diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index 942c981..443e6ff 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ **Perceptual model** is defined as: > An expert summary of the watershed and its runoff processes often supported by field observations. Perceptual models are often presented as a schematic figure, although such a figure will necessarily simplify the hydrologist's complex mental model (McMillan et al., 2022) -This repo contains a released version of the perceptual data model database from https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14845. Currently our database holds **396 models** in both text and figure format collected from hydrologic literature. +This repo contains a released version of the perceptual data model database from https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14845. Currently our database holds **400 models** in both text (269) and figure (131) format collected from hydrologic literature. Visit **[the perceptual model interactive map](http://www.mcmillanhydrology.org/PerceptualModelDashboard.html)** for the visualization :world_map: diff --git a/data/ModelAnalysis_Figure.csv b/data/ModelAnalysis_Figure.csv index 63cd91a..2f0cd33 100644 --- a/data/ModelAnalysis_Figure.csv +++ b/data/ModelAnalysis_Figure.csv @@ -2,30 +2,30 @@ id,citation,url,watershed_name,watershed_name2,figure_num,figure_caption,figure_ 1,"Allen, P.M., Harmel, R.D., Arnold, J., Plant, B., Yelderman, J., King, K., 2005. Field data and flow system response in clay (vertisol) shale terrain, north central Texas, USA. Hydrol. Process. Int. J. 19, 2719–2736. ",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5782,"Blacklands Experimental Watershed, USDA-ARS Grassland, Soil and Water Research Laboratory watershed, Riesel, Texas",,11,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Season,Seasonal changes in soil cracking and water table,4,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Shows difference in water table depth with hillslope position,N,N,N,N,"Soil properties (surface sealing, cracking)",2.0,"Groundwater flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater",4.0,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, water table rise,Water table rise, slow groundwater movement,Groundwater flow, drainage,Water table fall,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Groundwater storage, Soil water storage, Water table rise, Water table fall",2.0,Saturated,Groundwater Storage, unsaturated,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 2,"Anderson SP, Dietrich WE, Montgomery DR, Torres R, Conrad ME, Loague K. 1997. Subsurface flow paths in a steep, unchanneled catchment. Water resources research 33 (12): 2637–2653 DOI: 10.1029/97wr02595",https://doi.org/10.1029/97wr02595,"CB1, Coos Bay, Oregon",,14,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Hillslope position,Zoomed in area added to main figure,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Unknown items identified,? mark uncertainties in extent of saturated area and location of fracture zone,"This is a longitudinal profile, average transit time given, scale given",3.0,"Infiltration into bedrock, Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface, Variable source area - subsurface stormflow",2.0,Infiltration into weathered rock layer,Infiltration into bedrock, rapid lateral flow moving between colluvium and weathered rock,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,6.0,"Water Table, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Groundwater storage, Groundwater storage, Perched water tables",7.0, perched water table,Perched water tables, water table,Water Table, subsurface variable source area,Variable source area - subsurface stormflow,Colluvium,Soil water storage,"Weathered rock (Saprolite, oxidized rock)",Groundwater Storage,fractured rock,Groundwater Storage ,fresh rock,Groundwater Storage ,,,,,, -3,"Aulenbach, B.T., Hooper, R.P., van Meerveld, H.J., Burns, D.A., Freer, J.E., Shanley, J.B., Huntington, T.G., McDonnell, J.J., Peters, N.E., 2021. The evolving perceptual model of streamflow generation at the Panola Mountain Research Watershed. Hydrol. Process. 35, e14127.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14127,Panola Mountain Research Watershed,,4c & 4d,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Rainfall intensity,Dry/Wet conditions,2,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Y,Topography described,Stream profile shape shown,N,N,N,N,Riparian area only,0.0,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Channel storage, Riparian aquifer storage, Riparian unsaturated storage",3.0, riparian aquifer unsaturated,Riparian unsaturated storage, riparian aquifer saturated,Riparian aquifer storage, stream channel,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -4,"Bormann H, Faß T, Giertz S, Junge B, Diekkrüger B, Reichert B, Skowronek A. 2005. From local hydrological process analysis to regional hydrological model application in Benin: Concept, results and perspectives. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 30 (6): 347–356 DOI: 10.1016/j.pce.2005.06.005",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2005.06.005,"Aguima catchment, Upper Oueme",,6,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Y,N,N,N,N,N,N,Show cross-section of water table slopes/depths for wet and dry seasons,5.0,"Vertical drainage to groundwater, Subsurface stormflow, Losing stream, Overland Flow, Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths",5.0,Surface flow,Overland flow, interflow,Subsurface stormflow, percolation,Vertical drainage to groundwater, seepage (=channel loss),Losing stream, groundwater recharge via preferential flow paths,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,6.0,"Channel storage, Water Table, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Perched water tables, Groundwater storage",6.0, water table,Water Table, dynamic water table (=perched),Perched water tables, channel (no label),Channel storage,Sand,Soil water storage, Saprolith,Groundwater Storage, Migmatitic basement,Groundwater Storage ,,,,,,,, +3,"Aulenbach, B.T., Hooper, R.P., van Meerveld, H.J., Burns, D.A., Freer, J.E., Shanley, J.B., Huntington, T.G., McDonnell, J.J., Peters, N.E., 2021. The evolving perceptual model of streamflow generation at the Panola Mountain Research Watershed. Hydrol. Process. 35, e14127.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14127,Panola Mountain Research Watershed,,4c & 4d,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Rainfall intensity,Dry/Wet conditions,2,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Y,Topography described,Stream profile shape shown,N,N,N,N,Riparian area only,0.0,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Channel storage, Riparian aquifer storage, Riparian unsaturated storage",3.0, riparian aquifer unsaturated,Riparian unsaturated storage, riparian aquifer saturated,Riparian aquifer storage, stream channel,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +4,"Bormann H, Faß T, Giertz S, Junge B, Diekkrüger B, Reichert B, Skowronek A. 2005. From local hydrological process analysis to regional hydrological model application in Benin: Concept, results and perspectives. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 30 (6): 347–356 DOI: 10.1016/j.pce.2005.06.005",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2005.06.005,"Aguima catchment, Upper Oueme",,6,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Y,N,N,N,N,N,N,Show cross-section of water table slopes/depths for wet and dry seasons,5.0,"Vertical drainage to groundwater, Subsurface stormflow, Losing stream, Overland Flow, Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths",5.0,Surface flow,Overland flow, interflow,Subsurface stormflow, percolation,Vertical drainage to groundwater, seepage (=channel loss),Losing stream, groundwater recharge via preferential flow paths,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,6.0,"Channel storage, Water Table, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Perched water tables, Groundwater storage",6.0, water table,Water Table, dynamic water table (=perched),Perched water tables, channel (no label),Channel storage,Sand,Soil water storage, Saprolith,Groundwater Storage, Migmatitic basement,Groundwater Storage ,,,,,,,, 5,"Brantley SL, White T, West N, Williams JZ, Forsythe B, Shapich D, Kaye J, Lin H, Shi Y, Kaye M, et al. 2018. Susquehanna Shale Hills critical zone observatory: Shale Hills in the context of Shaver’s Creek Watershed. Vadose zone journal: VZJ 17 (1): 1–19 DOI: 10.2136/vzj2018.04.0092",https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2018.04.0092,Susquehanna Shale Hills CZO - Shale Hills,,4,"Schematic cross-section showing the upper fractured layer, where feldspar and clay dissolution largely occurs, and the deeper reaction fronts for carbonate and pyrite. The carbonate front is relatively close to today's deep regional water table and is close in depth to the pyrite reaction front under the ridge, where it is hard to ascertain exact depths. The pyrite reaction front is deeper than today's water table under the valley, as shown. Above each reaction front, the mineral of interest becomes depleted. The upper layer of soil and highly fractured rock shown in gray allows lateral subsurface flow (also referred to here as interflow) of water. Most of the water that infiltrates at the land surface flows along this pathway or is lost to evapotranspiration, leaving relatively little water recharging the deep groundwater. Figure reproduced with permission from Brantley et al., (2013).",https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/b6f9c1c4fa1d4790b8f5adf59692a0ae/data,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,N,N,1,Season with snow,Winter/summer,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,Scale bar shown,"Shows vertical scales at ridge on both sides of valley, and lateral scale",N,N,N,N,Reaction fronts shown,2.0,"Vertical matrix flow, Subsurface stormflow",2.0,Infiltration through unsaturated zone (=vertical matrix flow?),Vertical matrix flow, lateral subsurface flow/interflow,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Soil water storage, Water Table, Soil water storage",3.0, unsaturated zone,Soil water storage, water table,Water Table,Fractured layer where clay dissolution initiates,Soil water storage ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 6,"Cain, Molly R, Dong Kook Woo, Praveen Kumar, Laura Keefer, and Adam S Ward. “Antecedent Conditions Control Thresholds of Tile-Runoff Generation and Nitrogen Export in Intensively Managed Landscapes.” Water Resources Research 58, no. 2 (2022): e2021WR030507.",https://doi.org/10.1029/2021WR030507,"IML CZO, Upper Sangamon River Basin, Allerton Trust Farm",,9,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Wetness,Three progressive wetting steps,3,Cropland described,Corn icons shown,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,4.0,"Vertical macropore flow, Infiltration, Mixing, Tile drain flow",5.0,Infiltration (into soil),Infiltration , mobililzation of soil water,Mixing,"preferential flow (vertical, in soil)",Vertical macropore flow, water table rise,Water table rise, tile drain runoff,Tile drain flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Water table rise, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage",2.0,Soil matrix water,Soil water storage, groundwater,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 7,"Calderon H, Uhlenbrook S. 2016. Characterizing the climatic water balance dynamics and different runoff components in a poorly gauged tropical forested catchment, Nicaragua. Hydrological Sciences Journal 61 (14): 2465–2480 DOI: 10.1080/02626667.2014.964244",https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2014.964244,"Rompeviento and El Nancite, Nicaragua",,8,Conceptualization of runoff generation at sub-catchment (a) and catchment scale (b),Not open-access,Not open-access,,Catchment spatial scale,Subcatchment and catchment scale,2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Y,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Unknown items identified,Lower boundary shown as ? marks,"Joints/faults show, approximate scale given in caption",6.0,"Groundwater flow, Overland Flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Gaining stream, Evapotranspiration, Subsurface stormflow",6.0,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, surface runoff,Overland flow,subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow, baseflow,Gaining stream, groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,Evaporation,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Groundwater storage, Groundwater storage, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage",4.0,Soil,Soil water storage, groundwater,Groundwater Storage,shale/limestone,Groundwater Storage ,sandstone,Groundwater Storage ,,,,,,,,,,,, 8,"Casper MC, Volkmann HN, Waldenmeyer G, Plate EJ. 2003. The separation of flow pathways in a sandstone catchment of the Northern Black Forest using DOC and a nested Approach. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 28 (6): 269–275 DOI: 10.1016/S1474-7065(03)00037-8",https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-7065(03)00037-8,Duerreychbachtal,,6,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,8.0,"Channel flow, Lateral matrix flow, Return Flow, Partial area IE flow, Organic layer interflow, Lateral matrix flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Saturation excess flow",9.0,Soil saturation,Soil saturation, saturation excess flow,Saturation excess flow,return flow,Return Flow, lateral flow from O soil horizon,Organic layer interflow, lateral flow from Ah soil horizon,Lateral matrix flow, lateral flow from B soil horizon,Lateral matrix flow , groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, runoff on tracks,Partial area IE flow, stream discharge,Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,6.0,"Organic Layer, Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Channel storage, Soil saturation, Soil saturation",5.0,O horizon,Organic Layer,saturation of the soil body,Soil saturation,Ah horizon,Soil water storage,b horizon,Soil water storage , channel ,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,, -9,"Dwivedi R, Meixner T, McIntosh JC, Ferré PAT, Eastoe CJ, Niu G-Y, Minor RL, Barron‐Gafford GA, Chorover J. 2019. Hydrologic functioning of the deep critical zone and contributions to streamflow in a high‐elevation catchment: Testing of multiple conceptual models. Hydrological processes 33 (4): 476–494 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.13363",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13363,"Marshall Gulch, Santa Catalina Mountains CZO",,6,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Season,Winter/Dry/Summer seasons,3,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Y ,N,N,N,N,N,N,"Soil clay content in caption, % streamflow contribution in legend, open boundary noted, extra notes shown on figures",4.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Displacement of groundwater, Pistonflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater",5.0,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, summer/winter season recharge pulse (spatially constrained rise in water table),Water table rise,soil water flow,Subsurface stormflow,shallow groundwater flow,Displacement of groundwater,deep groundwater flow,Pistonflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,8.0,"Total groundwater storage , Soil water storage, Dynamic groundwater storage, Water Table, Channel storage, Perched water tables, Water table rise, Groundwater storage",7.0,Soil water,Soil water storage, shallow groundwater (shown as perched water table),Perched water tables, deep groundwater,Groundwater Storage, active groundwater flow zone,Dynamic groundwater storage, inactive groundwater zone,Total groundwater storage, channel,Channel storage,water table,Water Table,,,,,, +9,"Dwivedi R, Meixner T, McIntosh JC, Ferré PAT, Eastoe CJ, Niu G-Y, Minor RL, Barron‐Gafford GA, Chorover J. 2019. Hydrologic functioning of the deep critical zone and contributions to streamflow in a high‐elevation catchment: Testing of multiple conceptual models. Hydrological processes 33 (4): 476–494 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.13363",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13363,"Marshall Gulch, Santa Catalina Mountains CZO",,6,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Season,Winter/Dry/Summer seasons,3,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Y ,N,N,N,N,N,N,"Soil clay content in caption, % streamflow contribution in legend, open boundary noted, extra notes shown on figures",4.