correct?\n\n- To improve database performance\n\t- Reduce storage requirements\n\t\t- No duplication means less data\n\t- Increase operation speed (lookup, update, delete)\n\t\t- No duplication or redundancy makes operations simpler and use less resources\n\n\n\n[Databases](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory","databases"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Overview":{"title":"Databases: Overview","content":"\n## Data vs Information\n\n### Data\n\n- Values from a source where there is no context.\n - 16.7\n - True\n - Baker\n\n### Information\n\n- Values given context and therefore meaning.\n - Today's maximum temperature is 16.7 celcius\n - Are you passing your course? true\n - Customer's Last Name: Baker\n\nBecause of this, it would make more sense to describe a database as an \"informationbase\".\n\n\n\u003e Knowledge is power.\n\n\n\n## What is a database?\n\n- Put simply it is\n - persistent - it's not volatile\n - organised - we know where things are and where things go\n - information - it has context so we can make sense of it\n\n## Why are databases used?\n\n- Provide a centralised store for all of our information.\n - Making sure that all users can see the same data.\n- Allow fast and accurate access to the information.\n - For analysis and reporting.\n- Allow multi-user access.\n - From different locations and devices.\n- Keep the data accurate.\n - Validating the inputs and only storing each piece of information once.\n- Keeping the data secure.\n - Authenticating users and only showing them data they're allowed to see.\n\n\n---\n\n## Legalities\n\n- The law says that data must be secure and accurate\n - Data Protection Act (DPA)\n - General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)\n\n- We must ensure that they stay accurate, not just because the law says so. \n - If you move house, it is important that your bank knows this.\n - If I delete a supplier from my system, what about products that they sold us and that we sold onto our customers?\n\nResponsibility for the safety of information relies partially on the organisation to set and enforce policies, but the individual can be liable if they go against their organisation's policies. \n\nIf someone has information stored about you, then they are legally required to give it all to you upon request within a reasonable amount of time. Some organisations are exempt from this, such as the police and various security services. Information may be withheld if the usecase of the requester is suspected to be malicious, however this becomes more complex as anyone you have data on still has their rights. \n\nOrphaned data is information that has been disconnected from linked data points. So if you have a product from a supplier and you delete the supplier from your database, then the product has no supplier. This means that the product would be orphaned.\n\n\n\n## Worksheet\n\n### Farm\n\nA databse may be used on a farm to keep track of the status of various crops, equipment and balances. This data would be useful to help the farm analyse where their money comes from by identifying the most profitable crops - and then linking this to the equipment used for those crops. Later this may lead to the farm making different decisions based on how they want to operate, for instance they may not want to grow certain crops or use certain equipment if they have identified any potential issues with it. Automatic management of different stock levels (fertilisers etc) could also be enabled through the use of a database combined with automation.\n\n### Website\n\nA website may wish to track visitors to the site and store this information in a database. If, for example, the website was providing a media sharing service, then this analytical data could be used to find out what media is most popular in different regions. This could help the website target their advertising to these regions, and ensure that any local languages are supported. Additionally, it may be possible for the website to decide where to focus development efforts when they see that 70% of their traffic comes from users on mobile devices. This means it would be a good idea for them to put resources into improving their website experience on mobile form factors.\n\n### Restaurant\n\nIf a restaurant serves 60 different dishes, there will likely be dishes that are more popular than others. If every time somebody orders something it is recorded in a database, then it would be possible for the restaurant to ensure that they always have the correct ingredients avaliable to provide customers with their favourite dinner dishes on Thursdays. Additionally, it would allow the restaurant to review the performance of different dishes and remove less popular ones from their menu. Another datapoint that the restaurant could get from collecting this information is populatirty based on time and day. They could look at when the most orders are coming in and ensure that they always have enough staff on shift on a Saturday morning whilst also making sure that on a Monday morning they have a much more minimal staff, optimising both costs and customer experience.\n\n\n### The Law\n\n1) Describe the nature of content and purpose\n2) Assess the necessity and compliance measures\n3) Identify and evaluate potential risks to data subjects\n4) Identify any additional actions that could mitigate those risks\n\n### Database Management Systems\n\n- Provides additional security\n- Sharing of data and multi user transaction processing becomes possible\n\n- Allow remote access of data\n - Enables applications and employees to work across the world\n\n- Greatly simplified bulk operations and queries\n - Runs queries and operations much faster due to a dedicated design\n\n\n- DBMS are more complex than flat files - a standard user cannot directly interface with it.\n\n[Databases](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases)\n\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory","databases"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/SQL":{"title":"Databases: SQL","content":"\n## What is SQL?\n\n- Structured Query Language\n\t- A fourth generation programming language\n\t\t- The programmer expresses the problem, not the solution\n\t\t- The system already knows how to solve the problem\n\t- Used to manage databases\n\t- Used to manipulate the data in databases\n\t\t- Add, edit, delete.\n\t- Can be pronounced S-Q-L or sequel.\n\n\u003e [!info] Recap - Programming Language Hierarchy\n\u003e\n\u003e **1st generation:** Binary/machine code\n\u003e \n\u003e **2nd generation:** Assembly\n\u003e \n\u003e **3rd generation:** Python/C/Java etc (most languages are here)\n\u003e \n\u003e **4th generation:** SQL, HTML\n\n4th generation languages expect you to describe a problem, and the language will deal with finding the solution to solve the problem. Whereas 3rd generation languages require you to describe the solution to a problem.\n\n## Terminology Changes\n\nWhen you move from the design phase to the actual database phase, some terminology needs to be changed.\n\n| Design Phase | Actual Database |\n|--------------|----------------------|\n| Entity | Table or relation |\n| Attribute | Field or column |\n| Instance | Record, tuple or row |\n\nThe most commonly used words for each term are: *table, field and record*. Some people may use other terms.\n\nAny terminology not listed in the above table will stay the same regardless.\n\n## Using SQL\n\n- SQL has two subsets of the language\n\t- A data definition language or DDL\n\t\t- This is a subset of SQL that is concerned with making and managing the database\n\t\t\t- Creating, modifying and deleting databases and tables\n\t\t\t- Creating users and assigning their rights\n\t- A data manipulation language or DML\n\t\t- This is the other subset of SQL that is concerned with managing the data in the database\n\t\t\t- Adding, modifying and deleting individual records\n\t\t\t- Searching for data according to specific criteria\n\nDDL is more for administrative purposes, whereas DML is more designed for users.\n\nDDL contains very dangerous commands, such as `DROP *` in SQL, which would immediately delete everything.\n\nMultiple databases may be hosted on the same DBMS, a hosting company may even host multiple different company's data on a single DBMS. Therefore, giving DDL permissions to anyone who doesn't **absolutely require** them and **completely understand** what they are doing is a **very bad idea**.\n\nDDL commands will typically need to be tested on staging environments thoroughly before being run on live/production environments.\n\n\n## Database Management Systems (DBMS)\n\n- This is the name given to the software that we use to:\n\t- Create a database\n\t- Add information to a database\n\t- Query the database\n\t- Update the database\n\t- Delete information from the database\n- Your programs send messages to and receive responses from the DBMS.\n- The DBMS interfaces directly with the data (stored on a HDD or other secondary storage device.)\n\n\n[Databases](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory","databases"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/SQLAndPython":{"title":"SQL And Python","content":"\n## The Basics\n\n- Python is the language you use to define how to solve a problem\n- In solving the problem, it is very common to need to access a database\n- SQL is the language that we use to define the database problem that needs solving\n- Python and most other languages provide modules to allow you to issue SQL commands to a database and read the results back\n- This means having one source file with two programming languages in it (Python and SQL)\n\n- Python supports many DBMS\n\n*Some* examples include:\n\n- SQLite\n\t- Very basic, single access, limited data types. Included with Python.\n- MySQL\n\t- Very popular, very sophisticated DBMS. Free and used on lots of web servers.\n- MS SQL\n\t- Very popular, very sophisticated. Has a free express version. Used by many businesses and some webservers. Produced by Microsoft.\n- Access\n\t- A graphical database system produced by Microsoft. Highly unrecommended for most use cases. Does not stick to Microsoft standards.\n\n\n## Connecting to a database with Python\n\n- Connect to the DBMS\n- Issue SQL commands or queries\n- Read and process results\n\t- You only need to do this for commands that return a result\n- Disconnect from the DBMS\n\n- In some instances it might be more efficient to connect once do lots of commands and then disconnect.\n\n\n\n\n\n[Databases](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Databases/Databases)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory","databases"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/DecimalPoints":{"title":"Decimal Points","content":"\nDecimal points separate whole numbers from their fractional part.\n\nConsider a binary number as 1001 . 1010\nthe first part, 1001 is equivalent to 9 \nwhilst the second part is equal to 0.625 (0.5 + 0.125), making the whole number 9.625\n\n\n\n## Converting denary to binary\n\n11.75 -\u003e 11 | 0.75\n11 = 1011\n0.75 = 0.11\n\n11.75 -\u003e 1011.11\n\n\n\nFixed point binary system:\n\n\n- It can be noted that using this method, only certain fractional parts can be represented.\n- In other words, only the fractional numbers that can be written as a sum of those numbers specified in the table can be converted to binary using this method accurately.\n- Consider an 8-bit register, using two bits for the fractional part means there will be only 6 bits to store the whole number. \n\n\n17.5\n\n-\u003e 17 | 0.5\n\n16 8 4 2 1 \n1 0 0 0 1\n\n0.5\n0.1\n\n10001.10\n\n(correct, use longer word length)\n\n-17.5 \n01110.01\n\n\n32.015625\n32 | 0.015625\n\n32 16 8 4 2 1\n1 0 0 0 0 0\n\n0.15625\n\n0.5 -\u003e 0.25 -\u003e 0.125 -\u003e 0.0625 -\u003e 0.03125 -\u003e0.015625\n0.00001\n\n100000.00001\n\n## Floating-point numbers\n\n1.3x10^7\n\n^7 is an *exponent*\n\n1.3 is the mantissa\n\n\n1234 = 0.1234 x 10^4\n\n\nStep 1 ) Find exponent and check sign bit\n\nStep 2 ) Modulate the mantissa by the exponent\n\n\nMantissa is the actual number\nThe exponent is the modifier to be applied to the mantissa.\n\nFPB: 001010.01\n\n 32 16 8 4 2 1 . 1/2 1/4\n\n10.25\n\n1001.0010\n\n17.125\n\t(Incorrect, negative due to sign bit)\n\n-17.5 to bin\n\n1001.1\n\n---\n\n0.111 010\n\nExponent = 2\n011.1010\n3 + 1/2 + 1/8 = 3.625\nMantissa = 3.625\n\n0.110111 0100\nExponent = 4\nMantissa = \n\n-32 16 8 4 2 1\n1 1 0 1 1 1\n\n-32 + 16 + 4 + 2 +1 = -9 \n\nAct: 13.75\n\n## Rounding Errors\n- Binary hits some issues when we deal with some numbers that aren't factors of 2.\n- It can't be done accurately, we have to settle on being as close as possible.\n\n### Absolute Error\n- The difference between the number you're trying to calculate and the number you've managed to store.\n\n### Relative Error\n- Essentially the same as a relative error, but it is expressed as a percentage.\n- It gives us an idea of the scale of the error that we're dealing with and how much we can trust the numbers.\n\n- Divide the absolute error by the number that we're trying to represent, and times the result by 100 to get a percentage.\n- So 0% is entirely accurate, and 100% is completely inaccurate.\n- The closer the percentage value is to 0, the greater the accuracy of the number.\n\n\n\nTarget Number: 25000\nAbsolute Error: 0.5\nRelative Error: 0.002%\n\nTarget Number: 100\nAbsolute Error: 0.5\nRelative Error: 0.5%\n\nTarget Number: 5000\nAbsolute Error: 0.5\nRelative Error: 0.01%\n\nTarget Number: 10\nAbsolute Error: 0.00000005\nRelative Error: 0.0000005%\n\n---\n\n#### FLOP to Denary\n\n0.010 0110\n\nExponent: 6\n\n0.010\n\n0.100\n1.0000\n10\n100\n1000\n10000\n 16 8 4 2 1\n\n16\n\n0.1101 011\n\nExponent: 3\n\n0110.1\n 4 2. 1/2 \n\n6.5\n\n---\n## Normalisation\n\nThe process of improving the accuracy of a number with decimal points.\n\n46321 (denary) can be represented as 0.46321x10^4\n0.00463x10^6 ( less accurate)\n\nOut of these representations, the first is the most precise.\n\nThis same logic can be applied to **binary numbers**. \n\nAn unormalised positive number consists of a sign bit (0) and one or more zeros after the decimal point.\n\nFor a normalised positive binary number, the sign bit is 0 and the bit after the sign bit is *always* 1.\n\nTo normalise a binary number, there must be a 1 after the decimal point. The mantissa may be lessened and the exponent will be directly increased.\n\nTo normalised a negative binary number, the first bit of both the mantissa and the exponent is 1.\n\nThe exponent may also be lessened and the mantissa increased.\n\n`01`\n`10` \n\n+ + left\n+ - right\n\n3.5 = 00011.100 \n \n0.1110 010\n\n### Standard Form\n\n In standard form, binary numbers must start with:\n\nPos: 0.1\nNeg: 1.0\n\n## Arithmetic Operations\nIf you need to add two numbers together, they must be converted into the same form. \n``\nSo 4.63x10^6 cannot be added to 4.63x10^8 until the power is normalised.\n\n### Underflow error\nAn underflow error occurs when a number is too small for your register to hold. “There isn't enough space to store a number with any accuracy, so 0 is stored.”\n\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Encryption":{"title":"Compression, encryption and hashing","content":"\n## File Handling\n- File handling is one of the most important functions of a computer system.\n- Different file formats exist to optimise data storage and interpretation.\n- Each file format occupies a different amount of space, varied further by the content of the file.\n\n## Compressing Files\n- Lossy compression\n\t- File size is decreased significantly, but quality is sacrificed.\n\t- The image cannot be reconstructed into its original form.\n\t- Removes any necessary information, stuff that is unlikely to be noticed by a human, but is stored in the file.\n- Lossless compression\n\t- No change in the quality of the image.\n\t- File size is decreased, but less so than lossy.\n\t- The image can be reconstructed into its original form.\n\t- Useful if all information is vital, but storage or bandwidth is limited.\n\t- In a text file, you could created a dictionary, where you replace certain recurring strings in the file with a single symbol that references the string in the dictionary. This allows for reduced storage size.\n\t\t- ![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221111133942.png]]\n\n### Uncompressed Image Files\n- TIFF (.tif) and bitmap (.bmp) are examples of uncompressed image files.\n\n## Different types of image files\n- PNG—Lossless - Used for transferring images over the internet\n- JPEG—Lossy - Higher compression rate than a PNG. Used in digital cameras and webpages.\n- GIF—Lossy - A sequence of frames that can be replayed to produce a short animation.\n\n## Compressing video files\n- A typical HD video has a frame rate of 60 fps. The sampling rate of the video is given in frames per second.\n- Video files also have a bit rate that defines the quality of video and audio.\n- Compressing video files allows you to do more with less bandwidth when streaming videos.\n\n## Streaming audio files : MP3\n- Compression is very helpful when streaming audio and video files.\n- MP3 file format is used for audio compression.\n- MP3 allows for up to 90% compression.\n- Even though MP3 files cannot match original CD quality, they provide a satisfactory experience.\n- Mp3 is lossy compression for an audio file.\n- A user does not hear a difference between MP3 and CD because only a few parts of the file are removed.\n- FLAC and ALAC are examples of open source lossless compression. Up to 50% size reduction with no noticable difference to quality.