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Infix Operators

Infix operators take two operands and are written between those operands. Arithmetic and comparison operators are the most common:

1 + 2
a < b

Pony has pretty much the same set of infix operators as other languages.

Precedence

When using infix operators in complex expressions a key question is the precedence, i.e. which operator is evaluated first. Given this expression:

1 + 2 * 3

We will get a value of 9 if we evaluate the addition first and 7 if we evaluate the multiplication first. In mathematics, there are rules about the order in which to evaluate operators and most programming languages follow this approach.

The problem with this is that the programmer has to remember the order and people aren't very good at things like that. Most people will remember to do multiplication before addition, but what about left bit shifting versus bitwise and? Sometimes people misremember (or guess wrong) and that leads to bugs. Worse, those bugs are often very hard to spot.

Pony takes a different approach and outlaws infix precedence. Any expression where more than one infix operator is used must use parentheses to remove the ambiguity. If you fail to do this the compiler will complain.

This means that the example above is illegal in Pony and should be rewritten as:

1 + (2 * 3)

Repeated use of a single operator, however, is fine:

1 + 2 + 3

Operator aliasing

Most infix operators in Pony are actually aliases for functions. The left operand is the receiver the function is called on and the right operand is passed as an argument. For example, the following expressions are equivalent:

x + y
x.add(y)

This means that + is not a special symbol that can only be applied to magic types. Any type can provide its own add function and the programmer can then use + with that type if they want to.

When defining your own add function there is no restriction on the types of the parameter or the return type. The right side of the + will have to match the parameter type and the whole + expression will have the type that add returns.

Here's a full example for defining a type which allows the use of +. This is all you need:

// Define a suitable type
class Pair
  var _x: U32 = 0
  var _y: U32 = 0

  new create(x: U32, y: U32) =>
    _x = x
    _y = y

  // Define a + function
  fun add(other: Pair): Pair =>
    Pair(_x + other._x, _y + other._y)

// Now let's use it
class Foo
  fun foo() =>
    var x = Pair(1, 2)
    var y = Pair(3, 4)
    var z = x + y

Case functions can be used to provide more than one add function. It is also possible to overload infix operators to some degree using union types or f-bounded polymorphism, but this is beyond the scope of this tutorial. See the Pony standard library for further information.

You do not have to worry about any of this if you don't want to. You can simply use the existing infix operators for numbers just like any other language and not provide them for your own types.

The full list of infix operators that are aliases for functions is:

Operator Method Description 
  •    | add()    | Addition

  •    | sub()    | Subtraction

  •    | mul()    | Multiplication

/ | div() | Division % | mod() | Modulus << | shl() | Left bit shift

  | shr()    | Right bit shift

and | op_and() | And, both bitwise and logical or | op_or() | Or, both bitwise and logical xor | op_xor() | Xor, both bitwise and logical == | eq() | Equality != | ne() | Non-equality < | lt() | Less than <= | le() | Less than or equal

= | ge() | Greater than or equal | gt() | Greater than

Short circuiting

The and and or operators use short circuiting when used with Bool variables. This means that the first operand is always evaluated, but the second is only evaluated if it can affect the result.

For and, if the first operand is false then the second operand is not evaluated since it cannot affect the result.

For or, if the first operand is true then the second operand is not evaluated since it cannot affect the result.

This is a special feature built into the compiler, it cannot be used with operator aliasing for any other type.

Unary operators

The unary operators are handled in the same manner, but with only one operand. For example, the following expressions are equivalent:

-x
x.neg()

The full list of unary operators that are aliases for functions is:

Operator Method Description 
  •    | neg()    | Arithmetic negation

not | op_not() | Not, both bitwise and logical