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Displacement of groundwater, Pistonflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater",5.0,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, summer/winter season recharge pulse (spatially constrained rise in water table),Water table rise,soil water flow,Subsurface stormflow,shallow groundwater flow,Displacement of groundwater,deep groundwater flow,Pistonflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,8.0,"Total groundwater storage , Soil water storage, Dynamic groundwater storage, Water Table, Channel storage, Perched water tables, Water table rise, Groundwater storage",7.0,Soil water,Soil water storage, shallow groundwater (shown as perched water table),Perched water tables, deep groundwater,Groundwater Storage, active groundwater flow zone,Dynamic groundwater storage, inactive groundwater zone,Total groundwater storage, channel,Channel storage,water table,Water Table,,,,,, 10,"Evans, C., Davies, T.D. and Murdoch, P.S. (1999), Component flow processes at four streams in the Catskill Mountains, New York, analysed using episodic concentration/discharge relationships. Hydrol. Process., 13: 563-575. https://doi-org.libproxy.sdsu.edu/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(199903)13:4<563::AID-HYP711>3.0.CO;2-N",https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(199903)13:4%3C563::AID-HYP711%3E3.0.CO;2-N,"Catskill Mountains, New York",,10,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Event,"Pre-event, rising limb, falling limb",3,Forest described,Tree icons shown of deciduous/pine,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,0.0,,3.0,,Channel interception,,Lateral matrix flow,,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Channel storage, Organic Layer, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage",4.0,Stream channel,Channel storage, organic horizon,Organic Layer, pre-event soil water,Soil water storage, pre-event groundwater,Groundwater Storage ,,,,,,,,,,,, 11,"Exner-Kittridge M, Strauss P, Blöschl G, Eder A, Saracevic E, Zessner M. 2016. The seasonal dynamics of the stream sources and input flow paths of water and nitrogen of an Austrian headwater agricultural catchment. The Science of the total environment 542 (Pt A): 935–945 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.10.151",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.10.151,"HOAL Petzenkirchen, Vienna",,3,"A schematic diagram of the sources and pathways of water and nitrogen during baseflow and rainfall conditions in the HOAL catchment. Diagrams (a) and (b) illustrate the source reservoirs during baseflow and rainfall event conditions, and diagrams (c) and (d) illustrate the flowpaths of the water and nitrogen from the reservoirs to the stream during baseflow and rainfall event conditions. The main reservoirs for stream baseflow are the shallow aquifer and the deep aquifer, and in addition to the previously mentioned aquifers the unsaturated soil and the rainfall are the source reservoirs during rainfall events. Diagram (c) illustrates a slightly different cross-section where the deep aquifer outcrops into the riparian zone and manifests as a spring. This cross-section is representative of the location of the Q1 spring found in Fig. 2. In both (c) and (d), diffuse groundwater (GW) flows through the soil matrix and macropores are important flowpaths in addition to tile drainage discharge",https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0048969715309670-gr3.jpg,CC BY 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,N,N,1,Event,Baseflow/Rainfall events,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,"The sources (=stores) and flow paths are shown as separate pictures. The diffuse groundwater flows are shown as being from shallow and deep aquifers, but are described as being ""flows through the soil matrix and macropores""",6.0,"Overland Flow, Groundwater flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Tile drain flow, Groundwater flow, Springflow",6.0,Tile drainages,Tile drain flow, diffuse GW flow (from shallow aquifer),Groundwater flow, diffuse GW flow (from deep aquifer),Groundwater flow , springs,Springflow, soil drainage (vertical),Vertical drainage to groundwater, overland flow,Overland flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Channel storage, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Groundwater storage",4.0,Stream,Channel storage, unsaturated soil,Soil water storage, shallow aquifer,Groundwater Storage , deep aquifer,Groundwater Storage ,,,,,,,,,,,, -12,"Flint AL, Flint LE, Bodvarsson GS, Kwicklis EM, Fabryka-Martin J. 2001. Evolution of the conceptual model of unsaturated zone hydrology at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. Journal of Hydrology 247 (1)",https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(01)00358-4,"Yucca Mountain, Nevada",,3,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Y,N,N,N,N,Uncertainty described,N - apart from infiltration marked as spatially variable,"Inconsistencies betweeen picture and legend, wiggly arrows meaning unknown, many unlabelled arrows",7.0,"Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow, Infiltration, Pistonflow, Pistonflow, Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths, Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow, Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow",7.0,Infiltration,Infiltration, lateral matrix flow in TCw,Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow, lateral matrix flow in PTn,Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow , lateral matrix flow at deeper geological interface,Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow , flow in fault conduit,Pistonflow, fast fracture flow,Pistonflow , unsaturated flux from fractures to matrix,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,7.0,"Unsaturated bedrock storage, Perched water tables, Water Table, Unsaturated bedrock storage, Unsaturated bedrock storage, Unsaturated bedrock storage, Unsaturated bedrock storage",7.0,TCw,Unsaturated bedrock storage, PTn,Unsaturated bedrock storage , TSw,Unsaturated bedrock storage , CHv,Unsaturated bedrock storage , CHz (all lithostratigraphy units),Unsaturated bedrock storage , water table,Water table, perched water tables at 3 boundaries,Perched water tables,,,,,, +12,"Flint AL, Flint LE, Bodvarsson GS, Kwicklis EM, Fabryka-Martin J. 2001. Evolution of the conceptual model of unsaturated zone hydrology at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. Journal of Hydrology 247 (1)",https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(01)00358-4,"Yucca Mountain, Nevada",,3,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Y,N,N,N,N,Uncertainty described,N - apart from infiltration marked as spatially variable,"Inconsistencies betweeen picture and legend, wiggly arrows meaning unknown, many unlabelled arrows",7.0,"Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow, Infiltration, Pistonflow, Pistonflow, Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths, Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow, Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow",7.0,Infiltration,Infiltration, lateral matrix flow in TCw,Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow, lateral matrix flow in PTn,Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow , lateral matrix flow at deeper geological interface,Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow , flow in fault conduit,Pistonflow, fast fracture flow,Pistonflow , unsaturated flux from fractures to matrix,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,7.0,"Unsaturated bedrock storage, Perched water tables, Water Table, Unsaturated bedrock storage, Unsaturated bedrock storage, Unsaturated bedrock storage, Unsaturated bedrock storage",7.0,TCw,Unsaturated bedrock storage, PTn,Unsaturated bedrock storage , TSw,Unsaturated bedrock storage , CHv,Unsaturated bedrock storage , CHz (all lithostratigraphy units),Unsaturated bedrock storage , water table,Water table, perched water tables at 3 boundaries,Perched water tables,,,,,, 13,"Fovet O, Ruiz L, Hrachowitz M, Faucheux M, Gascuel-Odoux C. 2015. Hydrological hysteresis and its value for assessing process consistency in catchment conceptual models. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 19 (1): 105–123",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-105-2015,"Kerrien catchment, Brittany",,7,Conceptual scheme of successive mechanisms explaining the annual hysteresis between storages and stream flows. HUS: hillslope unsaturated storage; HSS: hillslope saturated storage; RUS: riparian unsaturated storage; RSS: riparian saturated storage; Q: stream flow. Bold characters indicate compartments with varying storage; grey arrows indicate whether the compartment is filling or emptying; black arrows indicate the water flow paths,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/1b22eacf13e446e1aa3ab59d39fbee9b/data,CC BY 3.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/,N,N,1,Wetness,"Dry, wetting, wet and drying periods",4,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,"Shows slope of hillside, riparian zone, water table",N,N,N,N,Arrows show water table rise/fall; indicates which storages have variable storage,5.0,"Groundwater flow, Channel flow, Lateral macropore flow, Regional groundwater flow, Gaining stream",5.0,Deep groundwater flow,Regional groundwater flow, riparian groundwater flow to channel,Gaining stream," preferential flow (shown lateral, close to/intersecting ground surface)",Lateral macropore flow, hillslope groundwater flow (shown lateral),Groundwater flow,streamflow,Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Riparian aquifer storage, Riparian unsaturated storage, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage",4.0,hillslope unsaturated storage,Soil water storage, hillslope saturated storage,Groundwater Storage,riparian unsaturated storage,Riparian unsaturated storage,riparian saturated storage,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 14,"Gabrielli CP, McDonnell JJ, Jarvis WT. 2012. The role of bedrock groundwater in rainfall–runoff response at hillslope and catchment scales. Journal of Hydrology 450-451: 117–133 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.05.023",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.05.023,Maimai M8 experimental catchment,,7a,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,Forest described,Pine tree icons,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,3.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Infiltration into bedrock, Groundwater flow",3.0,Bedrock infiltration,Infiltration into bedrock, subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow, bedrock groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Groundwater storage, Unsaturated bedrock storage, Soil water storage, Channel storage",4.0,Soil,Soil water storage, bedrock,Unsaturated bedrock storage, saturated bedrock,Groundwater Storage, stream,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 15,"Gabrielli CP, McDonnell JJ, Jarvis WT. 2012. The role of bedrock groundwater in rainfall–runoff response at hillslope and catchment scales. Journal of Hydrology 450-451: 117–133 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.05.024",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.05.023,"WS10, H.J. Andrews, Oregon",,7b,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,Forest described,Pine tree icons,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,4.0,"Gaining stream, Infiltration into bedrock, Pistonflow, Groundwater flow",4.0,Shallow fracture flow (=lateral subsurface stormflow),Pistonflow, long term water flux (=bedrock groundwater),Groundwater flow, deep seepage,Infiltration into bedrock,baseflow ,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Channel storage, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Soil water storage",4.0,Soil,Soil water storage, saprolite,Soil water storage , bedrock,Groundwater Storage, stream,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 16,"Gibson JJ, Yi Y, Birks SJ. 2016. Isotope-based partitioning of streamflow in the oil sands region, northern Alberta: Towards a monitoring strategy for assessing flow sources and water quality controls. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 5: 131–148 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.12.062",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.12.062,"Athabasca Oil Sands region, Alberta",,12,"Conceptual model of runoff generation in wetland-dominated tributaries in the oil sands region. Important flow mechanisms are identified. Note that on-channel precipitation and near-channel overland flow produce event-dominated runoff, shallow runoff components (2–5) typically produce mixtures of surface water and groundwater whereas deep runoff components (6–8) are exclusively groundwater-fed",https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S2214581815002141-gr12.jpg,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Glacier described,Y (only drift/bedrock),N,N,N,N,N,N,"Describes water sources as event water, shallow gw, deep gw",9.0,"Regional groundwater flow, SE flow from riparian zone, Groundwater flow, Lateral macropore flow, Return Flow, Groundwater flow, Channel interception, Groundwater flooding, Subsurface stormflow",9.0,On-channel precipitation,Channel interception, near-channel overland flow,SE flow from riparian zone, fill and spill,Groundwater flooding, macropore flow,Lateral macropore flow, interflow,Subsurface stormflow, return flow,Return flow, flow from drift aquifers,Groundwater flow , flow from bedrock aquifers,Groundwater flow , regional groundwater flow,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Groundwater storage, Channel storage, Groundwater storage, Regional Groundwater storage",4.0,Peat,Groundwater Storage, drift,Groundwater Storage , bedrock,Regional Groundwater Storage, channel shown but not labelled,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 17,"Gutierrez-Jurado, Karina Y, Daniel Partington, and Margaret Shanafield. “Taking Theory to the Field: Streamflow Generation Mechanisms in an Intermittent Mediterranean Catchment.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 25, no. 8 (2021): 4299–4317.",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4299-2021,"Pedler Creek, Willunga Basin",,3,"(a) Conceptual diagram showing the three major areas that are likely to develop distinct streamflow generation mechanisms during the intermittent flow season. (b–d) The 2D soil profiles for the three major areas detailing the processes developing from the initial conditions until the threshold of flow (modified from Gutierrez-Jurado et al., 2019). (e) Typical hydrograph during the intermittent season highlighting the hypothesised fast and slow flow components. For illustration purposes, the aquifers are presented as a single unit depicted in grey. Arrows represent the flow direction",https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/25/4299/2021/hess-25-4299-2021-f03-thumb.png,CC BY 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,Topography,"Steep hills, undulating hills, flat valley/permeable soil, flat valley/impermeable soil",4,Event,"Initial conditions, intermediate, threshold of flow",3,Forest described,Tree icons shown ,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,6.0,"Infiltration, Lateral unsaturated flow, Infiltration excess flow, Saturation excess flow, Gaining stream, Subsurface stormflow",7.0,Infiltration,Infiltration, unsaturated interflow,Lateral unsaturated flow, saturated interflow,Subsurface stormflow, ponding,Depression storage, saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow, infiltration excess overland flow,Infiltration excess flow, old groundwater discharge to stream,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,9.0,"Channel storage, Water Table, Depression storage, Groundwater storage, Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Depression storage, Soil water storage, Perched water tables",8.0,Sand,Soil water storage, loam,Soil water storage , clay,Soil water storage , aquifer,Groundwater Storage , perched water table,Perched water tables, water table,Water Table, surface depression storage,Depression storage, channel,Channel storage,,,, 18,"Hangen E, Lindenlaub M, Leibundgut C, von Wilpert K. 2001. Investigating mechanisms of stormflow generation by natural tracers and hydrometric data: a small catchment study in the Black Forest, Germany. Hydrological processes 15 (2): 183–199 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.142",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.142,"Conventwald Basin, Black Forest Mountains",,11,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Hillslope position,Areas of fast/delayed stormflow generation,2,Event,Stages of runoff,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Change in slope depicted,N,N,N,N,,4.0,"Groundwater flow, Saturation excess flow, Subsurface stormflow from riparian zone, Infiltration",4.0,Saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow, soil water displacement/fast infiltration,Infiltration, fast depletion of near channel soil/groundwater,Subsurface stormflow from riparian zone, delayed flow from hillslope aquifer,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Dynamic groundwater storage, Total groundwater storage , Channel storage",3.0,Phreatic zone,Dynamic groundwater storage, permanently saturated,Total groundwater storage, channel,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -19,"Hartmann, A., Wagener, T., Rimmer, A., Lange, J., Brielmann, H., Weiler, M., 2013. Testing the realism of model structures to identify karst system processes using water quality and quantity signatures. Water Resour. Res. 49, 3345–3358.",https://doi.org/10.1002/wrcr.20229,Mt. Hermon Range,,1,(a) Study site and its location in the Middle East and (b) perceptual model of the hydrological system of the two springs (cross section A-B-C indicated in Figure 1a and derived from Gilad and Schwartz (1978)),Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Only as far as marking aquiclude,Topography described,Shows 3D model of topography,3D graphics,Y (shows watershed in 3D include fault impact on geology),N,N,Focused on karst systems,5.0,"Springflow, Groundwater flow, Pistonflow, Springflow, Infiltration",5.0,Infiltration,Infiltration, preferential flow in conduits,Pistonflow, matrix flow,Groundwater flow, spring * 2,Springflow , spring * 2,Springflow ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Bedrock fracture storage, Channel storage, Bedrock matrix storage",3.0,Water table in matrix,Bedrock matrix storage, water table in conduits,Bedrock fracture storage, river,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +19,"Hartmann, A., Wagener, T., Rimmer, A., Lange, J., Brielmann, H., Weiler, M., 2013. Testing the realism of model structures to identify karst system processes using water quality and quantity signatures. Water Resour. Res. 49, 3345–3358.",https://doi.org/10.1002/wrcr.20229,Mt. Hermon Range,,1,(a) Study site and its location in the Middle East and (b) perceptual model of the hydrological system of the two springs (cross section A-B-C indicated in Figure 1a and derived from Gilad and Schwartz (1978)),Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Only as far as marking aquiclude,Topography described,Shows 3D model of topography,3D graphics,Y (shows watershed in 3D include fault impact on geology),N,N,Focused on karst systems,5.0,"Springflow, Groundwater flow, Pistonflow, Springflow, Infiltration",5.0,Infiltration,Infiltration, preferential flow in conduits,Pistonflow, matrix flow,Groundwater flow, spring * 2,Springflow , spring * 2,Springflow ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Bedrock fracture storage, Channel storage, Bedrock matrix storage",3.0,Water table in matrix,Bedrock matrix storage, water table in conduits,Bedrock fracture storage, river,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 20,"Heller K, Kleber A. 2016. Hillslope runoff generation influenced by layered subsurface in a headwater catchment in Ore Mountains, Germany. Environmental Earth Sciences 75 (11): 943 DOI: 10.1007/s12665-016-5750-y",https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5750-y,Freiberger Mulde,,8,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Wetness,Low/intermediate/high antecedent soil moisture,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Plan view + cross section,Inset shows aerial view with flow directions to supplement profile,N,N,"Complex flow paths and changes in saturated zone shape/layers shown in diagrams, ",5.0,"Lateral unsaturated flow, Springflow, Subsurface stormflow, Return Flow, Vertical macropore flow",5.0,Spring,Springflow, multiple other non-labelled including infiltration in different layers,Vertical macropore flow, saturated lateral flow,Subsurface stormflow,unsaturated lateral flow,Lateral unsaturated flow, return flow,Return Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Groundwater storage, Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Soil water storage",4.0,Soil layers: upper,Soil water storage, intermediate,Soil water storage , basal,Soil water storage , water saturated zone,Groundwater Storage ,,,,,,,,,,,, 21,"Helms, M, O Evdakov, J Ihringer, and F Nestmann. “Modelling Spring Flood in the Area of the Upper Volga Basin.” Advances in Geosciences 9 (2006): 115–22.",https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-9-115-2006,Kostroma Catchment,,7,"Scheme of the discussed runoff-generation mechanism of spring flood events in catchments with predominating podzoluvisols. Blue arrows indicate dynamics of soil water, brown block arrows those of the soil matrix due to shrinkage or swelling of clay",https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/a69a45f9dc8f48ecbe7cf241f38a9221/data,CC BY-NC-SA 2.5,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/,N,N,1,Season,"Summer, Autumn, Spring-initial loss, Spring flood",4,N,N,Horizons described,Y,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Just shown as soil sections,5.0,"Vertical macropore flow, Displacement of groundwater, Infiltration, Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons, Mixing",7.0,Infiltration,Infiltration, swelling/shrinking of clay,Soil swelling/cracking, macropore flow,Vertical macropore flow, macro/matrix interaction,Mixing, runoff from Bt-E horizon,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons, runoff from saturated zone,Displacement of groundwater, rise in water table (most shown as unlabelled arrows),Water table rise,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,5.0,"Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Water table rise, Groundwater storage, Soil swelling/cracking",3.0,E horizon,Soil water storage, Bt horizon,Soil water storage , saturated area,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 22,"Inamdar SP, Mitchell MJ. 2007. Contributions of riparian and hillslope waters to storm runoff across multiple catchments and storm events in a glaciated forested watershed. Journal of Hydrology 341 (1): 116–130 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.05.007",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.05.007,"Point Peter Brook watershed, New York",,6,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Event,"Before event, peak, recession (times shown on hydrograph)",3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,3.0,"Riparian Groundwater Flow, Exfiltration, Throughfall",3.0,Throughfall,Throughfall, seep groundwater,Exfiltration, riparian water (all as contributions to streamflow),Riparian Groundwater Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,0.0,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 23,"Klaus J, McDonnell JJ, Jackson CR, Du E, Griffiths NA. 2015. Where does streamwater come from in low-relief forested watersheds? A dual-isotope approach. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 19 (1): 125–135 DOI: 10.5194/hess-19-125-2015",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-125-2015,"3 watersheds (R, C, B) in Upper Fourmile Branch, South Carolina",,8,"Conceptual model of baseflow runoff generation and enrichment in heavy isotopes from rainfall to streamflow. Key element is the disconnectivity between the hillslopes and the riparian-stream systems, which is likely sustained by precipitation and deeper groundwater",https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/888b8c6f5857489d93b1617a701142b2/data,CC BY 3.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Unknown items identified,Hillslope-stream connectivity shown with a '?',Focused on isotope enrichment processes,6.0,"Channel flow, Soil surface evaporation, Riparian transpiration, Connectivity between hillslopes and channel, Subsurface stormflow, Gaining stream",6.0,Subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow, streamflow,Channel flow, hillslope-stream connectivity,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel, groundwater-stream two-way connectivity (shown but not labelled),Gaining stream,Enrichment of soil water,Soil surface evaporation,Riparian wetland with enrichment processes,Riparian transpiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Channel storage, Riparian aquifer storage, Groundwater storage, Soil water storage",4.0,Riparian wetland/Riparian zone,Riparian aquifer storage, soil water,Soil water storage, groundwater,Groundwater Storage, channel (shown but no label),Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 24,"Koch K, Wenninger J, Uhlenbrook S, Bonell M. 2009. Joint interpretation of hydrological and geophysical data: electrical resistivity tomography results from a process hydrological research site in the Black Forest Mountains, Germany. Hydrological processes 23 (10): 1501–1513 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.7275",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7275,"Brugga experimental basin, Black Forest Mountains",,13,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Different icons used for trees/small grass(?),N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Arrows show direction of groundwater e.g. towards zones of higher conductivity,5.0,"Groundwater flow, Groundwater flow, Springflow, Channel flow, Evapotranspiration",5.0,Groundwater flow,Groundwater flow, groundwater flow in crystalline bedrock (shown with different arrow style),Groundwater flow , spring,Springflow, stream/drainage trench,Channel flow,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,5.0,"Groundwater storage, Channel storage, Bedrock fracture storage, Groundwater storage, Groundwater storage",5.0,Shallow aquifer,Groundwater Storage, main aquifer,Groundwater Storage , zone of better hydraulic conductivity,Groundwater Storage , fractured zone of crystalline bedrock,Bedrock fracture storage, stream,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,, -25,"Li L, DiBiase RA, Del Vecchio J, Marcon V, Hoagland B, Xiao D, Wayman C, Tang Q, He Y, Silverhart P, et al. 2018. The effect of lithology and agriculture at the Susquehanna Shale Hills Critical Zone Observatory. Vadose zone journal: VZJ 17 (1): 1–15 DOI: 10.2136/vzj2018.03.0063",https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2018.03.0063,Susquehanna Shale Hills CZO - Garner Run,,11 - top,Cross-section diagrams of Garner Run (top) and Cole Farm (bottom). Solid blue lines represent the regional groundwater table based on water level measurements. Dashed blue lines represent interflow pathways inferred from spring outcroppings and the depth at which the soil meets the fractured bedrock interface. Stratigraphy from Cole Farm well log data is featured to vertical scale. The stratigraphy for Garner Run in the vertical extent depicted is comprised primarily of the Tuscarora sandstone formation with <2 m of soil at the surface. The inferred extent of the valley fill at Garner Run is highlighted in gray,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/9e7d1c7fcb8c4bb2b2f458f4e12a174f/data,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,Aspects,SE-facing/NW-facing slopes,2,N,N,1,Forest described,N - pine tree images shown,N,N,Geology described,Y In caption,Scale bar shown,"Shows vertical scales at ridge and valley floor, and lateral scale",N,N,N,N,"Pictures of suface rocks shown, unsure of significance",4.0,"Vertical drainage to groundwater, Subsurface stormflow, Springflow, Regional groundwater flow",4.0,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, interflow (indicated as saturated by local water table symbol?),Subsurface stormflow, regional groundwater flow,Regional Groundwater Flow, spring discharge,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Channel storage, Perched water tables, Regional Groundwater storage, Soil water storage",4.0,Soil (in caption but not in picture),Soil water storage,water table mark shown,Perched water tables, regional groundwater table,Regional Groundwater Storage," creek (shown, not labelled)",Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, -26,"Li L, DiBiase RA, Del Vecchio J, Marcon V, Hoagland B, Xiao D, Wayman C, Tang Q, He Y, Silverhart P, et al. 2018. The effect of lithology and agriculture at the Susquehanna Shale Hills Critical Zone Observatory. Vadose zone journal: VZJ 17 (1): 1–15 DOI: 10.2136/vzj2018.03.0064",https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2018.03.0063,Susquehanna Shale Hills CZO - Cole Farm,,11 - bottom,Cross-section diagrams of Garner Run (top) and Cole Farm (bottom). Solid blue lines represent the regional groundwater table based on water level measurements. Dashed blue lines represent interflow pathways inferred from spring outcroppings and the depth at which the soil meets the fractured bedrock interface. Stratigraphy from Cole Farm well log data is featured to vertical scale. The stratigraphy for Garner Run in the vertical extent depicted is comprised primarily of the Tuscarora sandstone formation with <2 m of soil at the surface. The inferred extent of the valley fill at Garner Run is highlighted in gray,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/9e7d1c7fcb8c4bb2b2f458f4e12a174f/data,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,Forest described,N - pine & other tree images shown,N,N,Geology described,Y In caption,Scale bar shown,Vertical and lateral scales,N,N,N,N,,4.0,"Springflow, Subsurface stormflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Regional groundwater flow",4.0,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, interflow (indicated as saturated by local water table symbol?),Subsurface stormflow, regional groundwater flow,Regional Groundwater Flow, spring discharge,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Regional Groundwater storage, Perched water tables, Channel storage, Lake storage",4.0,Pond,Lake storage, creek,Channel storage, regional water table,Regional Groundwater Storage,water table mark shown,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,, +25,"Li L, DiBiase RA, Del Vecchio J, Marcon V, Hoagland B, Xiao D, Wayman C, Tang Q, He Y, Silverhart P, et al. 2018. The effect of lithology and agriculture at the Susquehanna Shale Hills Critical Zone Observatory. Vadose zone journal: VZJ 17 (1): 1–15 DOI: 10.2136/vzj2018.03.0063",https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2018.03.0063,Susquehanna Shale Hills CZO - Garner Run,,11 - top,Cross-section diagrams of Garner Run (top) and Cole Farm (bottom). Solid blue lines represent the regional groundwater table based on water level measurements. Dashed blue lines represent interflow pathways inferred from spring outcroppings and the depth at which the soil meets the fractured bedrock interface. Stratigraphy from Cole Farm well log data is featured to vertical scale. The stratigraphy for Garner Run in the vertical extent depicted is comprised primarily of the Tuscarora sandstone formation with <2 m of soil at the surface. The inferred extent of the valley fill at Garner Run is highlighted in gray,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/9e7d1c7fcb8c4bb2b2f458f4e12a174f/data,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,Aspects,SE-facing/NW-facing slopes,2,N,N,1,Forest described,N - pine tree images shown,N,N,Geological types described,Y In caption,Scale bar shown,"Shows vertical scales at ridge and valley floor, and lateral scale",N,N,N,N,"Pictures of suface rocks shown, unsure of significance",4.0,"Vertical drainage to groundwater, Subsurface stormflow, Springflow, Regional groundwater flow",4.0,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, interflow (indicated as saturated by local water table symbol?),Subsurface stormflow, regional groundwater flow,Regional Groundwater Flow, spring discharge,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Channel storage, Perched water tables, Regional Groundwater storage, Soil water storage",4.0,Soil (in caption but not in picture),Soil water storage,water table mark shown,Perched water tables, regional groundwater table,Regional Groundwater Storage," creek (shown, not labelled)",Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, +26,"Li L, DiBiase RA, Del Vecchio J, Marcon V, Hoagland B, Xiao D, Wayman C, Tang Q, He Y, Silverhart P, et al. 2018. The effect of lithology and agriculture at the Susquehanna Shale Hills Critical Zone Observatory. Vadose zone journal: VZJ 17 (1): 1–15 DOI: 10.2136/vzj2018.03.0064",https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2018.03.0063,Susquehanna Shale Hills CZO - Cole Farm,,11 - bottom,Cross-section diagrams of Garner Run (top) and Cole Farm (bottom). Solid blue lines represent the regional groundwater table based on water level measurements. Dashed blue lines represent interflow pathways inferred from spring outcroppings and the depth at which the soil meets the fractured bedrock interface. Stratigraphy from Cole Farm well log data is featured to vertical scale. The stratigraphy for Garner Run in the vertical extent depicted is comprised primarily of the Tuscarora sandstone formation with <2 m of soil at the surface. The inferred extent of the valley fill at Garner Run is highlighted in gray,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/9e7d1c7fcb8c4bb2b2f458f4e12a174f/data,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,Forest described,N - pine & other tree images shown,N,N,Geological types described,Y In caption,Scale bar shown,Vertical and lateral scales,N,N,N,N,,4.0,"Springflow, Subsurface stormflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Regional groundwater flow",4.0,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, interflow (indicated as saturated by local water table symbol?),Subsurface stormflow, regional groundwater flow,Regional Groundwater Flow, spring discharge,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Regional Groundwater storage, Perched water tables, Channel storage, Lake storage",4.0,Pond,Lake storage, creek,Channel storage, regional water table,Regional Groundwater Storage,water table mark shown,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,, 27,"Loritz R, Hassler SK, Jackisch C, Allroggen N, van Schaik L, Wienhöfer J, Zehe E. 2017. Picturing and modeling catchments by representative hillslopes. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 21 (2): 1225–1249 DOI: 10.5194/hess-21-1225-2017",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1225-2017,Colpach,,3a,Perceptual models of the (a) Colpach and (b) Wollefsbach and their translation into a representative hillslope model for CATFLOW. It is important to note that only small sections of the model hillslope are displayed (C Colpach; D Wollefsbach) and not the entire hillslope,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/5ced7d98c8b94f12bde151990377b213/data,CC BY 3.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Various tree and grass icons,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Also shows translation into model structure,1.0,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,1.0,Lateral flow along bedrock interface (arrow but not labelled),Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Soil water storage, Bedrock hollows",2.0,Soil,Soil water storage, bedrock interface (=hollows),Bedrock hollows,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 28,"Loritz R, Hassler SK, Jackisch C, Allroggen N, van Schaik L, Wienhöfer J, Zehe E. 2017. Picturing and modeling catchments by representative hillslopes. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 21 (2): 1225–1249 DOI: 10.5194/hess-21-1225-2017",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-1225-2017,Wollefsbach,,3b,Perceptual models of the (a) Colpach and (b) Wollefsbach and their translation into a representative hillslope model for CATFLOW. It is important to note that only small sections of the model hillslope are displayed (C Colpach; D Wollefsbach) and not the entire hillslope,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/5ced7d98c8b94f12bde151990377b213/data,CC BY 3.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,"Tree, grass, crop icons",N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Also shows translation into model structure,2.0,"Vertical macropore flow, Tile drain flow",2.0,Vertical structure,Vertical macropore flow,Vertical and horizontal flow arrows shown along manmade drainage network,Tile drain flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1.0,Soil water storage,1.0,Soil,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 29,"Louw PGB de, de Louw PGB, van der Velde Y, van der Zee SEATM. 2011. Quantifying water and salt fluxes in a lowland polder catchment dominated by boil seepage: a probabilistic end-member mixing approach. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 15 (7): 2101–2117 DOI: 10.5194/hess-15-2101-2011",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-15-2101-2011,Noordplas Polder,,1,"The geohydrology and water and salt fluxes in a lowland polder catchment area. Upward groundwater seepage from the upper aquifer can be divided into three different types according to De Louw et al. (2010): diffuse-, paleochannel-, and boil seepage",https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/b59a70ad3e77490f86cfa110c4817cc5/data,CC BY 3.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,3D graphics,Shown in 3D to show difference between polder and higher field areas,N,N,"Shows vertical scale, shows isolines of chloride for salinity",6.0,"Exfiltration, Exfiltration, Pumped discharge, Exfiltration, Evapotranspiration, Pumped discharge",6.0,Admission of boezem water (into polder),Pumped discharge, diffuse seepage (water from upper aquifer to polder),Exfiltration, palechannel seepage (from upper aquifer to polder),Exfiltration , boil seepage (upper aquifer to polder),Exfiltration , polder water discharge (pumped back into boezem),Pumped discharge,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Groundwater storage, Groundwater storage, Channel storage, Soil water storage",4.0,Holocene confining layer (Peat/clay),Soil water storage, upper aquifer,Groundwater Storage, boezem (=manmade channel to remove water),Channel storage,paleochannel belt (permeable sandy belts breaking the confining layer),Groundwater Storage ,,,,,,,,,,,, @@ -46,39 +46,39 @@ id,citation,url,watershed_name,watershed_name2,figure_num,figure_caption,figure_ 44,"Tetzlaff, D, Buttle, J, Carey, SK, McGuire, K, Laudon, H, and Soulsby, C (2015), Tracer-based assessment of flow paths, storage and runoff generation in northern catchments: a review. Hydrol. Process., 29, 3475– 3490.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10412,Wolf Creek,,2a,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Process,Permafrost Occurs,2,N,N,2,Vegetation described,Y,Soil types described,Y,N,N,Slopes described,Change in slope,N,N,N,N,,3.0,"Vertical macropore flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Organic layer interflow",3.0, Preferential/pipeflow,Vertical macropore flow, Shallow sub-surface stormflow,Organic layer interflow, groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Soil water storage, Permafrost storage, Organic Layer",3.0,Organic layer,Organic Layer, Mineral Soils,Soil water storage, Permafrost,Permafrost storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 45,"Tetzlaff, D, Buttle, J, Carey, SK, McGuire, K, Laudon, H, and Soulsby, C (2015), Tracer-based assessment of flow paths, storage and runoff generation in northern catchments: a review. Hydrol. Process., 29, 3475– 3490.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10412,Krycklan,,2b,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,4,Vegetation described,Y,Soil types described,Y,N,N,Topography described,Varying thickness/slope of humic layer,N,N,N,N,,3.0,"Lateral matrix flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Subsurface stormflow",3.0, Shallow sub-surface flow,Subsurface stormflow, stormflow as transmissivity feedback,Lateral matrix flow, Groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Organic Layer, Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Channel storage",4.0,Humic layer,Organic Layer, peat,Soil water storage, till,Soil water storage , incised streams,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 46,"Tetzlaff, D, Buttle, J, Carey, SK, McGuire, K, Laudon, H, and Soulsby, C (2015), Tracer-based assessment of flow paths, storage and runoff generation in northern catchments: a review. Hydrol. Process., 29, 3475– 3490.