\n\n## Streaming video files : MP4\n- MP4 files allow the storage of audio and video.\n- Video files are compressed into MP4 format to stream online. This file is used for transmission over digital channels, cables and satellites. \n- DVD movies are also available in this format, coming over from MP2.\n\n## Run-length encoding (RLE)\n\nA form of lossless compression where repeated bits are stored together. Good if there is high repetition, but it can sometimes be inefficient.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221111135354.png]]\n\nIn video files, RLE works between frames, allowing for unchanging colours to stay as they are without using additional bandwidth.\n\nThis can cause screen tearing when it isn't working properly.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221111135830.png]]\n\n## Huffman coding\n- A compression technique used to reduce the number of bits that represent each letter.\n- A binary tree is used to encode letters.\n- A binary tree is a data structure made of nodes and is constructed based on a hierarchy. A parent node in a binary tree has up to 2 child nodes.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221111140114.png]]\nSo to say AB in this tree, you would use:\n`1110`\n\nIn Huffman coding, the more frequently used characters require less bits to represent.\n\nAnother, more complex tree, as an example:\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221111140336.png]]\n\n### How to build a binary tree\n- We need the lowest number of bits for letters with a higher frequency\n- So start with the least frequent characters, and work upwards.\n- When two nodes are close together, create a root node above to link them together.\n- When following a tree down, each possible path should terminate at a valid \"leaf\".\n\n## Encryption\n\n- The process of changing data into another form or code so that only people with access to a secret key can read it. For others, the message would be unreadable.\n\n### Caesar Cypher\n- A very simple substitution cypher. Each letter of the alphabet is shifted by a certain number of characters. A shift left of 2, would make \"abc\" become \"cde\".\n- A shift of 5 on the message \"INITIATE PLAN A\" would become \"NSNYFJ UQFS F.\"\n- Easy to decrypt, as it is vulnerable to brute force attacks and frequency analysis.\n- Longer messages are easier to decode than shorter ones.\n\n### The Vernam cypher\n- The Vernam cypher uses a one-time pad or an encryption key.\n- Encryption key: its length is equal to the length of characters, or greater than that. They keys are only used once.\n- Sender and receiver meet in person to exchange the keys and destroy them after the exchange of messages.\n- The sole mathematically unbreakable code found so far: RSA, PGP etc can be broken given enough time and computing power.\n\n- Keys can also be called salts\n- Vernam cypher works with the ASCII codes of characters. Each ASCII code is taken in binary form.\n- The one-time key is also taken in binary form.\n- An XOR operation is performed between the key and the data to produce cypher text. An XOR operation is reversible, and therefore the same method can be used to decrypt the message.\n\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/ComputerRelatedLegislation":{"title":"Computing related legislation","content":"\n### Recall\n\n- A computer will one day be more intelligent than a human being\n\t- The rate of acceleration in computing technology is high, and computers are already capable of achieving things that are, by some, considered human or more than human.\n\t- AI and related technologies are advancing exponentially, and technology typically develops in a sigmoid curve. This suggests AI has not reached its peak yet and will continue to advance. Therefore, it is feasible that AI will exceed human intelligence before it peaks.\n\n### Legal issues\n\n- Computer technology is used in various applications, and computers have become an essential part of our daily lives\n- This dependence on computer technology has also created many problems such as cybercrimes, data theft, etc\n- Legal issues include: data theft, corruption of data, identity theft, use of pirated software, fraud and harrassment.\n- These are punishable by law\n\n\n### Computer Misuse Act (1990)\n\n- It is illegal to make any unauthorised use to computer material:\n\t- with the intent to commit further offences such as blackmailing\n\t- with the intent to modify computer material such as distributing malware\n\n- Computers can be protected from these threats by:\n\t- using anti-malware software\n\t- using a firewall to protect from external threats\n\t- authenticating users with strong credential-based security and using zero-trust permissions\n\t- Digital signatures or certificates to confirm the identity of the other party during communications\n\t- SSL to secure connections over networks\n\n### Freedom of Information Act (2000)\n\n- This act ensures that the public receives information held by public authorities such as government departments, local authorities, state schools and police when requested.\n- This act is very useful for journalists and members of the public to scrutinise the work of these public authorities.\n\n- Public authorities are obliged by this act to publish certain data about what they do\n- Members of the public can request information about the activities of public bodies\n- Secret security information can still be withheld.\n\n### Communications Act (2003)\n\n- It is a crime to\n\t- Access an internet connection without paying for it\n\t- Using offensive language in any communication systems such as social media\n- This act aims to protect from stalking and trolling\n- Repeating messages with offensive language such as retweeting offensive messages is also a crime\n\n\n### Data Protection Act (1984,1998,2018)\n\n- This act protects personal data stored in computer systems. Organisations often collect personal information from users.\n- It is the right of the individual to protect his/her data from unauthorised distribution.\n- This data controller of an organisation is responsible for protecting the personal data of all users.\n\n- Under the provisions of the Data Protection Act:\n\t- Data must be obtained fairly and lawfully\n\t- Data should only be used for the purpose specified to the data protection agency and should not be disclosed to other parties without the necessary permission.\n\t- Data should be relevant and not excessive\n\t- Data should be accurate and up to date\n\t- Data should only be kept for as long as necessary\n\n#### Exemptions\n\n- National security, crime, taxation and domestic purposes\n- Any data can be processed in relation to national security, prevent or detect crimes and collection of taxes\n- Data used for individual and household purposes are also exempted from this list\n\n### Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, CPDA (1988)\n\n- Under provisions of this act, intellectual property of an individual or organisation is protected from being copied, modified or distributed.\n- This act provides protection for audio, video, and software intellectual property\n- Peer-to-peer distribution of these files affects the income of copyright owners.\n- CPDA is referred to as “all rights reserved”.\n\n- Commercial software comes with a license agreement and a license key\n- License agreement defines the terms and conditions on the use of the software\n- License key is essential for accessing the software. This is incorporated to prevent the illegal distribution of software.\n\n- Although software applications are protected, algorithms are not.\n- If an advanced form of the search algorithm is found, anyone can use it without asking permission.\n\n### Creative Commons (CC)\n\n- Creative Commons, an organisation, issues licenses to owners where the holder may choose to reserve copyrights to some part of work while allowing dew parts to be copyright free.\n\n### The Regulations of Investigatory Powers Act (2000) - R.I.P.A\n\n- This act provides a framework based on which public bodies may intercept communications, get access to communications data and surveillance.\n- This act also regulates the use of undercover agents and informers.\n- Due to advancements in encryption of communications data, giving public authorities power to communications data and surveillance helps to avoid and solve crimes.\n\n- Based on this act, public authorities have powers to:\n\t- Access communications data of any ISP's customer in secret in the interest of national security, detecting crimes and safeguarding economic interests of the country.\n\t- Monitor people's Internet activities and perform mass surveillance of communications.\n\t- May demand someone to submit the keys to access protected information.\n\t- Prevent the existence of interception warrants and any data collected with them being revealed in court.\n\n\n\n[Ethics](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/Ethics)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/EnvironmentalImpact":{"title":"Environmental Impact","content":"\n### CO2\n\n- Carbon footprint\n\t- The amount of CO2 required to produce a device AND during its lifetime disposal\n- Anthropogenic CO2 is a contributor to rapid climate change\n\n- Datacenters make up 2% of global energy use\n- Using Google services for a month produces the same amount of carbon emission as driving your car for a mile.\n- A Google search releases about 1g of carbon dioxide, and they receive about 99,000 searches per second as of 2022\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/img/Pasted image 20230912110616.png]]\n\n- Mining of metals causes massive environmental destruction\n\n\n### Resources required to make tech devices\n\n- Gold - Printed Circuit Boards, CPU connectors/fingers\n- Silver - PCBs, CPUs, keyboard membranes\n- Platinum - HDDs, circuit board components\n- Palladium - HDDs, Circuit board components\n- Copper - CPU heat sinks, wiring and cables, computer chips\n- Nickel - circuit board components\n- Cobalt - HDDs, batteries\n- Tantalum - Circuit board components and capacitors\n- Aluminium \n- Tin\n- Zinc\n- Neodymium\n\n\n\n[Ethics](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/Ethics)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/Ethics":{"title":"Ethics","content":"\n**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/LogicOfEthics":{"title":"Logic of ethics","content":"### Advantages/Disadvantages of self-driving cars\n\n#### Adv\n\n- Reduces human error\n- Sensors are more reliable than human senses\n- No learners\n- Doesn't get tired\n- Roads could be narrower\n- No road signs needed\n- Can safely travel much faster\n- No windshield needed, could be designed for efficiency rather than including things like mirrors.\n- Less congestion\n- More efficient routing\n- Can't break road laws\n- Can all be fully electric\n#### Disadv\n\n- Ethical issues – can AI pick life or death\n- Who is at fault in the event of an accident\n- Disaster responses or unknown events might be handled poorly compared to a human driver\n- Will take away human jobs (drivers)\n- Reduces human freedoms\n- Fail safe systems must be very good\n\n### Ethical Bias\n\n- People have biases towards and against certain characteristics\n- These biases could easily be passed onto machines\n- How should machines make tough ethical decisions\n\n#### Algorithmic Bias\n- If a system is taught to always assume a cyclist wears a helmet, how should it manage a cyclist without a helmet? It wouldn't recognise the helmetless cyclist.\n\nDo these biases matter? How much?\n\n\n\n\n[Ethics](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Ethics/Ethics)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.098712247Z","tags":["theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/ExamFeedback":{"title":"Exam Feedback - April 2023","content":"\n## Trace tables\n\n- Only ever move down the table never up\n- Never erase a value, if a value is changed, move down a row\n- If a loop is entered, move down a row\n- Follow the program based on the values in the trace table once relevant\n\n\u003e [!info] Feedback\n\u003e\n\u003eMostly done on test\n\n\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.106712224Z","tags":["compsci","theory","feedback"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/Backus-NaurForm":{"title":"Backus-Naur Form","content":"\nSometimes just BNF.\n\n- A recursive way to express context free grammars\n\n`\u003cdigit\u003e ::= 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9`\n\n`\u003ctype\u003e ::= int | float | bool | char | string`\n\n`\u003cforloop\u003e ::= FOR \u003cvariable\u003e = \u003cinteger\u003e TO \u003cinteger\u003e`\n\n`\u003cint\u003e ::= \u003cdigit\u003e | \u003cdigit\u003e\u003cint\u003e`\n\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.106712224Z","tags":["compsci","theory","generalconcepts"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/CheckDigitsAndHashing":{"title":"Check Digits and Hashing","content":"### Hashing Algorithm\n\n- A hash in computer science is an algorithm that performs a complex calculation on some source data.\n- The intention is to produce a much smaller value.\n- **The final value can only be produced from a limited number of inputs.**\n\n\n### Pigeon Hole Principle\n\n- Because the hash is smaller than the original data it should be clear that there are more possible sources than there are possible hashes.\n- This idea is known as the pigeonhole principle.\n\n### Check Digit\n\n- A check digit is produced by a hashing algorithm\n- It is used to confirm that the data being processed has been received correctly\n- Used extensively in data capture devices such as barcode scanners.\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.106712224Z","tags":["compsci","theory","generalconcepts"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/FunctionalProgramming":{"title":"Functional Programming","content":"### Functional Programming\n\n- Code that is declarative\n\t- The program is a series of declarations\n\t- There is no changing of state or mutable data\n- Functional programming is a subset of declarative programming\n- It sees the world as a collection of mathematical functions\n\t- The result of a function depends only on its arguments\n\n\n#### What is a function?\n\n- A function is a mathematical expression that will always give the same output when presented with the same inputs.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20231010120418.png]]\n\n\n#### Why functional programming?\n\n- It is more robust\n- It is easier to reason about\n- Less prone to errors\n- Has no side effects, even as the code base increases\n\n#### Features of functional programming\n\n- Concurrency\n- Lazy evaluation\n- Recursion\n- Data is immutable\n\n### Partial Evaluation\n\n- This is an optimisation method used to improve the performance of a program\n- Consider a function with two inputs\n\t- `find name scores`\n\t\t- This is intended to find the scores from the list scores for the person named by the variable name in a database of names\n\t\t- The link between them might be candidate_id\n- With a partial evaluation this can be converted into two function calls, the total processing effort for the two calls is less than the time to process the single, more complicated call.\n\t- So, in our example we might break this down into two stages - the first where we find the name in the database, and the second where we find the scores.\n\t- The performance boost comes because we might be able to pre-process the first stage - partial evaluation of the whole expression.\n\n- This works best if one of the inputs can be fixed.\n\t- At run time we might know one of the values and it will not change during this execution.\n\t\t- Think about a date, for example.\n\t- So, before we get the command, we can do the required processing that the \"date\" part of the operation depends on.\n- Consider the command `add 2 age`\n- We know that the function always adds 2.\n- So lets create a temporary function called `add2`.\n- When we get to this command in the code we don't run it, we run:\n\t- `add2 age`\n\n\t\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.106712224Z","tags":["generalconcepts","theory","compsci"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/General-Concepts":{"title":"General Concepts","content":"\n### Static and dynamic data structures\n\n- This refers to the memory requirements of a data structure.\n- For a static data structure the memory requirements are known in advance and will not change over the lifetime of the program.\n- Dynamic data structures, by contrast, have varying memory requirements.\n\t- This requirement might change between executions of the code\n\t- But the requirement can also change during a particular execution.\n- Mission critical systems frequently forbid the use of dynamic data structures.\n\n### The heap\n\n- When a program is executed it is allocated a block of memory to run in.\n- The memory will be allocated as a multiple of a fixed size:\n\t- An operating system might allocate memory in 32KB blocks\n\t- So a program that needs 38KB will be allocated 64KB\n- The extra space is described as a heap\n- As the memory requirement for dynamic data structures increases, the extra space is allocated from the heap for that program.\n\n### Pointer\n\n- A pointer is simply a variable that can be used to point to something\n- A pointer could contain a number that is an index in a list.\n\t- It is pointing to that position.\n- It could contain a number that is:\n\t- A memory location (perhaps the return address in a stack frame)\n\t- A position in a file\n\t- A record in a table\n\t- A function in a memory\n\t- An element in a list/array\n\n### Passing by value or by reference\n\n- When calling a subroutine we can pass it some values.\n\n- We can pass them by value.\n\t- We gave the subroutine a copy of the variable.\n\t- The subroutine works on its own copy, the original is left unchanged.\n- We can pass them by reference.\n\t- We give the subroutine a pointer to the variable.\n\t- The subroutine works on the value in the same memory location as the original value.\n\t- The memory location will have the most recent value from the subroutine so when control is returned to the calling program it sees the value that subroutine finished with.\n\n## Data Structures\n\n### Arrays\n\n- Many programming languages have a data structure called an array.\n- An array is a single identifier with many values.\n- You reference the specific value by using the identifier and an index.\n- For example:\n\t- `myArray[3]`\n- In an array all elements must be of the same data type. \n\t- Therefore, they take up the same amount of memory.\n\t- Which means finding a particular element is easy.\n\t\t- `address of array + (size of element * index)`\n\n### Linked Lists\n\n- List elements can be any data type\n\t- This makes them more flexible than arrays\n- List elements can be of any size\n\t- So they can take up different amounts of memory\n- Finding a particular element means following links starting from the first item in the list until you find the item you want.\n\n- A linked list does not have to be stored continuously in RAM, whilst an array must be.\n\n### Stacks and Queues\n\n- Stacks and queues are special uses for arrays and lists\n- Stacks are LIFO\n- Queues are FIFO\n\n### The Stack Frame\n\n- Computers can only do one thing at a time.\n\t- Multiprocessor systems can only do one thing on each processor.\n\t- Multitasking systems give multiple tasks a small amount of attention.\n- Also they cannot keep track of more than one subroutine at a time.\n- So we push some data, which we call a stack frame, onto a call stack as each new subroutine is called.\n- It is used to restore the state of the computer to what it was before it began executing the subroutine once it has finished.\n\t- We pop the last stack frame from the call stack\n\t- The information in the stack frame allows us to restore all the registers.\n\n### Recursion\n\n- Put simply, recursion is when you write a subroutine in terms of itself.\n\t- That means the subroutine calls itself.\n\t- The call will be a sub set of the data to be processed or a partially complete result\n\t- Once the subroutine has been called with a simple enough piece of data it can perform the calculation and the call stack begins to unwind.\n- The stack grows in size with recursion, whilst a loop maintains the stack size as it creates a stack frame. Put simply, a loop is iteration, whilst recursion is not.\n\n```py\n# Example of recursion\n\ndef recursion(n):\n\tprint(n)\n\tif n \u003e 1:\n\t\trecursion(n//2) # On calling this line, we suspend the subroutine and add it to the stack frame\n\tprint(n) # Once n !\u003e 1, we process the stack frame, causing the program to spit out the inverse of what it previously printed.\n\nrecursion(1024)\n```\n\nExpected output:\n```py\n1024\n512\n256\n128\n64\n32\n16\n8\n4\n2\n1\n1\n2\n4\n8\n16\n32\n64\n128\n256\n512\n1024\n\u003e\u003e\u003e\n```\n\n### Graphs\n\n- A graph is a simplified way to represent connection data\n- The graph represents physical or logical connections\n- A graph is a form of abstraction\n\n#### Edges and Vertices\n\n- Vertices are the things being connected\n- Edges are the connections\n- Vertices are occasionally called nodes\n- Edges are occasionally called connections\n\n#### Representing a graph\n\n- Adjacency Matrix\n\t- ![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20230912123506.png]]\n- Adjacency List\n\t- ![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20230912123652.png]]\n\n#### Edges\n- Edges can be:\n\t- Weighted\n\t\t- Indicates some kind of cost\n\t\t\t- Distance, cost, difficulty etc\n\t- Directed\n\t\t- Shows which way you can travel along an edge\n\t\t\t- One way street, winner in competition etc\n- Graphs can be:\n\t- Unweighted and undirected\n\t- Weighted\n\t- Directed\n\t- Weighted and Directed\n\n#### Trees\n\n- A tree is a special kind of graph\n\n- Trees\n\t- Have no cycles\n\t- Are NOT directed\n\t- Are connected\n\n#### Binary Trees\n\n- Binary trees are a specific kind of tree\n\n- A-level spec requires the ability to construct and traverse a binary tree in 3 ways:\n\t- Pre-order\n\t- In-order\n\t- Post-order\n\n- Different types of traversal get used for different reasons\n- Pre-order: Copying a tree. You need to create the parent before you can create its children.\n- In-order: Sort the contents.\n- Post-order: Deleting a tree. You need to delete the children before you can delete the parent.\n\n#### Representing trees\n\n- When we represent a tree we usually use a linked list.\n- To store a binary tree we need two links for each data item:\n\t- Left\n\t- Right\n\n\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.106712224Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts":{"title":"General Concepts","content":"\n\n**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.106712224Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/ObjectOrientation":{"title":"Object Orientation","content":"### Properties and Methods\n\n- Inside a class the names we give to things are changed.\n\n- Code that has an object scope is called a method.\n\t- The code looks like a subroutine\n\t- We can call the code from inside the object using self notation.\n\t\t- `self.DoSomething()`\n\t- We can call the code from outside the object by using the object identifier\n\t\t- `myInstance.DoSomething()`\n- Methods can also have local variables that work in exactly the same way as local variables in normal subroutines\n\t- They are destroyed when the method finishes executing\n\t- They cannot be seen from other methods in the same object or from subroutines somewhere in the code.\n\n### Overriding\n\n- When a class is inherited all its properties and methods become available in the subclass\n- Often the methods and properties behave differently in the subclass\n- Rather than having to redefine the whole class, we can override the properties and methods that behave differently in the subclass.\n\n### Polymorphism\n\n- Overriding is a form of polymorphism\n\t- We have a base class that is being modified by the use of extra methods and properties or by overriding existing methods (to do something different) and properties (to be different data types or structures)\n- Another type of polymorphism is where a single method could take, as a parameter, data of different types of structures and still function effectively.\n- For example, an Add method could take an integer, float or a string\n\t- When receiving numbers the method adds them, when receiving strings it concatenates them\n\t- Or the method could convert all values it receives to floats and then add them.\n- Coding our classes polymorphically makes them more robust\n\n\n### Aggregation\n\n- Aggregation is all about what happens when objects are destroyed\n\n- There are two types of aggregation that you need to know about\n\t- Composition: strong aggregation, there is a death relationship\n\t- Association: weak aggregation, there is no death relationship\n\n```py\nclass Table(object):\n\nclass Chair(object):\n\nclass Suite(object):\n\tdef __init__(self):\n\t\ttable = Table()\n\t\tchair = Chair()\n\nsuite = Suite()\n\ndel suite\n```\n\nWhen destroying `suite`, it deletes the `table` and the `chair` that were created in the `__init__` method of `Suite`. This is an example of composition, as the table and chair are \"part of\" the suite in this instance.\n\n```py\nclass Suite(object):\n\nclass Table(object):\n\nclass Chair(object):\n\nsuite = Suite()\ntable = Table()\nchair = Chair()\n\ndel suite\n```\nIn this example of association, deleting the suite does not destroy the table or chair. This is good if the destroying the suite shouldn't get rid of the table or chair, but many would consider it inefficient if this is not the case.\n\n### Design Principles\n\n- Object orientation encourages certain principles when we are designing and coding our classes\n- Encapsulate what varies\n\t- You're trying to describe how objects differ\n- Program to interfaces not implementations\n\t- Make your code as generic as possible, then the classes can be reused\n\t- Don't make the \"School Name Student\" class, make the \"Student\" class\n- Favour composition over inheritance\n\n\n\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.106712224Z","tags":["compsci","theory","generalconcepts"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/ProgrammingParadigms":{"title":"Programming Paradigms","content":"### What is it?\n\n- A paradigm is simply the way you look at and make sense of the world\n\n- So a programming paradigm is a way of thinking about and expressing a computer program.\n\n- There are quite a few paradigms and some are related\n\t- Imperative: structured, procedural and object-oriented are examples\n\t\t- As a general rule, imperative languages explain how to do something step by step\n\t- Declarative: functional database (SQL) and mark-up languages (HTML)\n\t\t- As a rule, declarative languages describe the problem and the system knows how to deal with it\n\n### Structured Programming\n\n- Code that is imperative\n\t- That is, it defines a series of steps that must be performed to complete a task\n\n- Structured programming is a subset of imperative programming.\n\n- Structured programming sees the world as a sequence of tasks that can be broken down into small, easy to manage chunks \n\t- These chunks can be reused\n\n### Hierarchy or Structure Charts\n\n- A structure chart shows us the calling structure of a program \n\t- Which subroutines get called from where and what information is passed and returned.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20230919095106.png]]\n\n\n*By Pluke - Own work based on: Structured Chart Example.jpg by ‍Sandia National Laboratories, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16283788 *\n\n\n### Pseudo Code\n\n- Pseudo means not genuine\n- Pseudo code allows you to think like a programmer while not needing to worry about the syntax of any given programming language\n\n### Finite State Machines\n\n- FSMs allow you to plan the states for a control system and what causes the transition from one state to another and any output.\n- A Mealy machine's outputs are determined by it's state and input: you label the output on the transition.\n- A Moore machine's outputs are determined only by the current state: the output is labelled in the state.\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20230919143234.png]]\n\n\n\n### Comments\n\n- Comments should enhance the readers understanding of the code\n- You can assume the reader can already understand code in the language it is written in.\n- Avoid in line comments where possible\n- Be consistent in terms of comment use\n- Comments are especially useful for:\n\t- Module headers\n\t- Subroutine headers\n\t- Explaining the logic behind changes\n\t- Logging code changes\n\n\n### What is “Object Orientated Programming”?\n\n- Code that is imperative\n- Object oriented programming is a subset of imperative programming\n- It sees the world as a collection of objects or things\n\t- You define a generalised example of a thing which includes all the programs and data that it needs to function\n\t\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.106712224Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/RegularLanguages":{"title":"Regular Languages","content":"\n### Languages\n\n\n#### Natural languages\n\n- We use natural languages to communicate with each other.\n\t- Syntax and grammar rules determine valid word order.\n\t- Semantics determine what a group of words 'means'.\n- Syntax can be fine, but the semantics can be bad.\n\t- The petrol ate the car\n- One statement could be ambiguous—have multiple meanings\n\t- Bath the dog wearing an apron.\n\n#### Formal Languages\n\n- Formal languages are much more carefully defined than a natural language.\n- As a result, ambiguity is not possible.\n\n- Some formal languages include:\n\t- Chemical formulae\n\t- Maths\n\t- Programming languages\n\n### Reverse Polish Notation (RPN)\n\n#### Infix Notation\n\n- When we look at mathematical expression the operands are placed on either side of the operator.\n\t- 3+4\n\t- The operand being the data we want to use and the operator being what we want to do with it\n- This is infix notation\n- The problem is that we often need brackets to alter the order of operations.\n\t- (5+7) x 3\n#### RPN\n\n- Polish mathematician Jan Łukasiewicz devised a way to represent mathematical expressions so that we don't need to use brackets\n- This uses postfix notation so the operator is shown after the items we need to operate on\n\t- 3 4 +\n- The result of an operation replaces the items that caused it to happen in the expression.\n\t- 5 7 + 3 x =\u003e 12 3 x =\u003e 36\n\n\n- Representing calculations in reverse polish makes it easier for machines to interpret.\n- In particular, calculations express in RPN take less steps to process on a computer.\n- To perform an RPN calculation, we use a stack.\n\n#### RPN and the Stack\n\n- Here's an infix notation:\n\t- 5 x ( 1 + 2)\n- Represented as RPN it looks like\n\t- 1 2 + 5 x\n\n- In operation\n\t- Push 1 and 2\n\t- Pop 2, 1 and add.\n\t- Push 3 (result of add)\n\t- Pop 3,5 and multiply.\n\t- Push 15 (result of multiply)\n- Stack now contains the result\n\n#### RPN as a Tree\n\n- You can also represent RPN as a tree.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20231017145220.png]]\n \n- The tree can be reversed post order with each calculation replacing the operator.\n\n\n### Regular Expressions\n\n- A regular expression provides a way to define sequences of characters\n- The regular expression can then be used to pattern match\n\t- To find examples in a bigger body of characters\n\t- To determine if an input matches an allowed pattern\n- The regular expression defines the whole set\n\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.106712224Z","tags":["compsci","theory","generalconcepts"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/SyntaxDiagrams":{"title":"Syntax Diagrams","content":"Sometimes **railroad diagrams**\n\n- Very similar to Backus-Naur but represented as an image\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/img/Pasted image 20231024123227.png]]\n\n- In the image\n\t- Anything that is a rectangle can be expanded further\n\t\t- Like anything inside \u003c\u003e for BNF\n\t- Anything that is a circle should be matched directly\n\n\n[General Concepts](sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/GeneralConcepts)\n\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.106712224Z","tags":["compsci","theory","generalconcepts"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/HardwareAndSoftware":{"title":"Hardware And Software","content":"## Memory\n- The space where programs and data are stored. Data in memory is accessed through instructions from the CPU.\n- Classified into primary and secondary.\n\n### Primary Memory\n- Directly accessed by the CPU, ie RAM, ROM, Cache\n\nPrimary memory types listed in order of closeness to the CPU:\n\n- Registers\n- Cache\n- RAM\n- Virtual Memory\n\nThe closer to the chip, the faster the memory, however the more expensive the memory is.\n\n### Secondary memory\n- External devices such as hard drives, SSDs, flash drives\n\n\n## Latency\n\n- Latency is the time taken by components to respond to the request.\n- To avoid short delays between the CPU's request for data and finding the data in memory some instructions and data are copied to the cache.\n\n## Random Access Memory (RAM)\n\n- Temporary memory which stores data, files and parts of the operating system\n- All data is loaded from secondary storage into RAM.\n- Is volatile.\n\n### Dynamic RAM (DRAM)\n- DRAM consists of transistors that act as switches and capacitors that hold binary data.\n- DRAM has to be constantly refreshed (every 15microseconds) to maintain capacitor charge.\n- DRAM is used for main RAM memory.\n- Is volatile\n\n### Static RAM (SRAM)\n- SRAM uses \"flip-flops\" which hold each bit of memory.\n- SRAM need not to be refreshed constantly.\n- SRAM is faster than DRAM.\n- SRAM is used in cache memory.\n- SRAM is more complex to build and therefore more expensive than DRAM.\n- Comes in smaller capacities than SRAM.\n- Non-volatile\n\n## Read-Only Memory (ROM)\n\n- Read only memory is a permanent memory that is used to store the instructions that are executed once a computer is switched ON. This set of instructions is called a boot process.\n- This is responsible for initializing the hardware and operating system soon after the power is switched ON.\n- The contents of ROM are not erased, even when the power is switched OFF.\n- The contents of ROM can only be read and cannot be changed.\n- ROM is made by interconnecting several transistors. It is an example of non-volatile memory.\n\n## Flash memory\n- A type of ROM\n- Programmed by applying a slightly larger electric current that forces an electron through a barrier.\n- Can be rewritten\n\n## Hard disk drives (HDD)\n\n- Also called magnetic disk drives, used in computers and laptops.\n- It provides high storage capacity and is cost-effective.