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10412,"Girnock, Scotland",,2c,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,4,Vegetation described,Y,Soil types described,Y,N,N,Slopes described,Change in slope,N,N,N,N,Soil property (free-draining),4.0,"Saturation excess flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Subsurface stormflow, Return Flow",4.0, Saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow, return flow,Return Flow, shallow sub-surface flow,Subsurface stormflow, groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,5.0,"Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Channel storage, Groundwater storage, Organic Layer",5.0,Stream,Channel storage, Organic,Organic Layer, Peat,Soil water storage, Freely-draining Podzol,Soil water storage , Bedrock,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,, -47,"Uchida T, Asano Y, Ohte N, Mizuyama T. 2003. Analysis of flowpath dynamics in a steep unchannelled hollow in the Tanakami Mountains of Japan. Hydrological Processes 17 (2): 417–430 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.1133",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1133,"Fudoji Experimental Watershed, Tanakami Mountain",,8,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Event,"Baseflow, stormflow",2,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Y,Topography described,N,N,N,N,N,"Shows lateral and vertical scale, shows zones of different N-4 in soil",6.0,"Springflow, Groundwater flow, Variable source area - subsurface stormflow, Lateral macropore flow, Vertical matrix flow, Springflow",7.0,Water table rise (not labelled),Water table rise, water flow in bedrock,Groundwater flow, water flow in soil layer,Vertical matrix flow, lateral preferential flow,Lateral macropore flow, bedrock spring,Springflow , spring,Springflow , expansion of source area of spring,Variable source area - subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Water table rise, Water Table, Groundwater storage",2.0,Bedrock,Groundwater Storage, water table,Water Table,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +47,"Uchida T, Asano Y, Ohte N, Mizuyama T. 2003. Analysis of flowpath dynamics in a steep unchannelled hollow in the Tanakami Mountains of Japan. Hydrological Processes 17 (2): 417–430 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.1133",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1133,"Fudoji Experimental Watershed, Tanakami Mountain",,8,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Event,"Baseflow, stormflow",2,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Y,Topography described,N,N,N,N,N,"Shows lateral and vertical scale, shows zones of different N-4 in soil",6.0,"Springflow, Groundwater flow, Variable source area - subsurface stormflow, Lateral macropore flow, Vertical matrix flow, Springflow",7.0,Water table rise (not labelled),Water table rise, water flow in bedrock,Groundwater flow, water flow in soil layer,Vertical matrix flow, lateral preferential flow,Lateral macropore flow, bedrock spring,Springflow , spring,Springflow , expansion of source area of spring,Variable source area - subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Water table rise, Water Table, Groundwater storage",2.0,Bedrock,Groundwater Storage, water table,Water Table,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 48,"Uchida, Taro, Ken’ichirou Kosugi, and Takahisa Mizuyama. “Effects of Pipe Flow and Bedrock Groundwater on Runoff Generation in a Steep Headwater Catchment in Ashiu, Central Japan.” Water Resources Research 38, no. 7 (2002): 24–1.",https://doi.org/10.1029/2001WR000261,"Toinotani watershed, Kyoto University Forest, Ashiu",,2,Longitudinal slope profile of the soil layer at the lower end of Toinotani watershed. (top) Layout of the measurement apparatus. (bottom) Conceptual model of hydrological flow paths in Toinotani,https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/cms/asset/eb88fa12-4a85-4249-8219-9b6117c49049/wrcr8980-fig-0002.png,CC BY 4.0,http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Marks near-spring and upslope areas,N,N,N,N,"Shows scale in vertical and horizontal, figure shows longitudinal profile",4.0,"Overland Flow, Return Flow, Springflow, Channel flow",4.0,Return flow from soil pipe,Return Flow, overland flow,Overland flow, springflow,Springflow, streamflow,Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1.0,Soil water storage,1.0,Soil layer,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 49,"Uhlenbrook, S, and Ch Leibundgut. “Process-Oriented Catchment Modelling and Multiple-Response Validation.” Hydrological Processes 16, no. 2 (2002): 423–40.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.330,"Brugga experimental basin, Black Forest Mountains",,2,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Different slopes shown on sides of valley,N,N,N,N,"Runoff components grouped as near surface runoff, shallow groundwater, deep groundwater",7.0,"Pistonflow, Infiltration excess flow, Pistonflow, Lateral matrix flow, Lateral macropore flow, Groundwater flow, Saturation excess flow",8.0,Horton overland flow,Infiltration excess flow, saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow, macropore flow,Lateral macropore flow, piston flow,Pistonflow, groundwater ridging,Groundwater ridging, transimissivity feedback,Lateral matrix flow, matrix flow,Groundwater flow , flow from fissured aquifer (discharge into stream),Pistonflow ,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Soil water storage, Groundwater ridging, Perched water tables, Bedrock fracture storage",3.0,Soil (not labelled),Soil water storage, fissured bedrock,Bedrock fracture storage,perched aquifers,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 50,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Dornbirnerach,,2a,Hydrogeologic runoff process map of the four austrian catchments: (a) Dornbirnerach; (b) Gail; (c) Wimitzbach; and (d) Perschling,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/ad7ef31c611f44ed82200008716ae793/data,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,Process,Y - location of each process,6,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,"Unusual - plan view where location of different dominant processes is mapped, scale shown",6.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Subsurface stormflow, Overland Flow, Saturation excess flow, Subsurface stormflow, Riparian Groundwater Flow",6.0,Surface runoff,Saturation excess flow, groundwater flow in alluvial sediment,Riparian Groundwater Flow, deep interflow - large storage,Subsurface stormflow, deep interflow - small storage,Subsurface stormflow , surface runoff - karst,Overland flow, shallow interflow - general,Subsurface stormflow ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,0.0,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 51,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Gail,,2b,Hydrogeologic runoff process map of the four austrian catchments: (a) Dornbirnerach; (b) Gail; (c) Wimitzbach; and (d) Perschling,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/ad7ef31c611f44ed82200008716ae793/data,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,Process,Y - location of each process,7,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,"Unusual - plan view where location of different dominant processes is mapped, scale shown",7.0,"Groundwater flow, Subsurface stormflow, Riparian Groundwater Flow, Overland Flow, Subsurface stormflow, Overland Flow, Subsurface stormflow",7.0,Surface runoff,Overland flow, groundwater flow in alluvial sediment,Riparian Groundwater Flow, deep groundwater flow,Groundwater flow, deep interflow - large storage,Subsurface stormflow, deep interflow - small storage,Subsurface stormflow , surface runoff - karst,Overland flow , shallow interflow - general,Subsurface stormflow ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,0.0,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 52,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Wimitzbach,,2c,Hydrogeologic runoff process map of the four austrian catchments: (a) Dornbirnerach; (b) Gail; (c) Wimitzbach; and (d) Perschling,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/ad7ef31c611f44ed82200008716ae793/data,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,Process,Y - location of each process,6,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,"Unusual - plan view where location of different dominant processes is mapped, scale shown",6.0,"Subsurface stormflow, IE flow from impermeable areas, Riparian Groundwater Flow, Subsurface stormflow, Subsurface stormflow, Overland Flow",6.0,Surface runoff,IE flow from impermeable areas, groundwater flow in alluvial sediment,Riparian Groundwater Flow, deep interflow - large storage,Subsurface stormflow, deep interflow - small storage,Subsurface stormflow , surface runoff - karst,Overland flow, shallow interflow - general,Subsurface stormflow ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,0.0,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -53,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Perschling,,2d,Hydrogeologic runoff process map of the four austrian catchments: (a) Dornbirnerach; (b) Gail; (c) Wimitzbach; and (d) Perschling,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/ad7ef31c611f44ed82200008716ae793/data,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,Process,Y - location of each process,4,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Y - for interflow,N,N,N,N,N,N,"Unusual - plan view where location of different dominant processes is mapped, scale shown",4.0,"Riparian Groundwater Flow, Subsurface stormflow, Saturation excess flow, Subsurface stormflow",4.0,Surface runoff,Saturation excess flow, groundwater flow in alluvial sediment,Riparian Groundwater Flow, shallow interflow - Molasse,Subsurface stormflow, shallow interflow - Flysch,Subsurface stormflow ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,0.0,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -54,"Vitvar T, Jankovec J, Šanda M. 2022. Revealing subsurface processes in the Uhlířská catchment through combined modelling of unsaturated and saturated flow. Hydrological processes 36 (3): e14516 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.14516",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14516,Uhlířská,,6,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Topography,Slopes/Wetlands,2,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Y,Geology described,Y,Scale bar shown,Vertical and lateral scales,N,N,N,N,Areas of slopes/wetlands given,8.0,"Vertical macropore flow, Groundwater flow, Subsurface stormflow, SE flow from riparian zone, Evapotranspiration, Gaining stream, Lateral macropore flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater",8.0,Lateral subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow, lateral preferential macropore flow,Lateral macropore flow, surface flow,SE flow from riparian zone, vertical matrix recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, vertical preferential macropore recharge,Vertical macropore flow, groundwater flow,Groundwater flow, baseflow discharge to stream,Gaining stream,ETP,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,5.0,"Bedrock fracture storage, Groundwater storage, Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage",5.0,Cambisol,Soil water storage, histosol,Soil water storage , weathered granite,Groundwater Storage, granitic sediments,Groundwater Storage , fractured bedrock,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,, +53,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Perschling,,2d,Hydrogeologic runoff process map of the four austrian catchments: (a) Dornbirnerach; (b) Gail; (c) Wimitzbach; and (d) Perschling,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/ad7ef31c611f44ed82200008716ae793/data,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,Process,Y - location of each process,4,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Y - for interflow,N,N,N,N,N,N,"Unusual - plan view where location of different dominant processes is mapped, scale shown",4.0,"Riparian Groundwater Flow, Subsurface stormflow, Saturation excess flow, Subsurface stormflow",4.0,Surface runoff,Saturation excess flow, groundwater flow in alluvial sediment,Riparian Groundwater Flow, shallow interflow - Molasse,Subsurface stormflow, shallow interflow - Flysch,Subsurface stormflow ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,0.0,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +54,"Vitvar T, Jankovec J, Šanda M. 2022. Revealing subsurface processes in the Uhlířská catchment through combined modelling of unsaturated and saturated flow. Hydrological processes 36 (3): e14516 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.14516",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14516,Uhlířská,,6,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Topography,Slopes/Wetlands,2,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Y,Geological types described,Y,Scale bar shown,Vertical and lateral scales,N,N,N,N,Areas of slopes/wetlands given,8.0,"Vertical macropore flow, Groundwater flow, Subsurface stormflow, SE flow from riparian zone, Evapotranspiration, Gaining stream, Lateral macropore flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater",8.0,Lateral subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow, lateral preferential macropore flow,Lateral macropore flow, surface flow,SE flow from riparian zone, vertical matrix recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater, vertical preferential macropore recharge,Vertical macropore flow, groundwater flow,Groundwater flow, baseflow discharge to stream,Gaining stream,ETP,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,5.0,"Bedrock fracture storage, Groundwater storage, Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage",5.0,Cambisol,Soil water storage, histosol,Soil water storage , weathered granite,Groundwater Storage, granitic sediments,Groundwater Storage , fractured bedrock,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,, 55,"Wang, Sheng, Zhiyong Fu, Hongsong Chen, Yunpeng Nie, and Qinxue Xu. “Mechanisms of Surface and Subsurface Runoff Generation in Subtropical Soil-Epikarst Systems: Implications of Rainfall Simulation Experiments on Karst Slope.” Journal of Hydrology 580 (2020): 124370.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124370,"Mulian watershed, Huanjiang county, Guangxi",,7,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Rainfall intensity,"By rainfall rate compared to conductivity and other thresholds: in periods (a) and during rainy periods, when2R Ki SEI (b), when)R Ki SEI and2P P_t SSR (c), when)R Ki SEI and2 2P P P_ _t SRR t SR (d), and when)R Ki SEI and)P P_t SR (e)",5,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,3D graphics,Shown in 3D but little info except picture of surface ponding,N,N,All stores are shown separately where they are dry or filled with water,8.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Evapotranspiration, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface, Saturation excess flow, Groundwater flow, Infiltration, Infiltration into bedrock",8.0,Infiltration,Infiltration, filling (of bedrock hollows),Vertical drainage to groundwater, fill-and-spill,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface, surface runoff,Saturation excess flow, subsurface runoff,Subsurface stormflow, epikarst seepage runoff,Groundwater flow, deep percolation,Infiltration into bedrock,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,7.0,"Groundwater storage, Soil saturation, Soil water storage, Bedrock hollows, Depression storage, Bedrock fracture storage, Groundwater storage",7.0,Surface ponding (not labelled),Depression storage, soil,Soil water storage, epikarst,Groundwater Storage, bedrock,Groundwater Storage , depressions on bedrock surface,Bedrock hollows, saturated area,Soil saturation, fissures or conduits,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,, 56,"Wenninger J, Uhlenbrook S, Lorentz S, Leibundgut C. 2008. Identification of runoff generation processes using combined hydrometric, tracer and geophysical methods in a headwater catchment in South Africa / Identification des processus de génération de l’écoulement par combinaison de méthodes hydrométriques, de traçage et géophysiques dans un bassin versant sud-africain. Hydrological Sciences Journal 53 (2): 500–500 DOI: 10.1623/hysj.53.2.500",https://doi.org/10.1623/hysj.53.1.65,Weatherley catchment,,10,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Hillslope position,Upper and lower hillslopes described separately,2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Different grass/vegetation/marsh icons,N,N,N,N,Topography described,"Slopes shown, with vertical scale exagerration",N,N,N,N,Caption describes the measurement types used to infer each process,9.0,"Vertical drainage to groundwater, Exfiltration, Lateral macropore flow, Gaining stream, Evapotranspiration, Subsurface stormflow, Water loss to deep groundwater, Exfiltration, Pistonflow",9.0,Lateral macropore flow in upper perched water table,Lateral macropore flow, seeps where upper perched water table meets bedrock outcrop,Exfiltration, slow percolation through soil,Vertical drainage to groundwater, slow percolation through fractured bedrock,Pistonflow, recharge of regional groundwater,Water loss to deep groundwater, rapid lateral flow in soils,Subsurface stormflow, near-stream exfiltration through macropores and pipes,Exfiltration, groundwater hydraulic control (=discharge of groundwater to stream),Gaining stream,ET,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,6.0,"Channel storage, Regional Groundwater storage, Riparian aquifer storage, Perched water tables, Bedrock fracture storage, Bedrock hollows",6.0,Upper perched water table,Perched water tables, water in bedrock hollows,Bedrock hollows, fractured bedrock,Bedrock fracture storage, marsh groundwater,Riparian aquifer storage, regional groundwater system,Regional Groundwater Storage, stream (all in caption),Channel storage,,,,,,,, 57,"Wenninger, Jochen, Stefan Uhlenbrook, Nils Tilch, and Christian Leibundgut. “Experimental Evidence of Fast Groundwater Responses in a Hillslope/Floodplain Area in the Black Forest Mountains, Germany.” Hydrological Processes 18, no. 17 (2004): 3305–22.