\n- Large storage facilities also use this technology.\n- In a computer, it can store operating systems, user data and programs.\n\n- The disk is made of a magnetic surface, known as a platter\n- Digital data is stored in these magnetic platters\n- The disk can spin at around 7000 revolutions per second\n- Data can be accessed by a number of read-write heads on the surface\n\n- Moves from centre of disk to edge and back\n\n### Latency of HDD\n\n- Relatively high \n- Latency is defined as the time taken for a specific block of data to rotate around to the read-write head.\n- High latency leads to “not responding” and “please wait” messages increasing in frequency.\n\n## Solid State Drives (SSD)\n\n- The latency is reduced in SSD compared to HDD as there is no read/write head that needs to be moved.\n- Data is stored and retrieved using the electronic properties of NAND chips.\n- This type of memory is used in USB devices to transfer information from one device to another.\n- Data stored in millions of transistors within the chip.\n\n## HDD vs SSD\n\n- SSD have faster speeds but cost more\n- A combination of both can be used, with frequently needed data store on an SSD and less frequently loaded data stored on an HDD.\n\n## Optical Storage Systems\n\n- CD, DVD, Blu-ray discs use optics to store data.\n- The surface of CDs and DVDs are made of light-sensitive organic dyes or metal alloys.\n- Data is read and written using a laser light.\n- DVDs (4.7 GB) can store large amounts of data compared to CDs (800 MB).\n- Blu-ray discs use blue laser light and can hold up to 50 GB. Used to store music, movies, and games.\n- The time taken to transfer information to these devices is comparatively higher than HDD.\n\n- After data is stored, it cannot be overwritten. Some do support being overwritten, however it is very limited.\n- The clear plastic layer on the surface allows the laser light to pass through.\n- The colour changes in the dye layer when light falls on it.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/th-1967184248.jpg]]\n\n\n## Types of memory access\n\n- Memory can be accessed sequentially or directly. Different devices work in different ways.\n\n### Sequential Memory Access\n\n- Allows user to access data one by one in a sequence.\n- Sequential memory access is slower than direct memory access.\n- Eg, film reel\n\n### Direct (Random) Memory Access\n\n- Any storage location can be accessed at any moment—such as a DVD.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/th-858488670.jpg]]\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Hex":{"title":"Hex","content":"\n#### Recall: Two's Complement\n-20\n10100\n\n010100\n101011\n\n_101100_\n\n\n-32\n100000\n0100000\n1011111\n110000\n\n-20 + 16\n101100c\n\n+\n\n10000\n010000\n\n1011111\n\n| 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |\n|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |\n1\t0\t1\t*1*\t0\t*1*\t0\t\t1\t1\t\n\n1010011\n\n\n\n-39 -83\n\n39\n\n101001\n\n83\n\n101011\n\n0101001\n0101011\n\n1010110\n1010100\n\n| 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 |\n|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |\n| *0* | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |\n| Carries: | 1 | | 1 | | | |\n\n0001010\n\n-21 + 37\n\n21\n\n010101\n\n37\n\n100101\n\n\n0010101\n0100101\n\n# Hexadecimal\n\nHex is a base 16 system, each nibble is can be represented with 1 digit.\n\nIt is easier to use for humans than basic binary.\n\nThe memory location in a computer is stated in hexadecimal form. This makes memory addresses much easier to read.\n\n## Binary to Hexadecimal\n\nLeft -\u003e Right\nNumbers are split into 4 bits (nibbles)\nReplace each nibble with a hex equivalent\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20220929105851.png]]\n\n214\n\n128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1\n1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0\n\n11010110\n\n1101 0110\nD 6\n\n\n10010100\n\n1001 0100\n9 4\n\n 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1\n 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 \n128 + 16 + 4 = 148\n\n## Applications of Hexadecimal\n- Colour representation (#RRGGBB)\n- Errors\n\t- Error messages can contain a hex number that contains a memory location to the error\n\t- Very beneficial to programmers\n\t- Errors can be easily rectified by looking at the code in the particular memory location.\n\t- The process in which the contents of the memory is displayed or stored in a specific drive in case of a system crash is called a memory dump.\n\t- Programmers must have knowledge of computer architecture\n- MAC addresses\n\t- A Media Access Control address refers to the number that the internet that uniquely identifies a device on the Internet.\n\t- The address is for the NIC (Network Interface Card)\n\t- A MAC address is 48 bits long.\n\t- The first half represents an identification number of the manufacturer, and the second half represents the serial number of the device.\n\t- There are 2 types of MAC address, UAA and LAA. UAA is set by the manufacturer and the LAA can be set by an individual. UAA is most commonly used.\n\t- It is crucial that a UAA is unique.\n\t- Occasionally represented in different formats, but always the same actual data.\n- URLs\n\t- Used to represent URLs with ASCII.\n\t- % is used to denote that hex is being used\n\t- Improves security\n- Assembly code and machine code\n\t- Hex can refer to memory locations directly\n\t- Hex makes low-level programming easier as it reduces the chance of a mistake.\n- HTML\n\n\n### Recall\n\n\nSIGN 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 \n00011001\n16+8+1 = 25\n\n\n+32\n\n00100000\n\n10000110\n\nSIGN+2+4 = -6\n\n01111111\n64+32+16+8+4+2+1\n127\n\n-16\n\n1001000\n\n\n12^10 = 0xC\n\n128^10 = 0x80\n\n250^10 = FA\n\n20^16 = 32\n\n\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Images":{"title":"Images","content":"\nImages consist of tiny pixels (picture elements). The higher the number of pixels, the higher the resolution of the image and the higher the storage space.\n\n## Vector Image\n- Coordinate based, mathematical\n- Does not lose resolution when scaled\n- Does not store a binary value for each pixel, much more efficient than a bitmap\n- Geometrical shapes such as lines and curves are used to represent an image\n- A representation of mathematical data—not a direct mapping\n- Consists of a drawing list in the file header including:\n\t- A command that describes the shape of the object\n\t- Attributes of each object (e.g. position)\n\t- Line colour\n\t- Line thickness\n\t- Fill colour\n\t- etc\n- Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) is an example of a vector image. It is an open standard.\n- Vector graphics are widely used in animated movies, PDFs, etc.\n- Vector images are more efficient with larger images, with very small images a bitmap may be more efficient.\n- Example:\n\t- `Circle(centre = 0,0; radius= 5; fill = green; bordercolour = black; weight = 2px;``)\n\t- `Rectangle(position= 3,10;width = 10;height= 5;fill = blue;bordercolour = None)`\n- An vector image cannot be printed, so must be converted to a bitmap before printing\n\n\n## Bitmap Image\n- Raster Images or Pixel Maps\n- Each pixel is stored on a grid—directly representing each element.\n- Blurs when zoomed into\n- JPG, PNG, GIF are examples of bitmap images\n- Used by digital cameras and smartphones\n- Each pixel colour is stored as a binary value\n- More realistic than a vector image\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017094913.png]]\n\n## Storing a black and white image\n\nA simple 2 colour image can be stored using 1 bit per pixel. So a 0 could be black and a 1 could be white.\n\n## Colour Depth\n\n1 bit =\u003e 2 possible colours (42K)\n2 bits =\u003e 4 possible colours\n4 bits =\u003e 16 possible colours\n8 bits =\u003e 256 possible colours (420KB)\n\n24 bits =\u003e 16 million possible colours (1.2MB)\n\nAs the number of bits increases, more colours can be used.\n\nAn image with colour depth `n` can represent `2^n` colours.\n\n## RGB\n\nLuminosity: \nRed: 24 bits\nGreen: 24 bits\nBlue: 24 bits\n\nEach **channel** has 24 bits, to allow very precise colours.\n\nScreen resolution is horizontal pixels * vertical pixels.\n\n## Resolution\n- The pixel density of an image is measured in dots per inch or pixels per inch. It is the number of pixels or dots in a unit.\n- Magazines and books have higher resolution compared to the images on computer screen.\n- An image on a website is usually 72dpi. An image in a book has a resolution of 300 or even up to 600 dpi.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017100016.png]]\n\n## Pixel Density\n- Pixel density for a screen is calculated using the following steps.\n- Calculating the pixel density of a Samsung Galaxy S10 phone which has a resolution of 1440 x 3040 pixels and a 6.1 inch display.\n\t- Add the squares of resolution sizes, 1440^2 + 3040^2 = 11315200\n\t- Take the square root of the result = 3363.81\n\t- Divide by the screen size, 3363.81 / 6.1 = 551ppi (pixels per square inch)\n\n## Estimating the size of an image file\n- Multiply the width and height of the image by the colour depth.\n- Example:\n\t- 1010 x 562px\n\t- Colour Depth = 8\n\t- 1010 x 562 x 8 = 45409060 bits\n\t- 45409060 / 8 = 567620 bytes\n\t- 567620 / 8 = 0.568 megabytes\n\n### Practice\n600 x 800 pixels\n16 bit colour\n\n 600 x 800 = 567620\n x 16 = 9081920 bits\n = 0.96 MB\n\n\n## Run Length Encoding (RLE)\n- RLE is lossless compression\n- We count the number of bits in a row that have the same value, and then store them as one entry rather than by storing each pixel individually. \n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017101124.png]]\n\n## Metadata\n“Data about data”\n\n- Some examples of metadata for an image include:\n\t- Filename, format\n\t- Dimensions resolution, and colour depth of the image\n\t- Date and place the photo was taken\n\t- Time and date when the photo was changed\n\t- Camera settings when the photo was taken\n\nNext: [Sound](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Sound)\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/CloudComputingAndWebApplication":{"title":"Cloud Computing And Web Applications","content":"\n## Client-to-server network model\n\n- Clients are computers that request information\n- Servers are computers that provide information\n- A client depends on the server for information\n\n- For example, the client-side of a web application is a web browser. The web server provides the information.\n\n### Types of servers\n\n- Web servers\n- Application servers\n- Network Attached Storage (NAS)\n- Print servers\n- Mail servers\n\n- etc\n\n## Peer-to-peer model\n\n- In a P2P network, each and every computer in a network is responsible for providing data equally.\n- Each computer can provide data requested by other computers in the network.\n- At the same time, any computer can request data from any computer.\n\n- This type of network is not suitable for systems where there is a single source of truth (ie, databases, online ticketing systems etc)\n- Due to a lack of servers, this type of network may lead to difficulty in storing backups.\n- Known best for file sharing\n\n## Cloud Computing\n\n- The use of hardware and software to deliver a service over a network such as the internet is called cloud computing. \n- A webpage displays these services to a client\n\n### Traditional computing vs cloud computing\n\n#### Traditional computing\n\n- Files are stored in the hard drive of a computer and processed using the same computer.\n\n#### Cloud computing\n\n- Files are stored online and processed using services that are available online.\n\n### Pros and Cons\n\n#### Pros\n\n- More cost effective\n- More reliable\n- Can be accessed from any computer with an Internet connection. \n- Web applications are updated more frequently than traditional software.\n\n#### Cons\n\n- Requires an internet connection\n- Working in online application may lead to cyber attacks\n- Documents shared in web applications may be accessed by unauthorised users.\n\n### Webpages\n\n- A webpage is a document that can be viewed in web browsers.\n\n## Back-end/server-side\n\n- A server-side script is processed on the server when a user requests information\n- The processed script returns the result to the user's request\n- Widely used in websites and apps that store a large amount of information\n- SQL, PHP, Python, Ruby, Java and many more are used as backend languages\n- The validation of data is also carried out on the server-side by comparing the data entered by the user with the existing data in the server.\n- Hackers may try to enter malicious JavaScript in the front-end.\n\nFunctions of server-side processing are:\n- Processing client's queries\n- Provides data security\n- Encryption of data\n- Updating server database\n\n### Application Programming Interface (API)\n\n- API is a set of protocols that governs how two applications interact with each other\n- Websites often embed functions such as maps, spreadsheets etc\n- Websites typically do not create these functions independently\n- Instead, an API is used to include these functionalities within a website\n- For example, Google has an API, which various websites use to include their address in the \"contact us\" menu\n- A web application that uses API from various sources is called a mashup.\n\n- API also defines the protocols that will be used in the web service.\n- An example of such a protocol is a WebSocket which creates a connection between two computers\n\t- It provides a bidirectional communication channel between client and webserver over a single line.\n\n### WebSocket protocol\n\n- Firstly, the client sends a handshake request\n- Then, the server responds with a bidirectional channel on a single socket\n- Both client and server can send messages to each other simultaneously. In HTTP, the webpage need not be refreshed. The connection closes when one of them ends it.\n\n- The packets are also accepted without the usual security checks. As a result, this protocol helps us achieve fast and real-time communication.\n- This is widely used in online gaming and instant communication.\n- When this protocol is used, fewer webservers are required, saving transmission time, bandwidth, cost of hardware and cost of mobile communication.\n\n### Thick vs thin client computing\n\n- The term thickness refers to the independent processing and storage of a client in a client-server model.\n\n#### Thick client \n\n- A thick client processes most of its data and requires little help from the server\n\n###### Pros\n\n- Operates without server connection\n- Robust and reliable\n- Used for powerful software applications\n\n##### Cons\n\n- Expensive to install as it requires highly specialised computers at the client side.\n- Software has to be installed at each client computer and maintained regularly.\n- Data is distributed, so data integrity issues may arise.\n\n#### Thin client\n\n- A thin client is highly dependent on the server for data processing and storage\n- Without a server, the functionality of a thin client will be affected\n- The thinnest client that requires a server for most of its operations will only require minimum processing power and no storage.\n- This type of client system is often referred to as a dumb terminal.\n\n\n##### Pros\n\n- Easy and inexpensive to set up\n- Easy to update and maintain the client systems\n- Data is secured at a centralised location\n\n###### Cons\n\n- Client computers are affected when a server malfunctions\n- Setting up a highly efficient server is expensive\n- Highly reliable network connections are required\n- When the number of client computers increased, the performance of this model may be affected\n\n\n### CRUD\n\n- CRUD stands for Create, Retrieve, Update, Delete\n- CRUD explains the main functions of a database. Without the four functions denoted by CRUD, it is not possible to have a complete database.\n- It also specifies how data is obtained and presented to the user.\n\n### REST\n\n- Representational State Transfer\n- REST is a system design concept in which the HTTP request methods are used to interact with a database server through a webserver.\n- The client does not know how the data is received and processed by the database.\n- In this type of system, client and server systems can be developed independently. \n\n\n### JSON and XML\n\n- JSON and XML are methods used to format data objects transferred across servers and web applications.\n- When a user places a GET request, the values in the table are returned\n\n#### JSON\n\n- Based on objects and values, easy to read\n- Less number of lines of code generated\n- The syntax is simpler\n- Arrays are supported\n- Data is clearly defined and easier to parse\n- Due to limited number of data types, JSON is not suitable for all applications\n\n#### XML\n\n- Use markup tags to make it comparatively easier to read\n- Comparatively more lines of code\n- Complicated syntax, harder to make\n- Data is extracted from tags, harder to parse\n- Wide range of available data types\n\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)\n","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/DNSAndPacketSwitching":{"title":"DNS \u0026 Packet Switching","content":"\n### Domain Name Server (DNS)\n\n- Each computer in a TCP/IP network is uniquely identified by its IP address.\n- So when a user wants to access another computer they have to know the IP address of that computer. It is hard to remember every IP you need.\n- Hence, domain names are mapped to IPs.\n\n- So sethmb.xyz is a domain name, which is mapped to the IP address of GitHub Pages. When you go to sethmb.xyz, you get a GitHub webserver's IP and when you request a page, it serves the content you're seeing now.\n\n#### Each domain name ends with a suffix\n\n- A suffix represents a TLD (top level domain)\n- .com, .co.uk, .org are common tlds, but many exist\n- Some domains \n\n#### Domain levels\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230605115309.png]]\n\n##### root\n- right at the top\n\n##### Top-level examples\nuk, com, edu\n\n##### 2nd level domains\n\ngov, co,nhs\n\n##### 3rd level (TLDs)\n\ndata, education, amazon\n\n\nThey are arranged hierarchically.\n\n\nFor instance ocr.org.uk\n\nocr is the domain name\norg is the second level domain\nand uk is the top level domain\n\n### Fully-qualified Domain Names (FQDN)\n\n- The website domain name along with the host server name is called a fully qualified domain name\n- www, mail and ftp are some examples of host server names. (any subdomain)\n- Root\n\t- .\n- TLD\n\t- com\n- Domain\n\t- ionos\n- Hostname\n\t- www\n\n\nwww.ionos.com\n\n### Internet Registrars\n\n- The companies that hold domain name rights and can register a domain for you\n- Registrars are accredited by a governing entity\n- Internet registrars are responsible for storing the details of domain names along with the companies they are registered to.\n\n\n### Transport over the internet\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230605102340.png]]\n\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/DataTransmission":{"title":"Data Transmission","content":"\n\n- Technologies that allow users to transmit data from one point to another\n\n## Serial Data Transmission\n\n- Well suited for long distance communication, but the speed of the transmission is lower as there is only one channel used.\n- There is no need for data synchronisation as bits are sent in one channel.\n- USB is a common example\n\n## Parallel data transmission\n\n- Parallel transmission is faster than serial transmission as multiple channels are used.\n- Used internally within a computer\n- An internal timer synchronises the data on different channels\n- 8-64 bit data buses are used\n\n## Asynchronous data transmission\n\n- In async data transmissions, the data is sent in groups in an agreed bit pattern. Bits are combined with a start and a stop bit.\n\n\n## Synchronous data transmission\n\n- A synchronous data transmission sends data as a stream of bits.\n- The data also contains timing signals that are generated by an internal clock.\n\n\n\n## Universal Serial Bus\n\n- A USB device has four pins\n- Two pins are responsible for connecting wires, which carry the power and ground connection\n- The two other pins connect the wires that transfer data\n- Hence the cable used to connect two USB ports is a four-wire shielded cable.\n\n- USB devices are detected by a computer due to a small change in voltage from the device being connected.\n- Computer determines the specifications of the USB device\n- Computer loads the appropriate driver to communicate with the device\n\n---\n\n### Error-checking methods\n\n- When data is transmitted through a channel, it could get corrupted or changed by electric fields or dirty equipment\n- Hence, it is very important to implement error checking method sin computer technology.\n- These methods are used to detect and correct errors:\n\t- Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)\n\t- Parity Checking\n\t- Majority Voting\n\t- Checksum\n\t- Echo check\n\t- Check digits\n\n\n### Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)\n\n- In Automatic Repeat Request, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT and TIMEOUT ensure that error-free messages are received at the destination.\n- ACK is a message sent by the receiver to confirm that they have received the data correctly.\n- TIMEOUT is the time allowed to elapse before an ACK is received\n- If the ACK is not received within the TIMEOUT, the message is automatically resent.\n\n### Parity Checking\n\n- Parity checking uses a parity bit in each byte of data. This bit is allocated before transmission. \n- An even parity has an even number of bits 1s in a byte. An odd parity has an odd number of bit 1s in a byte.\n- Systems may use even or odd parity.\n- The sender and receiver make an agreement prior to the transmission about the type of parity.\n\n- To find the exact location of the bit changed, a block of data is sent. The parity is checked both horizontally and vertically. \n\n### Checksum\n\n- A value called a checksum is attached to the end of the block of data. This value can indicate transmission errors.\n- Checksum = the sum of all the digits, if the sum of all digits is less than or equal to 255\n- Else, the following algorithm is used:\n\t- Divide the sum X by 256\n\t- Round down to the nearest whole number, Y\n\t- Multiply Y by 256 and denote this number as Z\n\t- Checksum = X-Z\n\n- The sender transmits the block of data with checksum\n- When received at the receiver end, the checksum of the block of data is calculated.\n- If the calculated checksum is equal to the checksum transmitted by sender, then there are no transmission errors\n- If both the checksums are not equal, the sender is requested to resend the data.\n\n\n### Echo check\n\n- In this the data received is sent back to the sender \n- The sender compares the two sets of data for transmission errors\n- This method is not very reliable because it cannot be decided in which transmission the data was corrupted.\n- An error-free echo check would prove that no data has changed or been corrupted.\n\n### Check digits\n\n- Check digits is another method that is used to detect errors.\n- In this method, an additional digit is added to the end of a string of numbers\n- This bit is calculated using a standard algorithm and is called a check digit\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/HardwareAndWiFi":{"title":"Hardware and Wi-Fi","content":"\n## Wired Connections\n\n### Copper Cables\n\n#### Coaxial \n\n- Cables need to be replaced from time to time as the insulation may degrade.\n\n#### Unshielded twisted pair\n\n- Copper cables are twisted around each other.\n\n### Fibre-optic cable\n\n- Made of glass\n- The digital data is transmitted in the form of light signals using the principle of total internal reflection.\n\n### Ethernet\n\n- Ethernet is one of the most used technologies in LANs since the 1980s.\n- LAN is used to interconnect devices using a wired medium such as UTP copper cables or fibre-optic cables, hubs and switches.\n- This technology supports transmission rates of up to 100Gb/s\n\n#### Ethernet Network\n\n- An ethernet network is divided into various segments\n- Network interface card and routers segment data into frames\n- An error-checking mechanism is applied to the frames\n- The receiver checks for errors in the frames, and in case of error, the sender is requested to resend the data packet.\n\n\n#### Disadvantages of Ethernet\n\n- Length of cabling is limited\n- Limited size of segments results in more data packets, hence more collisions\n- CSMA/CD is not optimal when a large number of devices are present in a network. Therefore, a network is segmented and more switches are used.\n\n### CSMA/CD\n\n- In an Ethernet network, if two data frames are transmitted at the same time, both frames may collide with each other resulting in errors\n- CSMA/CD is a technology incorporated into LANs to overcome this issue\n- In CSMA/CD the sender senses the channel before sending data frames. The data frames are only sent if the channel is sensed to be silent. \n\n- In case two senders transmit at the same time, collision occurs and the data corrupts. \n- In CSMA, the problem with the scenario is solved as the senders receive a corrupted form of data frame sent by them. \n- Then the senders wait for a random amount of time and resend the data\n- As the waiting time is different for both senders, data collision is avoided\n\n## Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)\n\n- A mechanism to detect errors in a data packet\n- Extra information is generated from the data using an algorithm such as a checksum\n- This checksum is added to the packet before transmission by the sender\n- When this packet is received by the receiver, it calculates the checksum using the same algorithm.\n\n- If the expected number is returned, there are no errors. If different numbers are returned, the packet will be resent.\n\n# Wireless Connectivity\n\n- A wireless network uses radio signals to connect devices\n\n## Radio Transmission \n\n- Radio signals are identified using their frequency\n- Wi-Fi uses 2.4GHz and 5GHz\n- The range of this signal is up to 20 metres. This range can vary with the thickness of a wall as the signal needs to pass through it.\n\n### Wi-Fi\n\n- A computer requires a wireless network adaptor to connect to a wireless network\n- A computer a long with a network interface controller is referred to as a station.\n- All stations within a WAP share the same channel and are tuned to the frequency of a channel to receive transmissions.\n\n### 2.4GHz waveband\n\n- This waveband can be separated into different channels\n- A channel is a communication link to send and receive data\n- Many channels are adjacent to each other\n- Adjacent channels may cause interference which leads to data corruption.\n- There are typically only 4 “clear” bands on 2.4GHz\n\n### Performance of Wi-Fi systems\n\n- A Wi-Fi access point shares its bandwidth among several devices. This might lead to poor performance.\n- Performance of this system depends on the number of users and usage data.\n\n### CSMA/CA in Wireless Networks\n\n- Wireless networks use CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) to allow nodes to transmit data at high speed and avoiding the collision of data frames at the same time.\n- Wireless stations are not capable of transmitting and receiving at the same time and hence, if a collision occurs during a transmission, it cannot be detected.\n\n- When a wireless node tries to send a data frame, it checks whether the channel is idle or not using CSMA/CA.\n- If the channel is idle, the data is sent. If the channel is busy, the node waits a random amount of time before checking the channel again. The mechanism is called a back-off mechanism and reduces the chances of collision.\n- The data frame is sent when the channel is sensed to be free.\n- After receiving the data frame, an acknowledgement is sent back to confirm that the data is received without any errors.\n- If the acknowledgement is not received within a specified amount of time, the data frame is sent again by the user.\n\n#### Hidden Nodes Problem\n\n- Hidden nodes problem is a scenario in which a node can communicate with the wireless access point, but cannot communicate directly with other nodes that are communicating with the access point.\n- As a result, multiple nodes may send data to the access point at the same time leading to interference \n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230525110546.png]]\n\n- In the example given, nodes A and C communicate with B (WAP) but are unable to communicate with each other.\n\n### Security in Wi-Fi systems\n\n- Wireless networks are preferred for their ease of installation\n- Security of data cannot be assured in this network\n- Any device with a Wi-Fi facility will be able to receive data packets in that range of 20m.\n- Therefore, it is important to secure data using encryption techniques.\n\n#### WPA 2\n\n- Uses AES to secure data.\n- Password protection is enabled on the network.\n- An SSID (Service Set Identifier) is used to identify an individual network (not WPA specific), disabling broadcasting can improve security.\n\n### Circuit Switching\n\n- This type of connection is used in traditional telephone networks. This type of switching does not allow other data packets to be transmitted during a connection session.\n- In case of circuit failure, the communication is disrupted. These disadvantages are overcome in packet switching.\n\n- An advantage of this is that data packets are sent serially. \n- Bandwidth is wasted if it isn't being used\n- Sender and transmitter must talk at the same rate\n- If it breaks, a whole line needs replacing\n\n### Packet Switching\n\n- A routing table contains information about the topology of the network. Using this information, a router forwards the packets to the next router using certain algorithms.\n- In case a router is not available, the data packet is sent through another router.\n\n\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Layering":{"title":"Layering","content":"\n## Concept of layering\n\n- Layering is the process of breaking a complex process into several processes or layers in a particular order.\n- Layers help to solve a complex problem by dividing into a set of simple layers.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230320095439.png]]\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230320095507.png]]\n\n- Now, a group of developers can work together to solve each layer. \n\n## Network Layers\n\n### Application Layer\n\n- This layer is responsible for ensuring that the data supplied by the sender from their application can be viewed by the receiver's application.\n- These applications allow the user to access emails, websites and perform file transfers.\n\n### Transport Layer\n\n- The data from the application layer is divided into various segments in the transport layer at the sender's side.\n- The various segments are called packets.\n- Each packet also contains a header that denotes the total number of packets, packet number and port number. \n- The port number reflects the protocol\n- If any packets go missing during transmission, the transport layer is where a resend will be handled (TCP only).\n- Windowing happens at this point\n- TCP/UDP exist at this layer.\n\n### Internet Layer\n\n- Internet layer adds the sender's and receiver's addresses in the data packet.\n- Using the information, this layer routes the data packet from the sender to receiver.\n- A socket specifies to which device the data packet must be sent to and to what application it was sent from.\n\n### Link Layer\n\n- Link layer deals with the physical connectivity between sender and receiver.\n- The Network Interface Card (NIC) of any device is uniquely identified using its MAC address.\n- Link layer adds the MAC address of the sender and the receiver to the network address.\n- Now the data is streamed to the correct hardware device.\n- This layer is also responsible for error detection, hardware addressing, media access control and defining physical layer standards.\n\n## Encapsulation of data\n\n- Each layer of the TCP/IP stack adds information to the data. This is called encapsulation.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230320101342.png]]\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworkProtocols":{"title":"Network protocols","content":"\n- Networking protocols define the rules and conventions for communication across a network.\n- Protocols define speed of transmission, error checking, async/sync etc.\n\n## Handshaking\n\n- The protocols are established between sender and receiver before starting communication.\n- This is done via a handshake.\n- Data packets are exchanged between various routers.\n\n### TCP 3-way handshake\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230310135158.png]]\n\n## IP vs Mac address\n\n- A Mac address is provided by the NIC manufacturer and cannot be changed, but can be spoofed.\n- An IP address is typically assigned by a router, and allows for easier communication across the internet and within your local network.\n\n- IP addresses are more commonly used in networking applications.\n\n### IPs\n\n#### IPv4\n\n- 32-bit IP addresses\n- Around 4 billion possible IPs\n- 8 bits form an octet. Each octet may represent any number between 0 to 255.\n- 192.123.45.94\n\n#### Reserved IP Ranges\n\nA -\u003e 10.x.x.x /8\nB -\u003e 172.16.0.1 - 172.31.255.255.255 / 16\nC -\u003e 192.168.x.x /24\n\nLink local 127.0.0.1\n\nx.x.x.0 is a network address rather than a device address\n\nBroadcast address x.x.x.255\n\n\n\n#### IPv6\n\n- 128-bit IP addresses\n- fc00:bbbb:bbbb:bb01::34:4e8e\n\n\n## Classful Addressing\n\n- Initially, a network consisted of different classes\n- Each class has a different structure of addressing\n- Consider a large organisation; it will require class A addressing. In a single network, 2^24 hosts can be used. In total, only 2^7 such organisations can be addressed.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230316105337.png]]\n\n## Classless Addressing\n\n- In classless addressing, an IP address has an 8-bit suffix that specifies the number of bits allocated for network ID.\n- For example, if the 8-bit suffix represents the number 14 and the remaining 18 bits represent the host ID.\n- For example, 172.45.9.3/14 is represented in binary as given. \n\n## Subnet masking\n\n- A subnet mask is used to identify the two parts of an IP address.\n- For example, a subnet mask 255.0.0.0 represents a network ID of 8 bits and a host ID of 24 bits. This is equivalent to a suffix /8 in classless addressing. (CIDR)\n- When AND operation is performed between an IP address and its subnet mask, its network ID is obtained.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230316110106.png]]\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230316110304.png]]\n\n\n## Public and private\n\n### Private\n- These addresses need not be registered on the internet registry.\n- Private addressing for internal networks saves unique IPv4 addresses that can be used for routers and web servers that connect to the internet daily.