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5686,"Brugga experimental basin, Black Forest Mountains",,10,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,Topography described,Slopes in diagram,N,N,N,N,,8.0,"Saturation excess flow, Pistonflow, Groundwater flow, Lateral macropore flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Subsurface stormflow, Springflow, Evapotranspiration",8.0,Groundwater flow,Groundwater flow, spring,Springflow, saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow, partial percolation (through aquitard),Vertical drainage to groundwater, lateral macropore flow,Lateral macropore flow, interflow,Subsurface stormflow, pistonflow,Pistonflow,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,5.0,"Groundwater storage, Bedrock fracture storage, Channel storage, Water Table, Soil water storage",5.0, boulder field,Soil water storage, aquifer,Groundwater Storage, fractured crystalline bedrock,Bedrock fracture storage, water table,Water table, stream,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,, -58,"Wrede S, Fenicia F, Martínez-Carreras N, Juilleret J, Hissler C, Krein A, Savenije HHG, Uhlenbrook S, Kavetski D, Pfister L. 2015. Towards more systematic perceptual model development: a case study using 3 Luxembourgish catchments. Hydrological processes 29 (12): 2731–2750",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10393,Huewelerbach catchments,,2 part C,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Y,Slopes described,Shows slopes of cross-section,N,N,Uncertainty described,"Y, by arrow type for high/med/low confidence level","Shows speed of process by arrow length, shows which process knowledge gained by which catchment investigation/data type",4.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Saturation excess flow, Return Flow",4.0,Deep percolation,Vertical drainage to groundwater, groundwater flow,Return flow, lateral subsurface flow (soil),Subsurface stormflow, saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Groundwater storage, Soil water storage",4.0,Soil,Soil water storage, Periglacial coverbed,Soil water storage , groundwater,Groundwater Storage, marl,Groundwater Storage ,,,,,,,,,,,, -59,"Wrede S, Fenicia F, Martínez-Carreras N, Juilleret J, Hissler C, Krein A, Savenije HHG, Uhlenbrook S, Kavetski D, Pfister L. 2015. Towards more systematic perceptual model development: a case study using 3 Luxembourgish catchments. Hydrological processes 29 (12): 2731–2751",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10393,Weierbach catchment,,3 part C,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Y,Slopes described,Shows slopes of cross-section,N,N,Uncertainty described,"Y, by arrow type for high/med/low confidence level","Shows speed of process by arrow length, shows which process knowledge gained by which catchment investigation/data type",3.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Subsurface stormflow, Saturation excess flow",3.0,Lateral subsurface flow (soil),Subsurface stormflow, Lateral subsurface flow (saprock and periglacial coverbeds),Subsurface stormflow , saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage",3.0,Soil,Soil water storage, Periglacial coverbed,Soil water storage , schist,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -60,"Wrede S, Fenicia F, Martínez-Carreras N, Juilleret J, Hissler C, Krein A, Savenije HHG, Uhlenbrook S, Kavetski D, Pfister L. 2015. Towards more systematic perceptual model development: a case study using 3 Luxembourgish catchments. Hydrological processes 29 (12): 2731–2752",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10393,Wollefsbach,,4 part C,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Y,Slopes described,Shows slopes of cross-section,N,N,Uncertainty described,"Y, by arrow type for high/med/low confidence level","Shows speed of process by arrow length, shows which process knowledge gained by which catchment investigation/data type",2.0,"Saturation excess flow, Subsurface stormflow",2.0,Lateral subsurface flow (soil),Subsurface stormflow, saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Groundwater storage, Soil water storage",2.0,Soil,Soil water storage, marls,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +58,"Wrede S, Fenicia F, Martínez-Carreras N, Juilleret J, Hissler C, Krein A, Savenije HHG, Uhlenbrook S, Kavetski D, Pfister L. 2015. Towards more systematic perceptual model development: a case study using 3 Luxembourgish catchments. Hydrological processes 29 (12): 2731–2750",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10393,Huewelerbach catchments,,2 part C,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Y,Slopes described,Shows slopes of cross-section,N,N,Uncertainty described,"Y, by arrow type for high/med/low confidence level","Shows speed of process by arrow length, shows which process knowledge gained by which catchment investigation/data type",4.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Saturation excess flow, Return Flow",4.0,Deep percolation,Vertical drainage to groundwater, groundwater flow,Return flow, lateral subsurface flow (soil),Subsurface stormflow, saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Groundwater storage, Soil water storage",4.0,Soil,Soil water storage, Periglacial coverbed,Soil water storage , groundwater,Groundwater Storage, marl,Groundwater Storage ,,,,,,,,,,,, +59,"Wrede S, Fenicia F, Martínez-Carreras N, Juilleret J, Hissler C, Krein A, Savenije HHG, Uhlenbrook S, Kavetski D, Pfister L. 2015. Towards more systematic perceptual model development: a case study using 3 Luxembourgish catchments. Hydrological processes 29 (12): 2731–2751",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10393,Weierbach catchment,,3 part C,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Y,Slopes described,Shows slopes of cross-section,N,N,Uncertainty described,"Y, by arrow type for high/med/low confidence level","Shows speed of process by arrow length, shows which process knowledge gained by which catchment investigation/data type",3.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Subsurface stormflow, Saturation excess flow",3.0,Lateral subsurface flow (soil),Subsurface stormflow, Lateral subsurface flow (saprock and periglacial coverbeds),Subsurface stormflow , saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage",3.0,Soil,Soil water storage, Periglacial coverbed,Soil water storage , schist,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +60,"Wrede S, Fenicia F, Martínez-Carreras N, Juilleret J, Hissler C, Krein A, Savenije HHG, Uhlenbrook S, Kavetski D, Pfister L. 2015. Towards more systematic perceptual model development: a case study using 3 Luxembourgish catchments. Hydrological processes 29 (12): 2731–2752",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10393,Wollefsbach,,4 part C,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Y,Slopes described,Shows slopes of cross-section,N,N,Uncertainty described,"Y, by arrow type for high/med/low confidence level","Shows speed of process by arrow length, shows which process knowledge gained by which catchment investigation/data type",2.0,"Saturation excess flow, Subsurface stormflow",2.0,Lateral subsurface flow (soil),Subsurface stormflow, saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Groundwater storage, Soil water storage",2.0,Soil,Soil water storage, marls,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 61,"Xiao, Xiong, Fan Zhang, Xiaoyan Li, Chen Zeng, Xiaonan Shi, Huawu Wu, Muhammad Dodo Jagirani, and Tao Che. “Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Major Flow Pathways in a Permafrost Influenced Alpine Meadow Hillslope during Summer Rainfall Period.” Hydrological Processes 34, no. 5 (2020): 1104–16.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13650,"Yakou catchment, Qinghai",,9,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,"N (shows potential changes under climate change in second diagram, but not considered here)",1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Also groups water bodies by their stable isotope composition,4.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Overland Flow, Return Flow, Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons",4.0,Shallow subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow, surface flow (arrow only),Overland flow, return flow (arrow only),Return Flow, saturated flow at frozen foil interface (arrow only),Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,5.0,"Perched water tables, Seasonal soil freeze/thaw, Channel storage, Soil water storage, Seasonal soil freeze/thaw",5.0,Stream water,Channel storage, frozen soil layer,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw, thawed soil layer,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw , supra-permafrost water - saturated,Perched water tables, mobile soil water,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,, 62,"Zhang, Guotao, Peng Cui, Carlo Gualtieri, Junlong Zhang, Nazir Ahmed Bazai, Zhengtao Zhang, Jiao Wang, Jinbo Tang, Rong Chen, and Mingyu Lei. “Stormflow Generation in a Humid Forest Watershed Controlled by Antecedent Wetness and Rainfall Amounts.” Journal of Hydrology 603 (2021): 127107.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.127107,"Longxi River Experimental Watershed, northwest of Chengdu city, Sichuan",,12,,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Rainfall intensity,"Low, moderate, high rainfall intensity",3,Vegetation described,Various tree and vegetation icons ,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,6.0,"Infiltration, Vertical matrix flow, Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface, Gaining stream, Connectivity between hillslopes and channel, Vertical macropore flow",7.0,Matrix flow,Vertical matrix flow, infiltration,Infiltration, baseflow,Gaining stream, fill and spill,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface, water table rise,Water table rise, preferential flow,Vertical macropore flow, connectivity between stream-hillslope,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,9.0,"Groundwater storage, Channel storage, Organic Layer, Bedrock hollows, Soil water storage (1-3), Canopy storage, Perched water tables, Soil saturation, Water table rise",10.0,O horizons,Organic Layer,A/B/C soil horizons,Soil water storage (1-3), bedrock,Groundwater Storage, bedrock depressions,Bedrock hollows, temporary perched water,Perched water tables, channel,Channel storage, saturated zone at soil-bedrock interface,Soil saturation, canopy storage,Canopy storage,,,, 63,"Zimmer, M.A., McGlynn, B.L., 2017. Ephemeral and intermittent runoff generation processes in a low relief, highly weathered catchment. Water Resour. Res. 53, 7055–7077.",https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR019742,"Duke Forest Research Watershed, North Carolina",,12,"Conceptual model of the runoff generation sources and processes that drive runoff when catchment storage is either high or low. (a) When catchment storage is high, shallow and deep flow paths are contributing to runoff generation through (c) a rise in the deep water table into shallow soil horizons mediated by seasonal soil column storage. During this time, the stream is a gaining system. (b) When catchment storage is low, shallow flow paths contribute to streamflow generation through (c) transient, perched water tables mediated by soil structure. During this time, the stream is losing water to the deeper groundwater system",Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Wetness,Low catchment storage/High catchment storage,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Flux property: temporary/permanent; cross-sectional slope of water table shown; vegetation leaf on/off shown; flows shown as mediated by storage or soil structure,6.0,"Lateral matrix flow, Gaining stream, Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons, Losing stream, Intermittent streamflow, Ephemeral streamflow",7.0,Shallow flowpath (saturation from below),Lateral matrix flow, channel gain from deep groundwater,Gaining stream, saturated perched lateral flow along soil horizon,Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons, channel loss to deep groundwater,Losing stream, water table rise,Water table rise, intermittant streamflow,Intermittent streamflow, ephemeral streamflow,Ephemeral streamflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,9.0,"Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Soil water storage, Soil water storage, Water table rise, Groundwater storage, Perched water tables, Channel storage, Water Table",8.0,A horizon,Soil water storage, B horizon,Soil water storage , C horizon,Soil water storage , weathered bedrock,Groundwater Storage, bedrock,Groundwater Storage , deep water table,Water table, perched water table,Perched water tables, channel storage,Channel storage,,,, 64,"Zuecco, G, D Penna, and M Borga. “Runoff Generation in Mountain Catchments: Long-Term Hydrological Monitoring in the Rio Vauz Catchment, Italy.” Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica/Geographical Research Letters, no. 44 (2018): 397–428.",https://doi.org/10.18172/cig.3327,Rio Vauz Basin,,10,"Perceptual model of runoff generation processes at BCC during different wetness conditions. The arrows indicate the water pathways. The longer the arrow, the larger the flux. The pie-charts indicate the typical relative fraction of event and pre-event water in stream water during runoff events. The sketched catchment display the expansion of saturated riparian areas from dry to wet conditions",https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/8c726967815d4e669fd72d28ea347719/data,CC BY 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,N,N,1,Wetness,Dry/Wet conditions,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Plan view + cross section,Shows plan view and cross section to see saturated area,N,N,Shows event/pre-event water fractions,4.0,"Saturation excess flow, Channel interception, Groundwater flow, Riparian Groundwater Flow",5.0,Channel precipitation,Channel interception, saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow, riparian groundwater flow,Riparian Groundwater Flow, hillslope groundwater flow,Groundwater flow, expansion of saturated area,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,5.0,"Channel storage, Expansion of saturated areas, Water Table, Expansion of saturated areas, Soil saturation",4.0,Channel,Channel storage, water table,Water Table, saturated area,Soil saturation, saturated area ,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,, -65,"Briggs, M.A., Gazoorian, C.L., Doctor, D.H., and Burns, D.A., 2022, A multiscale approach for monitoring groundwater discharge to headwater streams by the U.S. Geological Survey Next Generation Water Observing System Program—An example from the Neversink Reservoir watershed, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2022–3077, 6 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20223077.",https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20223077,"Neversink River watershed, Catskills, New York",,1,"This conceptual diagram of the system of surface and groundwater flow in the Neversink Reservoir watershed shows warmer shallow groundwater flow paths contributing to streams through surficial sediments in summer, while discharge of cooler, deeper bedrock groundwater reaches streams directly from bedrock discharges and indirectly from hillslope flow paths.",https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/d19c351c44384bf1a49b337d9a9406cf/data,Public Domain,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Y,Topography described,Shows 3-D model,3D graphics,3D graphics,N,N,"Shows bedrock fractures, shows thickness of sediment",4.0,"Return Flow, Groundwater flow, Springflow, Pistonflow",4.0,Springs,Springflow,Groundwater Flow,Groundwater Flow,Bedrock groundwater flow,Pistonflow,Bedrock groundwater flow into colluvial sediments,Return flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1.0,Bedrock fracture storage,1.0,Fracture,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -66,"Lawrence, G.B., Burns, D.A., Baldigo, B.P., Murdoch, P.S., and Lovett, G.M., 2001, Controls of stream chemistry and fish populations in the Neversink watershed, Catskill Mountains, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 2000–4040, 15 p., https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/wri004040.",https://doi.org/10.3133/wri004040,"Neversink River watershed, Catskills, New York",,2,A conceptual model of how subsurface water moves to the stream channel,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/f8f504b037954df7aa3ed1a9dcfad49d/data,Public Domain,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Y,Geology described,Y,Slopes described,Change in slope,N,N,N,N,Bedding planes and fractures shown,2.0,"Vertical drainage to groundwater, Springflow",2.0,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Spring,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Groundwater storage, Surface water storage ",2.0,Wetland,Surface water storage,Shallow Ground Water,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +65,"Briggs, M.A., Gazoorian, C.L., Doctor, D.H., and Burns, D.A., 2022, A multiscale approach for monitoring groundwater discharge to headwater streams by the U.S. Geological Survey Next Generation Water Observing System Program—An example from the Neversink Reservoir watershed, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2022–3077, 6 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20223077.",https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20223077,"Neversink River watershed, Catskills, New York",,1,"This conceptual diagram of the system of surface and groundwater flow in the Neversink Reservoir watershed shows warmer shallow groundwater flow paths contributing to streams through surficial sediments in summer, while discharge of cooler, deeper bedrock groundwater reaches streams directly from bedrock discharges and indirectly from hillslope flow paths.",https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/d19c351c44384bf1a49b337d9a9406cf/data,Public Domain,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Y,Topography described,Shows 3-D model,3D graphics,3D graphics,N,N,"Shows bedrock fractures, shows thickness of sediment",4.0,"Return Flow, Groundwater flow, Springflow, Pistonflow",4.0,Springs,Springflow,Groundwater Flow,Groundwater Flow,Bedrock groundwater flow,Pistonflow,Bedrock groundwater flow into colluvial sediments,Return flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1.0,Bedrock fracture storage,1.0,Fracture,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +66,"Lawrence, G.B., Burns, D.A., Baldigo, B.P., Murdoch, P.S., and Lovett, G.M., 2001, Controls of stream chemistry and fish populations in the Neversink watershed, Catskill Mountains, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 2000–4040, 15 p., https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/wri004040.",https://doi.org/10.3133/wri004040,"Neversink River watershed, Catskills, New York",,2,A conceptual model of how subsurface water moves to the stream channel,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/f8f504b037954df7aa3ed1a9dcfad49d/data,Public Domain,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Y,Geological types described,Y,Slopes described,Change in slope,N,N,N,N,Bedding planes and fractures shown,2.0,"Vertical drainage to groundwater, Springflow",2.0,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Spring,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Groundwater storage, Surface water storage ",2.0,Wetland,Surface water storage,Shallow Ground Water,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 67,"Spence, C., 2022, pers. comm.",,"Moss subwatershed, Baker Creek watershed, Yellowknife Northwest Territories",,,"Representative hillslope