\n\n### Public\n\n- Some public IP addresses are also identified using domin names.\n- A DNS server translates the domain name to an IP address.\n\n## Static and Dynamic addressing\n\n\n### Static Addressing\n\n- Static IP addresses are assigned by the network administrator. When the device is in use, this address remains unused.\n\n### Dynamic IP Addressing\n\n- An IP addressing can be used when the device is not used.\n- The protocol responsible for this is dynamic host control protocol (DHCP)\n\n## Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP)\n\n- DHCP also provides subnet masks and other automatic configuration details. This eliminates the problem of manual configuration.\n- Takes care of frequent changes in an IP address\n- Allocates private addresses within an internal network\n\n\n- Broadcast to all DHCP servers requesting an IP\n- A DHCP server offers an IP for a particular duration\n- Broadcasts a message confirming the request for IP\n- DHCP server that offered the IP address sends an acknowledgement and assigns the DHCP client the IP address.\n\n## Port Numbers\n\n- A port number is a 16-bit number attached to the IP address that is used to identify a process or application on a computer\n- Using this number, an application running in the client system is accessed.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/img/Pasted image 20230317121301.png]]\n\n*I am familiar with ports, so some information has been omitted.*\n\n## NAT—Network Address Translation\n\n- A network address translator provides external access to a privately addressed network as shown in the figure.\n- 1 public IP is shared between all private IPs.\n- Adds a layer of security \n- Private IP addresses are not available to external servers\n- Router tracks requests and reassigns them to the appropriate host\n- Port numbers are assigned with a specific time frame\n\n## Port Forwarding\n\n- Port forwarding is an application of NAT where port mappings are explicitly defined, allowing you to talk to services behind non-standard ports.\n\n\n## TCP/IP \n\n- TCP/IP is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices of different manufacturers on the internet.\n\n- Source -\u003e Sender of the message\n- Destination -\u003e Receiver of the message\n- Packet sequence -\u003e The order of the message in which it should be reassembled\n- Data -\u003e Contents of the message\n- Error checking -\u003e Bits to make sure that the message has been received correctly\n\n\n## User Datagram Protocol (UDP)\n\n- A protocol similar to TCP but operates at a faster rate\n- UDP: message is sent in the form of chunks or called datagrams\n- TCP: message is sent as segments\n- Used for gaming and video calling over the internet\n\n## HTTP\n\n### CRUD\n\nC -\u003e Create -\u003e POST\nR -\u003e Read -\u003e GET\nU -\u003e Update -\u003e PUT\nD -\u003e Delete -\u003e DELETE\n\n## Email Communications: SMTP, POP3, IMAP\n\n### SMTP\n\n- Send emails\n\n### POP3\n\n- Retrieve mail from server\n- Delete mail from server\n\n### IMAP\n\n- Retrieve message from server\n- Leave mail on the remote server\n\n\n## SSH (Secure Shell Protocol)\n\n- Remotely access a terminal on another computer through a text interface\n- SSH is used by network administrators and developers\n\n- Typically runs on port 22\n\n## FTP (File Transfer Protocol)\n\n- FTP defines the set of rules for transferring large files on the Internet\n- The files required for a website are organised on a web server using this protocol.\n- Users may have private access to upload the files. Other users may be given access to download these files.\n\n## VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)\n\n- A set of protocols that enable you to make voice calls over the internet using UDP.\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworkSecurity":{"title":"Network Security","content":"\n### Why is computer security important?\n\n- Valuable data or infrastructure is held on internet-connected devices\n- Hacking can be used to exploit vulnerabilities in computer systems and extract data, hold infrastructure ransom or cause other disruptions.\n\n### Network Managers\n\n- Responsible for network security\n- Various methods are used to prevent network threats and used to keep networks secure, however there are always vulnerabilities that can be exploited\n\n### Threats to networks\n\n#### Malware\n\n- Malware is a type of program that can replicate itself and cause a computer to malfunction.\n- It can cause the computer to stop, misbehave or become unresponsive.\n- May delete or corrupt files\n\n##### Examples of malware\n\n- Virus\n\t- Replicates\n\t- Causes damage\n- Worms\n\t- Replicates without user intervention\n\t- Type of virus\n- Trojans\n\t- User is tricked to install malware \n\t- The Trojan pretends to be something else\n\n##### Virus\n\n- Copied to memory when the host file is executed. Once the virus resides in the memory, any file copied to the memory can be infected.\n- Viruses may reside in macro files:\n\t- Usually attached to a word processing or spreadsheet file\n\t- It infects the template when the data file is opened\n\t- These viruses tend to be less harmful\n\n##### Worms\n\n- Worms trick the user to open an infected file or email attachment\n- Worms self-replicate without user action and spread to other users by sending emails to them from the infected computer's address book.\n- Worms affect the speed of the computer, server and and network by occupying bandwidth\n\n##### Virus vs Worms\n\n- Both self replicate\n- Viruses only replicate when the host file is opened or executed\n- Alternatively worms do not require any user action to self-replicate\n\n##### Trojans\n\n- Trick the user into opening or executing an infected file by camouflaging in the form of a program.\n- Trojans infect the computer and give access to the trojan creator via a backdoor\n- Backdoors allow outsiders to bypass security checks by opening an access channel.\n- Some actions of a trojan creators are stealing personal information and sending spam email via infected network resources\n- Groups of computers that function like this are called botnets\n- Unlike viruses and worms, trojans do not self-replicate\n\n\n##### Malware: Preventative Measures\n\n- Malware can be prevented by installing antivirus software and avoiding software from unknown sources. Must be updated regularly to avoid becoming vulnerable to new attacks.\n- Backing up a system in an off-site mode will help to retrieve the corrupted data is attacked by malware.\n- Updating the operating system and browser also helps in fixing security vulnerabilities. Browsers identify harmful sites.\n\n##### Phishing\n\n- A user might receive emails to gain personal banking details which could be misused\n- The emails look as though they are sent by their bank\n- The user clicks on a link and enters their personal information into a fake banking website, giving the attacker their credentials\n\n- Not always easily identifiable, some are much better than others\n- It is always important to check the URL and email address before interacting\n- Many email providers filter out a lot of phishing emails using automatic filters\n\n### Denial of Service (DoS)\n\n- Denial of service attacks prevent a user from accessing part of a network such as an Internet server.\n- A user can be prevented from accessing websites, emails and banking applications.\n- Aims to overwhelm the server, does not really work against modern hardware.\n\n\n### Data interception and theft\n\n- Data packets travelling across a network can be intercepted and read by a third-party\n- This can be prevented by ensuring the communications are encrypted with a secure algorithm\n- Packet sniffing software such as Wireshark can be used to examine packets moving across a network that you are currently connected to. \n- Some protocols such as VoIP can be reconstructed through this method\n- Sometimes it is legitimate to use this software to analyse network trends and detect intrusion attempts. This is done by organisations.\n- In wireless LAN, this is done by using special Wi-Fi adapters\n- It is easy for an attacker to intrude a wireless signal as this can be done from a range of 300m\n- It is important to encrypt data using WPA (Wi-Fi protected access) that uses a key of at least 128 bits.\n- Keys are often regenerated for each packet to avoid intrusion.\n\n### Brute force attack\n\n- An attacker tries many passwords with the hope that he will guess it correctly.\n- The attacker tries all the possible passwords systematically until the correct one is found. \n- Short passwords can be easily determined\n#### Preventative measures\n\n- A brute force attack is delayed by using a CAPTCHA\n- This requires a user to answer a different question between successive attempts\n- Users are advised to use long, alphanumeric passwords as a measure to improve security.\n\n### SQL injection\n\n- SQL injection is a type of attack in which an attacker executes a malicious SQL statement in a web server's database\n- Hence, an unauthenticated user may gain access to sensitive information \n- An example would be typing `DROP *` into a search box (destructive) or something like `SELECT *` to return the information\n\n### Pharming\n\n- Pharming is a type of attack in which malicious code is installed on the user's computer or the web server that they access without their knowledge\n- This would then redirect the user to a fake website\n\n#### Preventative measures\n\n- A user should ensure that a proper SSL connection is active as this will highlight an issue\n- Ensure relevant anti-spyware software is running \n- Check that the URL matches what is expected\n\n### Unpatched software\n\n- Software applications are constantly upgraded by developers to improve security\n- Users receive patches that update the software\n- Unpatched software may expose you to unnecessary risk\n\n### Shoulder Surfing\n\n- Shoulder surfing is an attack where the password or pin numbers of a user are obtained by the attacker just by observing them.\n\n\n### Blagging\n\n- The attacker creates a situation to trick the user into providing sensitive information or perform actions that are not usually permitted.\n\n\n### Buffer overflow attack\n\n- Malware uses a buffer overflow attack to write values to memory locations that are larger than it can handle\n- As a result, neighbouring locations are overwritten\n- In this way, an attacker gains access to locations they do not have\n- Now the processor thinks that there are new instructions to execute, and will perform actions as defined by attackers. \n\n\n### Preventing Network Threats\n\n\u003e “One single vulnerability is all an attacker needs. - Window Snyder”\n\n\n#### Penetration Testing\n\n- Penetration testing is a testing method to analyse a computer system or network for possible vulnerabilities that an attacker may take advantage of.\n- Penetration testing can be automated by software and involves the following steps:\n\t- Identifying a vulnerability in the system\n\t- Setting up an attack to check the vulnerability\n\t- Carrying out the attack\n\t- Testing the ability of the system to recover any lost or corrupted data after the attack\n\n#### Firewalls\n\n- Hardware and/or software placed between the user's computer and an external network, such as the internet, to filter data in and out of the computer.\n- Firewalls are installed on servers, computers, or routers depending upon the network requirements\n- A hardware firewall is a computer that consists of two network interface cards, one connected to the internal network and the other connected to the external network.\n- Checks whether the incoming and outgoing data meet the set of requirements imposed by the network administrator.\n\n- Preventing malware and hackers from accessing the internal network.\n- Prevent Denial of Service attacks.\n- A user is notified when the software in a system tries to access an external source. \n- When a firewall is software based, it is usually integrated into the operating system.\n\n#### Packet filtering or static filtering\n\n- A firewall examines the source and destination IP address in a packet\n- Only the data packets with permitted IP addresses are allowed\n- Packets may be filtered based on the protocol being used o the port number it is trying to access\n- If data fails to meet these requirements a warning is issued or the data is dropped and not allowed to pass through\n\n#### Stateful inspection or dynamic filtering\n\n- The process of filtering data packets by examining the payload is called stateful inspection or packet filtering\n- Based on the recent conversations, packets will be filtered\n- A data packet is rejected if it does not form a part of a registered communication.\n\n#### Limitations of firewalls\n\n- The use of modems by an internal computer to bypass a firewall cannot be prevented\n- Does not take care of password strength and carelessness of an internal user.\n- Firewalls can also be disabled in stand-alone computers according to a user's choice, the computer is not safe\n- In an organisation, it is important for a network manager to control the firewall.\n\n#### Proxy server\n\n- A proxy server installed between a user's computer and the web server acts as a firewall.\n\n- Access to certain websites can be blocked\n- Response time for a web browser's request can be reduced by using a cache\n- During the first visit to a website, its home page is stored in a proxy server cache\n- During the next visit, certain features of the website are loaded from this cache, speeding up access\n- A proxy server hides the IP address of a user, enhancing security\n\n#### Authentication\n\n- Authentication is used to provide access to trusted parties. The security is further strengthened using encryption.\n- To login to systems each user is provided with sets of usernames and passwords\n- The various sets of usernames and passwords are stored in a security file. If the user provides the correct set of usernames and passwords they are granted access. If they do not match, their access is refused.\n- Some systems may ask the user to enter only certain characters of the password to shield from potential keyloggers.\n\n\n##### Biometric Authentication\n\n- Biometrics refers to the authentication techniques that rely on measurable physical characteristics.\n- Some examples of such characteristics are fingerprint scans, retina scans, and face and voice recognition. \n\n\n#### Security protocols\n\n- SSL and TLS are two protocols that ensure communication between the user and the webserver is encrypted.\n- Browsers typically display a padlock when this kind of connection is active. \n\n- TLS is the newest protocol\n\n---\n\n\n#### Encryption\n\n- Encoding a message in such a way that only allows authorised users to decipher it.\n- When an unauthorised user receives an encrypted message, they cannot decipher it.\n- Public/Private key encryption is typically used here.\n\n#### Symmetric vs Asymmetric Ciphers\n\n- Symmetric ciphers use the same method in different directions to encrypt/decrypt\n- Asymmetric ciphers use clock arithmetic to perform a one way function.\n\n\n#### Keys\n\n##### Private keys\n\n- Only kept by the intended recipient \n- Used to decrypt the message\n- Never transmitted\n\n##### Public keys\n\n- Available to all users\n\n\n#### Encryption using keys\n\n- A key making algorithm is responsible for generating public and private keys of the receiver.\n- The public key can be found in a directory.\n- Sender encrypts the message using a public key in this directory.\n- Receiver receives this data and decrypts it using the private key.\n\n#### Digital signatures\n\n- Certificates run the same hashing algorithm against packets to assure that a packet has not been altered in transit\n- A hash can be produced by the sender and then encrypted with a private key before being transmitted by the sender. \n- If the receiver decrypts the packet and calculates a different hash, they know that something is wrong.\n- A certificate authority (CA) such as Let's Encrypt will issue a digital certificate \n\n\n### MAC Address Filtering\n\n- The router compares the MAC address of the device requesting a connection with a list of approved devices.\n- The list of approved devices is managed by a network administrator\n- MAC address filtering is not completely secure\n- MAC addresses can be filtered \n- A hacker could intercept packets and find the MAC address of an approved device and then imitate it.\n\n\n\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking":{"title":"Networking","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworksQs":{"title":"Networks Questions","content":"\n## Parallel vs Serial Communications\n\n### Parallel\n\n- Port has 8 data wires\n- Large series of ground and control wires\n- Examples\n\t- PCI expansion ports\n\t- Hard-disk connectors\n\n### Serial\n\n- Single data wire or single differential pair\n- Other wires are ground or control wires\n- Examples\n\t- USB\n\t- SATA\n\t- PCI Express\n\n\n## Network Definitions\n\n### Bandwidth\n\n- The amount of data that can be passed over a communication channel over a specific period of time\n\n### Bit-rate\n\n- The amount of data that is transferred in a second, measured in bits.\n\n### Baud rate\n\nThe rate at which the number of signal elements or changes to the signal occurs per second when it passes through a transmission medium.\n\nThe higher the baud rate the faster the data is sent/received.\n\n\n### Simplex\n\n- Communication channel that sends data in one direction only \n\n#### Half Duplex\n\n- Simplex\n- But the direction can be reversed\n\n### Duplex\n\n- A point to point system made of two or more devices in a network that can communicate in both directions\n\n## How changing x effects network performance\n\n### Bandwidth\n\n- The amount of data that can be transmitted through a communication channel.\n- Bandwidth = upper frequency - lower frequency\n\n### Bit rate\n\n- Higher bit rate results in faster speeds\n\n### Baud rate\n\n- Higher baud rate results in higher speeds.\n- The baud rate is the number of times per second that the electronic state of a channel can change.\n\n- Bit rate = baud rate x number of bits per signal\n\n### Simplex\n\n- Faster but less reliable\n- Simplex is one way transmission\n\n### Duplex\n\n- Slightly slower but more reliable\n- Data can flow in both directions at once\n- \n\n## ADSL—Why do you never get advertised speeds?\n\n- On an ADSL setup, you don't get a dedicated connection. The connection speed advertised is shared between multiple properties, so if you have several different people using the internet from different households, they all use some of the ADSL connection's resources.\n\n\n\n[Networking](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/Networking)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.110712212Z","tags":["compsci","theory","networking"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/NumberBases":{"title":"Number Bases","content":"\nA computer stores data in switches, represented as 1 or 0, on or off.\n\n## Size of computer memory\n\nA Binary digit is a bit.\n\nA nibble is 4 bits.\n\nA byte is 8 bits.\n\nA byte is the smallest unit of memory in a computer system.\n\nMemory sizes were originally base 2.\n\nIn this system, the prefixes kibi-, mebi-, gibi-, tebi- are used to avoid conflicts with the base 10 system.\n\nThis is now used for representing the size of RAM modules only.\n\n1 kibibyte (kiB) = 1024 bytes\n1 mebibyte (miB) = 1024^2 bytes\n1 gibibyte (GiB)= 1024^3 bytes\n1 tebibyte (TiB) = 1024^4 bytes\n\nAfter the standarisation of base 10 representation, memory sizes are now given as base 10.\n\n1 kilobyte (kB) = 1000 bytes\n1 megabyte (MB) = 1000 kilobytes\n1 gigabyte (GB) = 1000MB\n1 terabyte (TB) = 1000GB\n1 petabyte (PB) = 1000TB\n\n## Converting denary to binary\n\nDivide the number by 2, write down the remainder.\n\nContinue dividing the quotients by 2 and write down the remainder.\n\nList all the remainders in reverse order.\n\nSo if I have 10:\n\n```\n16 8 4 2 1 \nCannot take 16 from 10\nfirst column = 0\nCan take 8 from 10\nsecond column = 1\nremaining is 2\ncannot take 2 from 4\nthird column = 0\ncan take 2 from 2 \nfourth column = 1\nnothing left, final column = 0\n```\n\nBinary number = 01010\n\n## Binary combinations\n\nA one-bit system has a one-place value. And 3-bit has three place values, which allows for 8 possible combinations.\n\n## Representing numbers\n\nA 16-bit system can represent integers up to 2^16\n\n8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit are the most common bit lengths or word lengths.\n\n## 🎉 Quiz\n1) What is the difference between the binary and denary system?\n- The denary system has a base value of 10, whereas the binary system has a base value of 2. ✅\n2) Which of the following binary numbers represent the denary number 14?\n- 1101 ✅\n3) What is the denary equivalent of the binary number 0101?\n- 5 ✅\n4) How many number of bits is present in 1 GiB?\n- 8 x 20^30 bits ✅\n5) How many number of bytes is present in 1 TiB?\n- 1024^4 bytes ✅\n6) What is the binary equivalent of the denary number 47?\n- 00101111 ✅\n7) How many binary combinations are possible in a 5-bit system?\n- 2^5 (32) ✅\n8) What number does an odd number end with when represented in the binary system?\n- 1 ✅\n9) An 8-bit system can represent up to what integer?\n- 255 ✅\n10) What is the sum of 1011 and 0010?\n- 1101 ✅\n11) What is the denary equivalent for the binary number 1101?\n- 13 ✅\n12) What is denary equivalent for the binary number 11001?\n- 25 ✅\n13) What is the denary equivalent of the binary number 10111011?\n- 187 ✅\n\n## Overflow Errors\nA CPU with an 8-bit register has a capacity of up to 111111111 in binary. If an extra bit is added, we get an overflow error.\n\nThe number of bits a register can hold is called the word size. Exceeding the capacity of the word size will cause a failure with an overflow error.\n\nSometimes you will get a wrong number, or you may get a system issue where the computer fetches something else from RAM - issuing random commands. \n\n## Binary Shifts for Multiplication\nShifting the number 132 to the left is effectively multiplying it by 2, resulting in the value of 264.\n\n## Binary Shifts for Division\nShifting the number 171 right will divide to 85 - which is incorrect because 85.5 would be the exact answer. This is why we need floating point handling.\n\nCircular right shifts exist to maintain number length in binary representation. So when shifting right, a zero will be moved to the leftmost part of the number. \n\nA larger number can be stored across multiple numbers. So a 16-bit number can be stored across 2 8-bit registers.\n\nTo divide a 16-bit number by 2 in an 8-bit processor:\n\n- Shift the contents of Reg A to the right\n- Perform a circular right shift in Reg B\n\nThere is a Carry Bit - which is a seperate part of memory where we can hold a bit for carrying operations.\n\n---\n## Recall\n1) 2^5-1 = 31 (32 total numbers)\n2) 98 -\u003e 8 bit bin\n01100100\n3) 01100110 -\u003e den\n102\n4) 00100100 * 6 \n11011000\n5) 11001100/8\n00110011 *(inc)*\n\n\n## Bitwise Operations\nThe logic operations are:\n\n- NOT: Complements the binary value\n- AND: Produces the output '1' only when both inputs are '1'\n- OR: Produces output '1' when at least 1 of the outputs is '1'\n- XOR: Produces output '1' when both the outputs are different, otherwise produces '0'\n\n## Representing negative numbers in binary\nSign and magnitude are combined to make a binary number that can be positive (+) or negative (-).\n\n12:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |\n39:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 |\n96:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n85:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |\n127:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |\n\n-12:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |\n\n-39:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 |\n\n-96:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |\n\n-85:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |\n\n-127:\n| SIGN | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |\n|---------|----|----|----|---|---|---|---|\n| 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |\n\n## Finding Two's Complement\n- Finding two's complement is an alternative method to represent negative numbers\n- Most computers use this method to perform mathematical operations\n\n0101\n˯\n1011\n\n- Work right to left\n\n- Leave first one untouched\n\n- Invert all additional characters\n\n+102\n\n011000000\n˯\n10000000\n\n+63\n0111111\n˯\n1100001\n\n+127\n1111111\n˯\n10000001\n\n-102\n\n\nWhen dealing with Two's Complement, the overflow bit should always be discarded.\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.122712178Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/NumberSystems":{"title":"Number Systems","content":"\n## Number Systems\nWe typically use the denary number system, where everything is based on 10, but computers work in binary, where everything is base 2.\n\nSo denary looks like:\n\n1 -\u003e 10 -\u003e 100 -\u003e 1000\n\nAnd binary digits represent:\n\n1 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 64 -\u003e 128 -\u003e 256\n\n\nThe binary number 10100 is equivalent to denary 20.\n\nAnd 01111111 is 127\n\n## Conversion Practice\n\n64 -\u003e Binary\n\n=01000000\n\n\n130 -\u003e Binary\n\n\n= 10000010\n\n\n255 -\u003e Binary\n\n= 11111111\n\n\n196 -\u003e Binary\n\n= 0110000100\n\n\n## Handling negatives\n\nBCD is a primitive method for handling negatives, but it is unused because it is slow and inefficient in terms of resource utilization.\n\nSo instead we use a **sign bit**, where we make the largest column in the binary pattern an indicator for whether or not the number is *positive* or *negative*.\n\nSo you would replace the heading:\n\n128 - 64 - 32 - 16 - 8 - 4 - 2 - 1\n\nWith:\n\nSign - 64 - 32 - 16 - 8 - 4 - 2 - 1\n\nThis limits the range of numbers that can be stored, but can be applied to larger binary patterns too.\n\nThe main method used is [Two's Complement](sixth/CompSci/Theory/TwosComplement)\n\n## Binary Task\n\n### Converting binary to denary\n\n14 -\u003e Bin\n\n64 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 1\n0 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 0\n\n= 0001110\n\n60 -\u003e Bin\n\n64 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 1\n0 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0\n\n= 0111100\n\n200 -\u003e Bin\n\n128 -\u003e 64 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 1\n1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0\n\n= 11001000\n\n### Binary Arithmetic\n\n56 + 32 = 88\n\n64 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 1\n0 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 1 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0 -\u003e 0\n\n56 = 0111000\n\n64 -\u003e 32 -\u003e 16 -\u003e 8 -\u003e 4 -\u003e 2 -\u003e 1\n0100000\n\n0111000\n0100000\n\n+\n\n1111000\n\nAdvanced numbers and mathematical systems are explained [here](sixth/CompSci/Theory/DataRepFundamentals)\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.122712178Z","tags":["compsci","theory","datarep"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Security":{"title":"Security","content":"\n## Symmetric Encryption\n\n- Sender encrypts a message with a key\n- Receiver decrypts the message with a key\n- Both the sender's key and the receiver's key are the same\n- The sender must transmit the key securely. Otherwise it may be intercepted by a third-party\n\n## Asymmetric Encryption\n\n- Symmetric key encryption can be easily cracked by unintended users.\n- Cannot be used for highly confidential information.\n- Therefore, algorithms with stronger keys are used\n- The bigger a key, the better the security.\n- More than one key is used to improve encryption.\n\n## Keys\n\n### Public keys\n\n- Public keys are kept available to all users and are used to encrypt a message\n\n### Private keys\n\n- Private keys, which are different from public keys, are only available (although not transmitted directly, used in a mathematical calculation) to the intended recipient. These keys are used to decrypt the message.\n\n### Encryption using keys\n\n- A key making algorithm is responsible for generating public and private keys\n\n## Security in WiFi: WPA 2\n\n- The methods used to secure a wireless network are WiFi Protected Access (WPA) and WiFi Protected Access II (WPA2).\n- WPA2 replaced WPA. WPA2 uses AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) to secure data. In AES, for every data packet, a new 128-bit key is generated.\n- Each network is identified by a 32-character code called Service Set Identifier (SSID).\n- A computer may be within range of several wireless networks and SSID helps us to identify the correct network. SSIDs are locally unique. Wireless networks are protected with passwords or security keys which is an identifier of up to 32 bytes.\n\n### Whitelists\n\n- A network administrator sets up a list of computers to control access to the network.\n- The list is based on the MAC addresses of the computer that are allowed to access the network called MAC address whitelists.\n\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.122712178Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Sound":{"title":"Sound","content":"\nSound is stored the same way as other digital files. However, a soundwave is a continuous signal, that isn't directly digital. \n\nAn ADC (Analogue Digital Converter) is required to convert a soundwave to a digital sound file. It requires thousands of samples to be taken per second.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017102136.png]]\n\nA sample is a snapshot of what sound was detected at a specific point in time. If samples are played together at a high enough rate, sound that is close to the original can be played.\n\n## Factors Impacting Audio Quality\n- Sampling Rate: Number of samples per second\n- Bit depth: Number of bits used to represent each clip\n- Bit rate: Number of bit used per second of audio\n\n## Sampling Rate\n- Number of samples taken per second\n- The higher the rate, the greater the detail of the sound\n- Unit of sampling is represented in Hz\n- Each sample represents the amplitude of the wave at a certain point in time.\n- The most common sampling rate for music is 44,100 samples per second which is 44,100Hz (44.1kHz)\n- A VOIP typically has a sampling rate of 8kHz, which is enough for a human voice to be heard quickly, but the quality is reduced to a certain extent.\n\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017102345.png]]\n\n## Frequency\n- The number of oscillations per second is called frequency\n- It is measured in Hz and controls the pitch of the sound\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221017102533.png]]\n\n## Nyquist's Theorem\n- The theorem states that:\n\t- For accurate sampling, the sampling rate must be at least twice the frequency of the highest frequency in the original sound signal.\n\t- When sampling rate is less than the frequency suggested by the theorem, the recording will not be accurate to the original sound.\n\n## Bit Depth\n- Bit depth is the number of bits available for each sample\n- The higher the bit depth, the higher the quality of the audio\n- A CD has a bit depth of 16 bits, and a DVD has a bit depth of 24 bits\n- An n bit system can have 2^n different values.\n\n### PCM\n- High-quality audio files are created as pulse-code modulation (PCM)\n- WAV or AIFF are uncompressed examples\n- The pulses of the induced electrical signal in the microphone\n\n## Bit Rates\n- The amount of data sampled per second (kbps)\n- **Bit rate = sampling rate x bit depth x channels**\n- Typically, stereo is the minimum channel count (2 channels)\n\n### Audio Quality\n- A reasonable music audio must have a minimum bit rate of 128bkps.\n- The greater the bit rate, the higher the quality.\n- This is why the audio quality of a CD is higher than that of Spotify.\n- Tidal is a music streaming solution that provides the highest streaming quality over the internet.\n\n## Analogue to Digital conversion\n\n- An analogue signal is a continuous signal which represents physical measurements.\n- A signal from a microphone is an example of an analogue signal.\n- However, a digital signal is a discrete signal that uses discontinuous data.\n\n## File size check\n- 24 bit depth\n- 2 channel - L \u0026 R\n- Sample rate 16kHz\n- 2.5 minutes long\nsample rate * bit depth * channels \n\n24 x 16000 x 2 = 768kbps\n768000 x 150= 115200000 bits\n/ 8 = 14.4 MB\n\n## (Musical Instrument Device Interface) MIDI\n\n- A communication protocol that enables electronic musical instruments to interact with each other using information and control signals.\n- Asynchronous serial 8-bit transmission\n- MIDI file instructs device on how to produce a musical note using several commands.\n- A command is identified by its specific sequence of bits.\n- You can think of it as the musical equivalent of an `SVG` file.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221107101325.png]]\n\n### Types of bytes\n- Status bytes\n\t- Indicates instruments about the type of action to be performed\n\t- The action of 16 channels are represented in this byte\n\t- Notes are ON or OFF\n\t- Key pressure—how hard a key is pressed\n- Data bytes\n\t- Information to status bytes\n\t- Pitch byte: denotes note to be played\n\t- Velocity note: denotes the loudness of the note.\n\n- Using a MIDI file, music identical to the original can be played every time.\n- A sequence program is required so that commands can be recognised.\n- Smaller in size than MP3\n- MIDI does not contain any audio track\n- Used in web pages, ringtones etc\n- Used for creating electronic orchestras.\n\n---\n1) Bit depth of 8 bits, what value range can be represented?\n2^n = 2^8 = 256\n2) Calculate the bit rate of a 32-bit system with a sampling rate of 44,100 samples per second and 2 channels.\n32 * 44100 * 2 = 2822400 bits\n \n2822.4kbps\n\n3) What is the file size of a 4-minute song with bit rate of question 2/\n2,822,400 * 240 = 677,376,600 bits = 84.67MB\n\n---\n1) Analogue sound is converted to digital using a DAC to sample.\n2) Sound files from the internet are typically lower quality than a CD sound file, because online services tend to use lower bit rates and higher compression to reduce hosting costs and increase speed.\n3) If the bit depth is increased, then there is a greater range of sound possible. The file size will also be increased.\n4) VoIP uses a sampling rate of 8kHZ because it is enough for you to understand a human voice. Anything higher would be inefficient.\n5) Factors affecting audio quality: sample rate, bit depth \u0026 bit rate.\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.122712178Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/SystemsSoftware":{"title":"Systems software","content":"\n## Hardware vs Software\n\n- The physical components of the computer are hardware.\n- Programs that run on a computer are software.