in subarctic Canadian Shield Baker Creek, NWT, Canada",,Open-access,,Soil or Geology,Exposed bedrock/soils,2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation species shown,Soil types described,Soil types shown,N,N,N,N,N,N,Unknown items identified,? shown for water table position,,6.0,"Infiltration, IE flow from impermeable areas, Evapotranspiration, Interception, Subsurface stormflow, Saturation excess flow",7.0,Saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,Interception,Interception,Hortonian surface flow,IE flow from impermeable areas,Preferential infiltration,Infiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Water Table, Seasonal soil freeze/thaw, Lake storage",2.0,Water table,Water table,Headwater Lake,Lake storage,Water table follows frost table descent,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 68,"Mulholland, P.J., 1993. Hydrometric and stream chemistry evidence of three storm flowpaths in Walker Branch Watershed. Journal of Hydrology, 151(2-4), pp.291-316.",https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(93)90240-A,"Walker branch watershed, Tennessee",,1,Three-component model of hydrologic flowpaths in Walker Branch Watershed,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Change in slope shown,N,N,N,N,N,6.0,"Springflow, Subsurface stormflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Ephemeral streamflow, Pistonflow, Gaining stream",6.0,Unsaturated drainage,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Ephemeral/perennial springs,Springflow,Stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,Baseflow,Gaining stream,Fracture flow,Pistonflow,Ephemeral streams,Ephemeral streamflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Water Table, Perched water tables, Soil water storage, Channel storage",4.0,Vadose zone,Soil water storage,Perched saturation,Perched water tables,Saturated soil zone (permanent saturation),Water table,Stream,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 69,"Banks, Edward W, Craig T Simmons, Andrew J Love, Roger Cranswick, Adrian D Werner, Erick A Bestland, Martin Wood, and Tania Wilson. “Fractured Bedrock and Saprolite Hydrogeologic Controls on Groundwater/Surface-Water Interaction: A Conceptual Model (Australia).” Hydrogeology Journal 17, no. 8 (2009): 1969–89.",https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-009-0490-7,Scott Creek Catchment,,8,Conceptual model of the study site Scott Bottom. Arrows indicate direction of inferred groundwater flow,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Season,Season,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,N,1.0,Groundwater flow,1.0,Inferred groundwater flowpaths,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Bedrock fracture storage, Water Table, Soil water storage",3.0,Water table,Water table,Soil and alluvial deposits,Soil water storage,Unweathered fractured rock,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -70,"Reid M.A., Cheng X., Banks E.W., Jankowski J., Jolly I., Kumar P., Lovell D.M., Mitchell M., Mudd G.M., Richardson S., Silburn M. and Werner A.D. 2009. Catalogue of conceptual models for groundwater–stream interaction. eWater Technical Report. eWater Cooperative Research Centre, Canberra.",https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ian-Jolly/publication/228421054_Catalogue_of_conceptual_models_for_groundwater-stream_interaction_in_eastern_Australia/links/09e4150f7703674121000000/Catalogue-of-conceptual-models-for-groundwater-stream-interaction-in-eastern-Australia.pdf,Scott Creek Catchment,,CS1.5,Integrated conceptual model of the Scott Creek field site,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/626d71c77a934c66a1189ef56caeedcb/data,BY-NC type copyright (see the article),,Aspects,Northern/southern hillslope,2,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Soil types described,Geology described,Rock types described,Scale bar shown,Horizontal and vertical Scale bar shown,N,N,N,N,N,7.0,"Regional groundwater flow, Groundwater flow, Infiltration, Mixing, Overland Flow, Subsurface stormflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater",7.0,Surface runoff,Overland flow,Active recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Infiltration,Infiltration,Shallow throughflow,Subsurface stormflow,Mixing,Mixing,Horizontal flows,Groundwater flow,Regional groundwater,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Water Table, Soil water storage",2.0,Water table,Water table,Duplex soils,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -71,"Giertz, S., Diekkrüger, B. and Steup, G., 2006. Physically-based modelling of hydrological processes in a tropical headwater catchment (West Africa)–process representation and multi-criteria validation. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 10(6), pp.829-847.",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-10-829-2006,"Aguima catchment, Upper Oueme",,2a,Flowpaths on representative hillslopes in the Aguima catchment (natural vegetation),https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/0c0d4e67b3f84705b40e8573d71c3edb/data,CC-BY-NC-SA 2.5,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,Soil types described,Soil types shown,Geology described,Rock types shown,N,N,3D graphics,3D graphics,N,N,Size of arrows determines the importance of flowpaths,0.0,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Soil water storage, Soil stratification",2.0,Hillwash,Soil water storage,Plinthite,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +70,"Reid M.A., Cheng X., Banks E.W., Jankowski J., Jolly I., Kumar P., Lovell D.M., Mitchell M., Mudd G.M., Richardson S., Silburn M. and Werner A.D. 2009. Catalogue of conceptual models for groundwater–stream interaction. eWater Technical Report. eWater Cooperative Research Centre, Canberra.",https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ian-Jolly/publication/228421054_Catalogue_of_conceptual_models_for_groundwater-stream_interaction_in_eastern_Australia/links/09e4150f7703674121000000/Catalogue-of-conceptual-models-for-groundwater-stream-interaction-in-eastern-Australia.pdf,Scott Creek Catchment,,CS1.5,Integrated conceptual model of the Scott Creek field site,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/626d71c77a934c66a1189ef56caeedcb/data,BY-NC type copyright (see the article),,Aspects,Northern/southern hillslope,2,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Soil types described,Geological types described,Rock types described,Scale bar shown,Horizontal and vertical Scale bar shown,N,N,N,N,N,7.0,"Regional groundwater flow, Groundwater flow, Infiltration, Mixing, Overland Flow, Subsurface stormflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater",7.0,Surface runoff,Overland flow,Active recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Infiltration,Infiltration,Shallow throughflow,Subsurface stormflow,Mixing,Mixing,Horizontal flows,Groundwater flow,Regional groundwater,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Water Table, Soil water storage",2.0,Water table,Water table,Duplex soils,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +71,"Giertz, S., Diekkrüger, B. and Steup, G., 2006. Physically-based modelling of hydrological processes in a tropical headwater catchment (West Africa)–process representation and multi-criteria validation. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 10(6), pp.829-847.",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-10-829-2006,"Aguima catchment, Upper Oueme",,2a,Flowpaths on representative hillslopes in the Aguima catchment (natural vegetation),https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/0c0d4e67b3f84705b40e8573d71c3edb/data,CC-BY-NC-SA 2.5,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,Soil types described,Soil types shown,Geological types described,Rock types shown,N,N,3D graphics,3D graphics,N,N,Size of arrows determines the importance of flowpaths,0.0,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Soil water storage, Soil stratification",2.0,Hillwash,Soil water storage,Plinthite,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 72,"Laudon, H. and Sponseller, R.A., 2018. How landscape organization and scale shape catchment hydrology and biogeochemistry: Insights from a long‐term catchment study. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water, 5(2), p.e1265.", https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1265,Krycklan,,4,Hierarchically structured landscape features regulating spatial variability in hydrology and biogeochemistry,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Catchment spatial scale,Spatial scale,4,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,4.0,"Groundwater flow, Regional groundwater flow, Gaining stream, Subsurface stormflow",4.0,Dominant source layer,Subsurface stormflow,Groundwater input zones,Gaining stream,Shallow groundwater,Groundwater flow,Deep groundwater contribution,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Soil saturation, Lake storage, Channel storage",3.0,Lake,Lake storage,Mire,Soil saturation,Channel icon,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 73,"McGuire, Kevin J, and Jeffrey J McDonnell. “Hydrological Connectivity of Hillslopes and Streams: Characteristic Time Scales and Nonlinearities.” Water Resources Research 46, no. 10 (2010).",https://doi.org/10.1029/2010WR009341,"WS10, H.J. Andrews, Oregon",,11,A diagram of a conceptual model illustrating the variable flow pathways,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Wetness,Dry/transitional/wet antecedent conditions,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,3.0,"Vertical macropore flow, Subsurface stormflow, Vertical matrix flow",3.0,Saturated flow,Subsurface stormflow,Unsaturated flow,Vertical matrix flow,Unsaturated preferential flow,Vertical macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Soil water storage, Groundwater storage",2.0,Soil layer,Soil water storage,Subsoil layer,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 74,"Ziegler, A.D., Negishi, J.N., Sidle, R.C., Noguchi, S. and Nik, A.R., 2006. Impacts of logging disturbance on hillslope saturated hydraulic conductivity in a tropical forest in Peninsular Malaysia. Catena, 67(2), pp.89-104.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2006.02.008,Bukit Tarek,,4b,Idealised flowpath movement with respect to KS within the soil profile,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Soil types shown,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,3.0,"Exfiltration, Groundwater flow, Subsurface stormflow",3.0,Throughflow,Subsurface stormflow,Exfiltration,Exfiltration,Groundwater,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Soil stratification",3.0,Permeable mineral matrix,Soil water storage,Flow-restricting clay,Soil stratification,Saprolite and/or bedrock,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -75,"Sanda, M., Vitvar, T., Kulasova, A., Jankovec, J., & Cislerova, M. (2014). Run-off formation in a humid, temperate headwater catchment using a combined hydrological, hydrochemical and isotopic approach (Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic). Hydrological Processes, 28(8), 3217–3229.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9847,Uhlířská,,8,"Concept of run-off formation in the Uhlirska catchment, with run-off sources marked",Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Soil types shown,Geology described,Rock types shown,Scale bar shown,Horizontal and vertical Scale bar shown,N,N,N,N,N,2.0,"Channel flow, Subsurface stormflow",2.0,Hillslope Cambisol trench stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,Streamflow,Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Groundwater storage, Soil water storage",2.0,Matrix water,Soil water storage,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +75,"Sanda, M., Vitvar, T., Kulasova, A., Jankovec, J., & Cislerova, M. (2014). Run-off formation in a humid, temperate headwater catchment using a combined hydrological, hydrochemical and isotopic approach (Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic). Hydrological Processes, 28(8), 3217–3229.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9847,Uhlířská,,8,"Concept of run-off formation in the Uhlirska catchment, with run-off sources marked",Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Soil types shown,Geological types described,Rock types shown,Scale bar shown,Horizontal and vertical Scale bar shown,N,N,N,N,N,2.0,"Channel flow, Subsurface stormflow",2.0,Hillslope Cambisol trench stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,Streamflow,Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Groundwater storage, Soil water storage",2.0,Matrix water,Soil water storage,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 76,"Katsuyama, M., Ohte, N., & Kabeya, N. (2005). Effects of bedrock permeability on hillslope and riparian groundwater dynamics in a weathered granite catchment. Water Resources Research, 41, W01010. ",https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003275,Kiryu Experimental Watershed,,9,Schematic diagram of hillslope-riparian linkage,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Event,Non-stormflow/stormflow condition,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Saturated hydraulic conductivity estimates shown,3.0,"Groundwater flow, Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface, Vertical drainage to groundwater",3.0,Vertical infiltration,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Saturated throughflow,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,Bedrock flow,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1.0,Water Table,1.0,Water table symbol,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -77,"Newman, B. D., Campbell, A. R., & Wilcox, B. P. (1998). Lateral subsurface flow pathways in a semiarid ponderosa pine hillslope. Water Resources Research, 34(12), 3485–3496.",https://doi.org/10.1029/98WR02684,Los Alamos National Laboratory's Environmental Research Park,,9,Illustration of the conceptual flow model for the hillslope,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,Soil types described,Soil types shown,Geology described,Rock types shown,N,N,3D graphics,3-D graphics,N,N,N,4.0,"Infiltration into bedrock, Vertical macropore flow, Lateral matrix flow, Lateral macropore flow",4.0,Vertical bypassing,Vertical macropore flow,Matrix flow,Lateral matrix flow,Preferential flow,Lateral macropore flow,Flow into tuff,Infiltration into bedrock,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Organic Layer, Soil stratification, Perched water tables",3.0,Organic litter and grass cover,Organic layer,Restrictive layer,Soil stratification,Ponding on top of the B horizon,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -78,"Soulsby, C., Tetzlaff, D., Rodgers, P., Dunn, S. and Waldron, S., 2006. Runoff processes, stream water residence times and controlling landscape characteristics in a mesoscale catchment: An initial evaluation. Journal of Hydrology, 325(1-4), pp.197-221.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.10.024,"Feshie, Scotland",,10,Conceptual model of catchment flowpaths in the Feshie in relation to HOST soil types and topographic position,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Soil or Geology,HOST soil type,5,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Soil types shown,Geology described,Rock types shown,Topography described,Topographic position shown,N,N,N,N,N,4.0,"Overland Flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Groundwater flow, Subsurface stormflow",4.0,Overland flow,Overland flow,Shallow/deep sub-surface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,Groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,Groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Soil stratification, Soil water storage",2.0,Upper soil,Soil water storage,Low permeability substrate,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +77,"Newman, B. D., Campbell, A. R., & Wilcox, B. P. (1998). Lateral subsurface flow pathways in a semiarid ponderosa pine hillslope. Water Resources Research, 34(12), 3485–3496.",https://doi.org/10.1029/98WR02684,Los Alamos National Laboratory's Environmental Research Park,,9,Illustration of the conceptual flow model for the hillslope,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,Soil types described,Soil types shown,Geological types described,Rock types shown,N,N,3D graphics,3-D graphics,N,N,N,4.0,"Infiltration into bedrock, Vertical macropore flow, Lateral matrix flow, Lateral macropore flow",4.0,Vertical bypassing,Vertical macropore flow,Matrix flow,Lateral matrix flow,Preferential flow,Lateral macropore flow,Flow into tuff,Infiltration into bedrock,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Organic Layer, Soil stratification, Perched water tables",3.0,Organic litter and grass cover,Organic layer,Restrictive layer,Soil stratification,Ponding on top of the B horizon,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +78,"Soulsby, C., Tetzlaff, D., Rodgers, P., Dunn, S. and Waldron, S., 2006. Runoff processes, stream water residence times and controlling landscape characteristics in a mesoscale catchment: An initial evaluation. Journal of Hydrology, 325(1-4), pp.197-221.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.10.024,"Feshie, Scotland",,10,Conceptual model of catchment flowpaths in the Feshie in relation to HOST soil types and topographic position,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Soil or Geology,HOST soil type,5,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Soil types shown,Geological types described,Rock types shown,Topography described,Topographic position shown,N,N,N,N,N,4.0,"Overland Flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Groundwater flow, Subsurface stormflow",4.0,Overland flow,Overland flow,Shallow/deep sub-surface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,Groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,Groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Soil stratification, Soil water storage",2.0,Upper soil,Soil water storage,Low permeability substrate,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 79,"Shanley, J.B., Sebestyen, S.D., McDonnell, J.J., McGlynn, B.L. and Dunne, T., 2015. Water's Way at Sleepers River watershed–revisiting flow generation in a post‐glacial landscape, Vermont USA. Hydrological Processes, 29(16), pp.3447-3459.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10377,"Sleepers River, Vermont",,2,Schematic of flow generation mechanisms and timeline of hydrologic research at Sleepers River Research Watershed,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Catchment spatial scale,Hillslope/small catchment scale,2,Wetness,Baseflow – stormflow,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,4.