\n- Software and hardware must be compatible with each other\n- All components communicate using inputs and outputs\n\n### System Software\n- Responsible for hardware management\n- Managing computer systems\n- Window Management and Device Drivers\n\n### Application Software\n- Games, office tools, the things you use your computer for.\n\n## Operating Systems\n\n- Manage software **and** hardware\n- Handles I/O from/to user\n- Runs in the background\n- Linux, Windows, MacOS, Android, iOS etc are all examples of operating systems.\n- Acts as an interface between applications and physical hardware—usually providing APIs.\n\nOperating System Functionalities:\n\n- Memory Allocation (including SWAP)\n- Window Management\n- Kernel and Security of hardware access (including sandboxing)\n- Process Management\n- Hardware Management (device drivers, connectivity etc)\n- Failure Handling \u0026 Recovery\n- System Monitoring\n- Disk Management (defragmentation, filesystems)\n- User input handling, and output handling\n- Provide baseline APIs for hardware and cross-software interactions\n\n### Layers in an operating system\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221118122250.png]]\n\n- User Interface\n\t- Applications\n\t\t- Kernel\n\t\t\t- CPU\n\t\t\t- Memory\n\t\t\t- Devices\n\nThe kernel is the component of the operating system that handles the interaction with physical hardware.\n\nActions are taken based on the priority of the request.\n\n\n## Human-computer interface\n\n### GUI\nA graphical environment where you can use a mouse or touchscreen to interact with UI objects.\n\n### CLI\nDirect text-based interface with the computer. Faster, more flexible and efficient than a GUI, but harder to use.\n\n### BIOS (basic input/output system)\n\n- A BIOS chip is present on the motherboard\n- It runs before the operating system, but typically only tests hardware and then starts the bootloader\n- Provides a usable interface (that varies in appearance and interaction style) to change basic device settings and select a boot device.\n\n- UEFI is taking over from BIOS as it can bypass some checks and is faster.\n\n## Managing the CPU\n\n- Software must be loaded into memory from secondary storage and then commands must pass through the CPU to be executed.\n\n- Program is found on the storage drive\n- Section of RAM is allocated for the program and its data\n- Program is copied from storage drive into RAM\n- Program counter is set to the memory location\n- The program is now executed\n\n## Multitasking\n\n- An OS can run multiple programs at the same time.\n- It has to anyway, as multiple daemons need to run simultaneously.\n- To do this it must copy all programs into RAM, but then only one can be processed at once.\n- CPUs are extremely fast and can swap very quickly.\n- When one process is running, there are other processes waiting to run in a queue. They will likely swap every few ticks allowing all processes to progress at a similar rate, although priority will be given to the more urgent requests.\n\n### Scheduling\n- When multiple tasks need to be done, they have to be scheduled in a queue. The operating system may choose how to schedule jobs based on:\n- length\n- time waiting to run\n- priority\n\nThe \"scheduler\" is the module that manages this process\n\n### Scheduling Algorithms\n\n**First come, first served:** FCFS works simply by processing jobs in the order they are submitted.\n\n**Shortest Job First:** SJF always executes the shortest task first.\n\n**Round Robin:** Each job is allocated a time slice, which is a limited amount of CPU time. A job can also be put on hold if a high priority interrupt occurs.\n\n**Shortest remaining time:** Whichever job will be finished first will be done next. Reducing the number of waiting jobs is one of the main benefits of this. It does need to calculate how long each job would take to finish, giving it some delays.\n\n**Multiple level feedback queues:** Processes are separated into categories based on their need for the processor. They can be moved between queues as needed.\n\n## Memory Management\n\n- Memory is shared efficiently between processes.\n- When multiple processes are being run, the OS makes sure that each process has its data and instructions stored in a different memory location.\n- Hence, processes do not interfere with each other.\n- In the case where multiple processes require the same data, shared memory locations are used.\n\n### Segmentation\nThe memory required from process X is split into two parts.\n\nThis allows you to utilize all free memory.\n\n### Paging\nAlternatively, the memory can also be split into equally sized blocks called pages.\n\nThe information of which page is allocated to which process is maintained in a table.\n\n## Virtual memory\n- When too many processes are running and the RAM capacity is not enough, then a section of secondary storage drive is allocated for storing temporary data. This is called a swap file.\n- RAM is selected to be transferred to SWAP if it is not currently in use, to try and reduce friction and the frequency of reads/writes to the disk.\n\nUsing a swap file can be called **paging**.\n\n## Control of input-output devices\n\nThe peripheral devices are controlled using *protocols* and *device drivers*.\n\n### Protocols\n- Peripheral devices connected to the computer and programmed with machine code.\n- This describes the way that data is to be transferred between the device and the printer.\n\n### Device drivers\n\n- A device driver manages the connection with a peripheral device.\n- Handles the different requests between a computer and a device.\n- Defines the process to store outgoing data and incoming messages.\n\n- When a device is idle for more than a specific amount of time, a driver may put the device into sleep mode, to conserve power.\n- An OS comes equipped with various generic drivers, but some devices require the installation of specialized drivers.\n- A single driver is enough to control multiple peripherals.\n\t- Processes do not interfere in this case because the connection information for each device is isolated.\n\n## File Management Systems\n\n- To retrieve data from the file, an OS needs to know:\n\t- the organization structure\n\t- the amount of data needed in a structure\n\t- the protocol needed to communicate with the file system\n\n## Interrupts\n- Interrupts are signals sent from a device or application to the processor.\n- The processor will temporarily stop its current process and will service the interrupt signal.\n\n## Buffers\n\n- Hardware devices operate at a much lower speed compared to that of a processor\n- If the processor is sending data to an output device, it needs to wait for the hardware.\n- Buffers are temporary memory areas, which hold the data for the output hardware.\n\nBuffers and interrupts are used in conjunction.\n\n## Maintenance utilities: Disk defragmentation\n\n- When small files are deleted in, small parts of all clusters are free for usage. \n- If a large file needs to be stored, this file is fragmented into smaller parts and can then be stored in many small clusters.\n- When the large file is accessed, the read write head must move around lots, slowing the operation time.\n- Disk defragmentation allows for the rearrangement of data, placing all related data close to each other.\n\n## Types of OS\n\n**Distributed operating system:** Offers parallel processing system by sharing the load over multiple servers that are interlinked.\nA job is divided into simple tasks and each task is sent out over the network for the worker nodes to complete.\n\n**Multi-tasking system:** Are used in laptops and personal computers, where multiple processes run simultaneously.\nThe processor rapidly switches between processes, so it appears that multiple tasks are being completed simultaneously.\n\n**Multi-user multi-tasking system:** Based on time-sharing and implements efficient processor scheduling algorithms to divide the time between multiple users. In this system, numerous users are connected to one mainframe.\n\n**Embedded operating systems:** Are designed to perform a single task. Very limited resources. No permanent storage is provided. Accepts inputs from sensors and sends output to control devices.\n\nExamples include (certain): microwaves, missiles, automatic lights/doors, heating systems, many industrial systems.\n\n**Real time operating systems:** Mission critical systems that must be highly reliable, as their failure may have an impact on human lives. Meant to be fault tolerant with redundancy and fail safes.\n\nExamples include: ECGs, ATC, Nuclear reactors, elements of mobile phones, satellites. \n\nRTOS tend to duplicate critical infrastructure to allow for a backup to take over in the event of an emergency.\n\n**OS for mobile and handheld devices:** User interface, hardware operations and radio. \n\nEffectively two systems, one is real time and the other is mainly an interface.\n\n## Virtual Machines\n\n- A dedicated machine houses multiple guest operating systems from a hypervisor.\n- Core functionality is provided by the host operating system.\n\n![[sixth/CompSci/Theory/img/Pasted image 20221125142347.png]]\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.122712178Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory":{"title":"Theory","content":"**This is a node page. It contains no content and exists solely for organisational purposes.**\n\n[Computer Science](/ComputerScience)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.122712178Z","tags":[]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/TwosComplement":{"title":"Two's Complement","content":"\n\nTwo's complement is a system that allows a binary number to be reversibly converted into a number with an equivalent value but negative.\n\n## The process\n\n1) Find the positive binary value for the negative number you are looking to represent.\n2) Add a leading `0` to the front of the number to show it is positive.\n3) Invert each bit in the number\n4) Add 1 to the number\n\n**Example:**\n\nDenary number: 10 \nBinary Equivalent: 1010\n\n01010\n\n10101\n\n10101\n\n*Result:* 10110\n\n## Python representation\nA fairly rudimentary representation of this algorithmically is as follows. It isn't perfect and has flaws - but it does the job a decent chunk of the time. Issues are included in the comments.\n\n```py\ndef FindComplement(inValue):\n # Expect the input to be a positive binary integer\n inValue = \"0\" + inValue\n #print(inValue)\n \n # Invert each bit\n inValue = list(inValue)\n outValue = []\n for bit in inValue:\n if bit == \"0\":\n bit = \"1\"\n elif bit == \"1\":\n bit = \"0\"\n outValue += bit\n #print(outValue)\n \n # Add 1 to the number\n if outValue[-1] == \"0\":\n outValue[-1] = \"1\"\n # Only works if the number is even. Not perfect.\n \n print(\"Two's complement is: \"+str(outValue)) \n\ninV = input(\"Enter binary number to complement: \")\nFindComplement(inV)\n```\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.122712178Z","tags":["compsci","theory"]},"/sixth/CompSci/Theory/TypesOfSoftware":{"title":"Types of Software","content":"\n## Recall\n- A real-time operating system is an operating system designed to perform functions in real-time, such as a missile. \n- Advantages of a virtual machine include it being able to isolate the guest operating system from the host, meaning that software running on the guest can be properly contained.\n- Multi-user, multi-tasking operating systems are designed to accommodate multiple connected users performing different operations simultaneously. \n\n## System Software\n\nResponsible for running hardware, providing vital infrastructure to the computer system. Examples include OS, drivers, utilities and protocols.\n\n## Application Software\n\nNon-vital software that the user is choosing to run, such as browsers or games.\n\n\n## Utilities\n\nApplications installed alongside the operating system that enable specific tasks to be performed easily to improve the operation of your system.\nSplit into maintenance and security options.\n\nExamples:\n\n- User accounts\n- Disk defragmentation\n- Backups\n\n## Backups\n\n**Full backup:** All system data is copied to an external backup system. It will take a relatively long time to create and restore, and will require a large amount of storage.\n\n**Incremental backup:** A full backup is taken once. And then only backing up changed data. It will take a relatively short amount of time to create and restore, and won't require much storage.\n\n**Differential backup:** Contains all the changed data since the last full backup. Takes a relatively short amount of time to create and restore and won't require much storage.\n\n\n[Theory](sixth/CompSci/Theory/Theory)","lastmodified":"2023-11-07T09:58:38.122712178Z","tags":["compsci"]}} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/linkmap b/linkmap index 7b533126b5..e15805a043 100644 --- a/linkmap +++ b/linkmap @@ -1,257 +1,257 @@ +/sixth/Biology/Cells/UsingALightMicroscope/index.{html} /sixth/Biology/Cells/UsingALightMicroscope/ +/sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyFrozenWorld/index.{html} /sixth/Business/Units/fh/CaseStudyFrozenWorld/ +/sixth/Business/Units/fh/IncomeElasticityOfDemand/index.{html} /sixth/Business/Units/fh/IncomeElasticityOfDemand/ +/sixth/Business/Units/nd/ExamTechniqueAndRevision/index.{html} /sixth/Business/Units/nd/ExamTechniqueAndRevision/ +/sixth/CompSci/Programming/Subroutines/index.{html} /sixth/CompSci/Programming/Subroutines/ +/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworkProtocols/index.{html} /sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworkProtocols/ 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diff --git a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/ExamFeedback/index.html b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/ExamFeedback/index.html index 671e7249a5..6d0bda8457 100644 --- a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/ExamFeedback/index.html +++ b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/ExamFeedback/index.html @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ -
diff --git a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/Backus-NaurForm/index.html b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/Backus-NaurForm/index.html index df81c18ecf..59106bb247 100644 --- a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/Backus-NaurForm/index.html +++ b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/Backus-NaurForm/index.html @@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ -
diff --git a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/CheckDigitsAndHashing/index.html b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/CheckDigitsAndHashing/index.html index 576b372d49..d627106255 100644 --- a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/CheckDigitsAndHashing/index.html +++ b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/CheckDigitsAndHashing/index.html @@ -9,11 +9,11 @@ -

📚 Seth Maurice-Brant

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Check Digits and Hashing

Last updated Nov 7, 2023 -Edit

# Hashing Algorithm

# Pigeon Hole Principle

General Concepts

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# Hashing Algorithm

# Pigeon Hole Principle

# Check Digit

General Concepts

\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/FunctionalProgramming/index.html b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/FunctionalProgramming/index.html index 3bf888447c..825b5b0211 100644 --- a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/FunctionalProgramming/index.html +++ b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/FunctionalProgramming/index.html @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ -
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diff --git a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/RegularLanguages/index.html b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/RegularLanguages/index.html index 7134a9346d..0a5aa78e28 100644 --- a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/RegularLanguages/index.html +++ b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/GeneralConcepts/RegularLanguages/index.html @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ -
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diff --git a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Hex/index.html b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Hex/index.html index bd2aed65d1..86dea252cd 100644 --- a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Hex/index.html +++ b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Hex/index.html @@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ -
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diff --git a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworkProtocols/index.html b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworkProtocols/index.html index 364495756b..9360e2ff8c 100644 --- a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworkProtocols/index.html +++ b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworkProtocols/index.html @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ -
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diff --git a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworksQs/index.html b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworksQs/index.html index a88c78e313..5c84c4adae 100644 --- a/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworksQs/index.html +++ b/sixth/CompSci/Theory/Networking/NetworksQs/index.html @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ -
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