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Snowmelt, Return Flow, Saturation excess flow",4.0,Melt,Snowmelt,SOF,Saturation excess flow,Subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,Return flow,Return Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Soil saturation, Channel storage",2.0,Maximum saturated area,Soil saturation,Stream,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 80,"Liu, F., Williams, M.W. and Caine, N., 2004. Source waters and flow paths in an alpine catchment, Colorado Front Range, United States. Water Resources Research, 40(9).",https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003076,"Martinelli catchment, Green Lakes Valley, Colorado",,9,A sketch diagram illustrating flow generation at the Martinelli and GL4 catchments,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Season,Days of year,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,Arrow width represents flow path importance,4.0,"Gaining stream, Snowmelt, Overland Flow, Infiltration",4.0,Surface flow,Overland flow,Baseflow,Gaining stream,Snowmelt infiltration,Infiltration,Snowmelt infiltration,Snowmelt,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Soil water storage, Water Table, Snow storage",3.0,Snow,Snow storage,Talus or soil water,Soil water storage,Water table,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 81,"Liu, F., Williams, M.W. and Caine, N., 2004. Source waters and flow paths in an alpine catchment, Colorado Front Range, United States. Water Resources Research, 40(9).",https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003076,"GL4 catchment, Green Lakes Valley, Colorado",,9,A sketch diagram illustrating flow generation at the Martinelli and GL4 catchments,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Season,Days of year,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,Arrow width represents flow path importance,4.0,"Overland Flow, Infiltration, Gaining stream, Snowmelt",4.0,Surface flow,Overland flow,Baseflow,Gaining stream,Snowmelt infiltration,Infiltration,Snowmelt infiltration,Snowmelt,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Soil water storage, Water Table, Snow storage",3.0,Snow,Snow storage,Talus or soil water,Soil water storage,Water table,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,, @@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ when)R Ki SEI and2P P_t SSR (c), when)R Ki SEI and2 2P P P_ _t SRR t SR (d), and 88,"Krogh, S.A., Pomeroy, J.W. and Marsh, P., 2017. Diagnosis of the hydrology of a small Arctic basin at the tundra-taiga transition using a physically based hydrological model. Journal of hydrology, 550, pp.685-703.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.05.042,"Havikpak Creek, Northwest Territories",,3,"Conceptual model of Havikpak Creek Basin hydrology. Sketch by Lucia Scaff, University of Saskatchewan.",https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0022169417303359-gr3.jpg,CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,N,N,1,Season,Winter/summer,2,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,Soil types described,Soil types shown,N,N,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,12.0,"Snow drifting, Sublimation during blowing snow events, Attenuation, Canopy evaporation, Snowmelt, Infiltration, Organic layer interflow, Evapotranspiration, Subsurface stormflow, Overland Flow, Canopy Interception, Canopy sublimation",12.0,Snow interception and sublimation,Canopy interception,Snow interception and sublimation,Canopy sublimation,Blowing snow transport and sublimation,Snow drifting,Blowing snow transport and sublimation,Sublimation during blowing snow events,Snowmelt,Snowmelt,Rain interception and evaporation,Canopy evaporation,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Overland flow,Overland flow,Flow through mineral soil and organic terrain,Subsurface stormflow,Flow through mineral soil and organic terrain,Organic layer interflow,Infiltration,Infiltration,Streamflow routing,Attenuation,,,,,3.0,"Permafrost storage, Channel storage, Seasonal soil freeze/thaw",3.0,Permafrost,Permafrost storage,Ground freeze/thaw,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,Stream,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 89,"Johansson, E., Gustafsson, L.G., Berglund, S., Lindborg, T., Selroos, J.O., Liljedahl, L.C. and Destouni, G., 2015. Data evaluation and numerical modeling of hydrological interactions between active layer, lake and talik in a permafrost catchment, Western Greenland. Journal of Hydrology, 527, pp.688-703.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.05.026,"Two Boat Lake, Kangerlussuaq",,5,Conceptual model of the hydrological flows during the active (A) and frozen (B) period in the Two Boat Lake catchment.,https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0022169415003765-gr5.jpg,CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,N,N,1,Season,Frozen period processes/active period processes,2,N,N,Soil types described,Soil types shown,N,N,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,7.0,"Evapotranspiration, Overland Flow, Snow drifting, Subsurface stormflow, Sublimation, Gaining stream, Open water evaporation",7.0,ET,Evapotranspiration,E,Open water evaporation,Surface water runoff,Overland flow,Runoff from active layer,Subsurface stormflow,Water exchange with the talik,Gaining stream,Sublimation,Sublimation,Snow drifting,Snow drifting,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Seasonal soil freeze/thaw, Snow storage, Permafrost storage, Lake storage",4.0,Permafrost,Permafrost storage,Frozen active layer,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,Irregular snowpack,Snow storage,Lake,Lake storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 90,"Penny, G., Dar, Z.A. and Müller, M.F., 2022. Climatic and anthropogenic drivers of a drying Himalayan river. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 26(2), pp.375-395.",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-375-2022,Upper Jhelum watershed,,10,Conceptual diagram of seasonal water fluxes and direction of change.,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/8ca64e890335455c9a15fe5cbd7a461b/data,CC-BY 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,N,N,1,Season,Spring/summer/fall/winter,4,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,N,N,N,N,N,N,3D graphics,3D graphics,N,N,N,6.0,"Losing stream, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Snowmelt, Evapotranspiration, Gaining stream, Groundwater flow",6.0,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Snowmelt ,Snowmelt ,Springtime seepage,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Baseflow,Gaining stream,Losing conditions,Losing stream,Groundwater flux,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Lake storage, Snow storage, Channel storage, Groundwater storage",4.0,Snowpack storage,Snow storage,Lake,Lake storage,Stream,Channel storage,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,, -91,"Liu, F., Lerch, R.N., Yang, J. and Peters, G., 2020. Determining hydrologic pathways of streamflow using geochemical tracers in a claypan watershed. Hydrological Processes, 34(11), pp.2494-2509.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13743,"Goodwater Creek, Missouri",,8,"A sketch showing the process of streamflow generation from near-surface runoff, interflow above claypan and groundwater from intermediate and deeper glacial till aquifer and the hypothesis on the function of alluvial aquifer in a claypan watershed.",Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Soil types shown,Geology described,Rock types shown,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,6.0,"Mixing, Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons, Overland Flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Groundwater flow, Groundwater flow",6.0,Near-Surface runoff,Overland flow,Interflow above claypan,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,Groundwater from intermediate aquifer,Groundwater flow,Groundwater from deeper glacial till aquifer,Groundwater flow,Groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Mixing,Mixing,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,5.0,"Channel storage, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Riparian aquifer storage, Soil stratification",5.0,Alluvial aquifer,Riparian aquifer storage,Stream,Channel storage,Aquifer,Groundwater storage,Topsoil,Soil water storage,Claypan,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,, +91,"Liu, F., Lerch, R.N., Yang, J. and Peters, G., 2020. Determining hydrologic pathways of streamflow using geochemical tracers in a claypan watershed. Hydrological Processes, 34(11), pp.2494-2509.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13743,"Goodwater Creek, Missouri",,8,"A sketch showing the process of streamflow generation from near-surface runoff, interflow above claypan and groundwater from intermediate and deeper glacial till aquifer and the hypothesis on the function of alluvial aquifer in a claypan watershed.",Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Soil types shown,Geological types described,Rock types shown,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,6.0,"Mixing, Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons, Overland Flow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Groundwater flow, Groundwater flow",6.0,Near-Surface runoff,Overland flow,Interflow above claypan,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,Groundwater from intermediate aquifer,Groundwater flow,Groundwater from deeper glacial till aquifer,Groundwater flow,Groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Mixing,Mixing,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,5.0,"Channel storage, Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Riparian aquifer storage, Soil stratification",5.0,Alluvial aquifer,Riparian aquifer storage,Stream,Channel storage,Aquifer,Groundwater storage,Topsoil,Soil water storage,Claypan,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,, 92,"Hugenschmidt, C., Ingwersen, J., Sangchan, W., Sukvanachaikul, Y., Uhlenbrook, S. and Streck, T., 2010. Hydrochemical analysis of stream water in a tropical, mountainous headwater catchment in northern Thailand. Hydrology & Earth System Sciences Discussions, 7(2).",http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-7-2187-2010,Mae Sa Noi watershed,,10,Conceptual model of runoff generation at Mae Sa Noi hillslope during saturated and unsaturated conditions.,https://sdsugeo.maps.arcgis.com/sharing/rest/content/items/686bc19c71e34c1fa236d8fcb659361e/data,CC-BY 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,N,N,1,Wetness,Saturated/unsaturated conditions,2,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Slopes described,3D graphics,3D graphics,N,N,N,7.0,"Infiltration, Gaining stream, Subsurface stormflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Infiltration excess flow, Return Flow, Saturation excess flow",7.0,Infiltration,Infiltration,Interflow,Subsurface stormflow,Baseflow,Gaining stream,Percolation,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Horton Overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,Saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Return flow,Return Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Groundwater storage, Water Table, Soil water storage, Channel storage",4.0,Soil,Soil water storage,Weathered bedrock,Groundwater storage,Groundwater,Water table,Stream water,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 93,"Xiao, X., Zhang, F., Che, T., Shi, X., Zeng, C. and Wang, G., 2020. Changes in plot-scale runoff generation processes from the spring–summer transition period to the summer months in a permafrost-dominated catchment. Journal of Hydrology, 587, p.124966.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124966,"Yakou catchment, Qinghai",,8,A schematic figure illustrating the hydrological regimes of the runoff plot during the spring–summer transition period (left panels) and in the summer months (right panels) under dry (upper panels) and wet (lower panels) conditions.,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,Season and wetness,Spring-summer/summer and dry/wet,4,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,5.0,"Evapotranspiration, Snowmelt, Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons, Subsurface stormflow, Infiltration",6.0,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Rainfall infiltration,Infiltration,Snowmelt water,Snowmelt,Shallow subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,Deep Subsurface flow,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.0,"Perched water tables, Seasonal soil freeze/thaw, Permafrost storage, Snow storage",4.0,Snow cover,Snow storage,Thawed soil,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,Frozen soil,Permafrost storage,Saturated soil water,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,, 94,"Vyse, S.A., Taie Semiromi, M., Lischeid, G. and Merz, C., 2020. Characterizing hydrological processes within kettle holes using stable water isotopes in the Uckermark of northern Brandenburg, Germany. Hydrological Processes, 34(8), pp.1868-1887.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13699,Quillow catchment,,11,Conceptual model for the hydrologic connectivity between kettle holes across the Uckermark region of northern Brandenburg,https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/cms/asset/9f08bcda-8ef0-4dd1-be4d-b24d6ef0c309/hyp13699-fig-0011-m.jpg,CC-BY 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,4.0,"Return Flow, Open water evaporation, Subsurface stormflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater",4.0,Evaporation,Open water evaporation,Throughflow,Subsurface stormflow,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Discharge,Return flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Depression storage, Groundwater storage, Water Table",3.0,Shallow unconfined groundwater,Groundwater storage,Water table,Water table,Kettle holes,Depression storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, @@ -99,18 +99,18 @@ when)R Ki SEI and2P P_t SSR (c), when)R Ki SEI and2 2P P P_ _t SRR t SR (d), and 96,"Dash, S.K. and Sinha, R., 2022. Space-time dynamics of soil moisture and groundwater in an agriculture-dominated critical zone observatory (CZO) in the Ganga basin, India. Science of The Total Environment, 851, p.158231.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158231,"Heart CZO, Ganga Basin",,13,"Schematic representation of various hydrological processes within the study region (the HEART CZO in Ganga basin), represented as a cross section from south-west (left) to north-east (right). Precipitation along with the canal network is considered as the main source of recharge in the system which contributes to soil moisture and groundwater through percolation. Crop watering in this region is carried out locally using groundwater extraction by pumping and open water sources (river and canals). The cones of depression caused by overexploitation of groundwater for irrigation and public usages are also shown. In addition, a set of observation wells are drawn here for a better representation of the subsurface water level at various locations. The evapotranspiration is the only natural outgoing attribute in the system (Figure not to scale).",Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,N,N,N,N,N,N,3D graphics,3D graphics,N,N,N,7.0,"Subsurface stormflow, Vertical drainage to groundwater, Evapotranspiration, Infiltration, Gaining stream, Losing stream, Overland Flow",7.0,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Surface runoff,Overland flow,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Percolation,Infiltration,Interflow,Subsurface stormflow,Base flow,Gaining stream,Lateral and vertical groundwater recharge,Losing stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,"Soil water storage, Groundwater storage, Channel storage",3.0,Vadose zone,Soil water storage,Groundwater saturated zone,Groundwater storage,CZO tributary stream,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 97,"Chen, X., Yu, Z., Yi, P., Aldahan, A., Hwang, H.T. and Sudicky, E.A., 2023. Disentangling runoff generation mechanisms: combining isotope tracing with integrated surface/subsurface simulation. Journal of Hydrology, p.129149.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.129149,"Mukeng catchment, Anhui",,8,Conceptual hillslope runoff generation processes during a rainfall event presented in cross-sections. The contributions from different water sources are also indicated. The small rectangle shows steam runoff and rainfall of the rainfall-runoff event.,Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,2,Vegetation described,Vegetation icons shown,N,N,N,N,N,N,3D graphics,3D graphics,N,N,N,6.0,"Exfiltration, Channel flow, Infiltration, Subsurface stormflow, Overland Flow, Displacement of groundwater",6.0,Infiltration,Infiltration,Exfiltration,Exfiltration,Subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,Overland flow,Overland flow,Pre-event water,Displacement of groundwater,Stream runoff,Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,"Soil water storage, Channel storage",2.0,Shallow soil water,Soil water storage,Stream,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 98,"Nyquist, J. E., Toran, L., Pitman, L., Guo, L. & Lin, H. (2018) Testing the fill‐and‐spill model of subsurface lateral flow using ground‐penetrating radar and dye tracing. Vadose Zone J. 17(1), 1–13. Wiley. doi:10.2136/vzj2017.07.0142",https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2017.07.0142,Susquehanna Shale Hills CZO - Shale Hills,,11,"A refined fill-and-spill model with preferential flow (PF) processes occurring at the top of two layers (saprock and bedrock). In a hillslope with a thin soil cover underlain by a weathered bedrock (or saprock) layer, the bulk of the precipitation rapidly infiltrates soils and saprock and forms limited lateral PF on the soil–saprock interface. Lateral PF may take place through the horizontal fissures in the saprock and form return flow downslope. Once water encounters a fresh bedrock surface, a transient water table may perch at small depressions and then trigger lateral PF downslope.",https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/cms/asset/77776f65-1e6a-435b-9f96-5a9847de293f/vzj2vzj2017070142-fig-0011-m.png,CC BY-NC-ND,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Infiltration into soil,Infiltration,Limited lateral flow along fractured bedrock surface,Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons,Return flow,Return flow,Flow through lateral fissures in fractured bedrock,Pistonflow,Flow along fresh bedrock surface,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,Bedrock leakage,Infiltration into bedrock,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Soil,Soil water storage,transient water table may perch ,Perched water tables,small depressions,Bedrock hollows,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -99,"Kim, H., Gu, X. & Brantley, S. L. (2018) Particle fluxes in groundwater change subsurface shale rock chemistry over geologic time. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 500, 180–191. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.07.031",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2018.07.031,Susquehanna Shale Hills CZO - Shale Hills,,1b,"Sullivan et al. (2016) measured the groundwater table depths at a monthly interval from 2013 to 2014. The highest (wet season) and lowest (dry season) groundwater tables along the central channel of the catchment were plotted (A–A′ transect). Note the vertical axis is exaggerated by three-fold. In Shale Hills, preferential flow paths through soil macropores and through interfaces of the soil horizons and at the perched groundwater table (i.e., interflow) at the interface of the highly fractured rock and less weathered rock are the primary flow paths. The contribution of regional groundwater to stream discharge at the catchment outlet is less than ∼10%.",Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Describes fracturing/weathering,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,Unknown items identified,Question marks show height of regional groundwater,Scale bar,,,, Preferential flow paths through soil macropores,Lateral macropore flow,Preferential flow paths through interfaces of the soil horizons,Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons,Preferential flow paths at the interface of the highly fractured rock and less weathered rock,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,Interflow,Subsurface stormflow,regional groundwater,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater tables,Water table,regional groundwater,Regional Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +99,"Kim, H., Gu, X. & Brantley, S. L. (2018) Particle fluxes in groundwater change subsurface shale rock chemistry over geologic time. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 500, 180–191. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.07.031",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2018.07.031,Susquehanna Shale Hills CZO - Shale Hills,,1b,"Sullivan et al. (2016) measured the groundwater table depths at a monthly interval from 2013 to 2014. The highest (wet season) and lowest (dry season) groundwater tables along the central channel of the catchment were plotted (A–A′ transect). Note the vertical axis is exaggerated by three-fold. In Shale Hills, preferential flow paths through soil macropores and through interfaces of the soil horizons and at the perched groundwater table (i.e., interflow) at the interface of the highly fractured rock and less weathered rock are the primary flow paths. The contribution of regional groundwater to stream discharge at the catchment outlet is less than ∼10%.",Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Describes fracturing/weathering,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,Unknown items identified,Question marks show height of regional groundwater,Scale bar,,,, Preferential flow paths through soil macropores,Lateral macropore flow,Preferential flow paths through interfaces of the soil horizons,Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons,Preferential flow paths at the interface of the highly fractured rock and less weathered rock,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,Interflow,Subsurface stormflow,regional groundwater,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater tables,Water table,regional groundwater,Regional Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 100,"Ross, C. A., Ali, G., Bansah, S. & Laing, J. R. (2017) Evaluating the Relative Importance of Shallow Subsurface Flow in a Prairie Landscape. Vadose Zone J. 16(5), 1–20. GeoScienceWorld. doi:10.2136/vzj2016.10.0096",https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2016.10.0096,Catfish Creek watershed,,8,Synthesis of process inferences regarding the flow paths (seen as arrows) delivering water from riparian sites to adjacent stream channels in the eastern Canadian Prairies. Dashed lines are generalizations of the water table positions that correspond to the color-associated flow path. The black line (1) indicates the depth to water table position during periods with no lateral subsurface flow. The gray arrow (2) indicates Hortonian overland flow. The teal line and arrows (3) indicate the simultaneous occurrence of return flow and saturation-excess overland flow. The red line and arrows indicate (4a) transmissivity feedback and (4b) macropore flow.,Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Saturation-excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Hortonian overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,Macropore flow,Lateral matrix flow,Transmissivity feedback,Lateral matrix flow,Return flow,Return Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Water table position,Water table,Channel,Channel storage,Water table rise,Water table rise,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 101,"Wallace, S., Biggs, T., Lai, C.T. and McMillan, H., 2021. Tracing sources of stormflow and groundwater recharge in an urban, semi-arid watershed using stable isotopes. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 34, p.100806.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2021.100806,"San Diego River watershed, California",,12,"Conceptual model of the San Diego River, tributaries and groundwater, showing the dominant water sources according to the time of year. Blue arrows represent sources of river water, purple arrows represent sources of groundwater.",https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S2214581821000355-gr12_lrg.jpg,CC BY-NC-ND,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,Catchment spatial scale,Tributary vs main stem,2,Season,First Flush/Early Winter/Late Winter,3,Vegetation described,Icons only,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Impervious surface flow,IE flow from impermeable areas,Baseflow,Gaining stream,Connected shallow groundwater,Connectivity,Stormflow,Quickflow,Groundwater contributions from stormflow,Losing stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Ponds,Lake storage,Channel,Channel storage,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -102,"Oldham, L. D., Freer, J., Coxon, G., Howden, N., Bloomfield, J. P. & Jackson, C. (2023) Evidence-based requirements for perceptualising intercatchment groundwater flow in hydrological models. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 27(3), 761–781. Copernicus GmbH. doi:10.5194/hess-27-761-2023",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-761-2023,Thames at Kingston,,8,"Perceptual model of the Thames catchment, including key modelling-related groundwater–surface water interaction features and characteristics. The Jurassic limestone, Chalk and Lower Greensand aquifers are (for modelling purposes) hydraulically disconnected. Contains British Geological Survey data © UKRI 2023.",https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/27/761/2023/hess-27-761-2023-avatar-web.png,CC BY,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,Soil or Geology,Three aquifers with different geology,3,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Describes geological units,N,N,N,N,N,N,Scale bar ,,,,Losing river section,Losing stream,Gaining river section,Gaining stream,Intercatchment groundwater flow,Water loss across surface watershed boundary,spring discharge,Springflow,Regional GW flow,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,aquifers,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -103,"Macpherson, G.L. and Sophocleous, M., 2004. Fast ground-water mixing and basal recharge in an unconfined, alluvial aquifer, Konza LTER Site, Northeastern Kansas. Journal of Hydrology, 286(1-4), pp.271-299.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2003.09.016,"Konza Prairie LTER, Kansas",,9,"Schematic of the conceptual model of mixing processes proposed for this site (see Fig. 2 for explanation of rock patterns and fracture symbols). (a) Pre-recharge conditions: water moves slowly through the unsaturated zone, ground-water moves through the bedrock adjacent to and underlying the floodplain aquifer (alluvium), and chemically homogeneous ground water fills the saturated portion of the alluvium. (b) Recharge conditions: precipitation enters the bedrock aquifer(s) rapidly, probably through fractures. The newly recharged water displaces ‘resident’ ground water in the bedrock into the alluvium, causing a relatively rapid rise in water table because of injection of more sulfate-rich water (vertical bars) from the bedrock into the base of the alluvium. The rise in water table entrains high-nitrate water (slanted bars) in the inundated part of the unsaturated zone. Unsaturated-zone water flow continues downward, but is still slow, because low hydraulic conductivity of the alluvium prevents rapid recharge. Unsaturated zone air is pushed upward out of the ground, also, as the alluvium water table rises. (c) Early post-recharge: when recharge to the bedrock ceases, the water table begins to fall as the water in the alluvium drains to the creek. The drop in the water table draws ‘fresh’ atmosphere into the unsaturated zone. The water in the alluvial aquifer begins to mix. (d) Later post-recharge: as the water table continues to fall, mixing continues, and the water also now comes into equilibrium with the fresh unsaturated zone air, resulting in a pulse of oxygen in the alluvial aquifer. The oxygen levels in the alluvial-aquifer ground water decline because of microbial processes, and mixing of the alluvium ground water continues until a nearly chemically homogeneous floodplain aquifer is reestablished (a).",Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,Event,Pre-recharge/Recharge/Early post-recharge/Later post-recharge,4,Vegetation described,Icons only,Soil types described,Alluvial sediment texture,Geology described,Bedrock types,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Unsaturated zone water movement,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Bedrock aquifer water movement,Groundwater flow,Unsaturated zone water entrained by aquifer water,Mixing,Bedrock water leaking into floodplain aquifer,Gaining stream,Air flow,Vapor diffusion,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,aquifers,Groundwater storage,fractures,Bedrock fracture storage,Water table,Water table,Rise in Water table,Water table rise,Water table begins to fall,Water table fall,,,,,,,,,, +102,"Oldham, L. D., Freer, J., Coxon, G., Howden, N., Bloomfield, J. P. & Jackson, C. (2023) Evidence-based requirements for perceptualising intercatchment groundwater flow in hydrological models. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 27(3), 761–781. Copernicus GmbH. doi:10.5194/hess-27-761-2023",https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-761-2023,Thames at Kingston,,8,"Perceptual model of the Thames catchment, including key modelling-related groundwater–surface water interaction features and characteristics. The Jurassic limestone, Chalk and Lower Greensand aquifers are (for modelling purposes) hydraulically disconnected. Contains British Geological Survey data © UKRI 2023.",https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/27/761/2023/hess-27-761-2023-avatar-web.png,CC BY,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,Soil or Geology,Three aquifers with different geology,3,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Describes geological units,N,N,N,N,N,N,Scale bar ,,,,Losing river section,Losing stream,Gaining river section,Gaining stream,Intercatchment groundwater flow,Water loss across surface watershed boundary,spring discharge,Springflow,Regional GW flow,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,aquifers,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +103,"Macpherson, G.L. and Sophocleous, M., 2004. Fast ground-water mixing and basal recharge in an unconfined, alluvial aquifer, Konza LTER Site, Northeastern Kansas. Journal of Hydrology, 286(1-4), pp.271-299.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2003.09.016,"Konza Prairie LTER, Kansas",,9,"Schematic of the conceptual model of mixing processes proposed for this site (see Fig. 2 for explanation of rock patterns and fracture symbols). (a) Pre-recharge conditions: water moves slowly through the unsaturated zone, ground-water moves through the bedrock adjacent to and underlying the floodplain aquifer (alluvium), and chemically homogeneous ground water fills the saturated portion of the alluvium. (b) Recharge conditions: precipitation enters the bedrock aquifer(s) rapidly, probably through fractures. The newly recharged water displaces ‘resident’ ground water in the bedrock into the alluvium, causing a relatively rapid rise in water table because of injection of more sulfate-rich water (vertical bars) from the bedrock into the base of the alluvium. The rise in water table entrains high-nitrate water (slanted bars) in the inundated part of the unsaturated zone. Unsaturated-zone water flow continues downward, but is still slow, because low hydraulic conductivity of the alluvium prevents rapid recharge. Unsaturated zone air is pushed upward out of the ground, also, as the alluvium water table rises. (c) Early post-recharge: when recharge to the bedrock ceases, the water table begins to fall as the water in the alluvium drains to the creek. The drop in the water table draws ‘fresh’ atmosphere into the unsaturated zone. The water in the alluvial aquifer begins to mix. (d) Later post-recharge: as the water table continues to fall, mixing continues, and the water also now comes into equilibrium with the fresh unsaturated zone air, resulting in a pulse of oxygen in the alluvial aquifer. The oxygen levels in the alluvial-aquifer ground water decline because of microbial processes, and mixing of the alluvium ground water continues until a nearly chemically homogeneous floodplain aquifer is reestablished (a).",Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,Event,Pre-recharge/Recharge/Early post-recharge/Later post-recharge,4,Vegetation described,Icons only,Soil types described,Alluvial sediment texture,Geological types described,Bedrock types,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Unsaturated zone water movement,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Bedrock aquifer water movement,Groundwater flow,Unsaturated zone water entrained by aquifer water,Mixing,Bedrock water leaking into floodplain aquifer,Gaining stream,Air flow,Vapor diffusion,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,aquifers,Groundwater storage,fractures,Bedrock fracture storage,Water table,Water table,Rise in Water table,Water table rise,Water table begins to fall,Water table fall,,,,,,,,,, 104,"Aubry-Wake, C., 2022. From processes to predictions in hydrological modelling of glacierized basins (Doctoral dissertation, University of Saskatchewan).",https://harvest.usask.ca/handle/10388/14290,Peyto Glacier Research Basin,,1.1,Conceptual illustration of the range of hydrological processes occurring in a glacierized alpine basin. Mass and energy fluxes are shown in bold and storages are in italic.,,Copyright Caroline Aubry-Wake. Permission granted to re-use.,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Firn/snow melt,Firnmelt,Blowing snow,Snow drifting,Ice melt,Glacier icemelt,Snow melt,Snowmelt,Infiltration,Infiltration,Groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,Streamflow,Channel flow,Sub-debris melt,Glacier melt,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Snowpack storage,Snow storage,Ice storage,Glacier storage,Moraine storage,Soil water storage,Surface ponding,Depression storage,Stream,Channel Storage,,,,,,,,,, 105,"Helbig, M., Boike, J., Langer, M., Schreiber, P., Runkle, B.R. and Kutzbach, L., 2013. Spatial and seasonal variability of polygonal tundra water balance: Lena River Delta, northern Siberia (Russia). Hydrogeol. J, 21(1), pp.133-147.",https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-012-0933-4,"Samoylov Island, Lena River Delta, Siberia",,10,"Conceptual model of seasonal water balances of key landscape units of polygonal tundra. Representative data are shown for polygons with degraded (DEG1) and intact (INT1) rims and for a trough above a degraded ice wedge (TRO1/2). Data are shown for the post-melt period (22 May–2 June 2011, I), the early summer period (5–18 June 2011, II; 19 June–16 July 2011, III; 17–31 July 2011, IV), and the late summer period (1–19 August 2011, V). Arrows of P, ET, and NLF are scaled according to their magnitude",Not open-access,Not open-access,N,Topography,Degraded/intact rims,2,Season,Post-melt/early summer*3/late summer,5,Vegetation described,Vegetation types labelled,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Slow subsurface flowpaths,Subsurface stormflow,Rapid subsurface flowpaths,Groundwater flow,ET,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Water table,Water table,Frost table,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,Surface water storage ,Channel storage,Ice,Permafrost storage,,,,,,,,,,,, -106,"Munk, L.A., Boutt, D.F., Moran, B.J., McKnight, S.V. and Jenckes, J., 2021. Hydrogeologic and Geochemical Distinctions in Freshwater‐Brine Systems of an Andean Salar. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 22(3), p.e2020GC009345.",https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GC009345,Salar de Atacama,,8,"Three-dimensional conceptual diagram of the Salar de Atacama inflow, transition zone, and nucleus water system with the inflow waters to the south and the halite nucleus to the north (see transect location in Figure 2). Subsurface geology, hydrogeologic flow paths, and groundwater discharge features including the wetlands, springs, lagoons and transitional pools are depicted. Overlain is transparent blue to represent fresher waters and red/pink represents brackish and brine waters in the subsurface. The region under the transitional pools is shaded darker to highlight the area where the secondary porosity and permeability of the halite is thought to be important. Finer scale characteristics such the heterogeneity in the transition zone geology, primary, and secondary porosity and permeability features in the transition zone carbonate, interbedded gypsum and halite, and halite nucleus are detailed in the circular insets. Flow path arrows depict diffuse groundwater movement in the shallow parts of the transition zone that ultimately end in the lagoons. Wider blue arrows indicate the relative amounts of infiltration (downward) and evaporation (upward). ",Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Icons only,N,N,Geology described,Bedrock types including hydraulic conductivity,Slopes described,Changes in slope,3D graphics,3D graphic,N,N,Scale bar ,,,,Evaporation,Evaporation,Fresh water,Infiltration ,Fresh groundwater ,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Lagoons,Depression storage,Water table,Water table,Secondary porosity,Bedrock fracture storage,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,, -107,"Pourrier, J., Jourde, H., Kinnard, C., Gascoin, S. and Monnier, S., 2014. Glacier meltwater flow paths and storage in a geomorphologically complex glacial foreland: the case of the Tapado glacier, dry Andes of Chile (30 S). Journal of Hydrology, 519, pp.1068-1083.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.08.023,Tapado catchment,,12,Schematic transect through the Tapado catchment with hypothesized hydrological interactions between compartments. ,Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Bedrock types,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,Scale bar ,,,,Springs,Springflow,Surface stream,Channel flow,Superficial flow,Overland flow,Underground fast and concentrated flow,Macropore flow within snowpack,Underground slow and diffuse flow,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Piezometric level,Water table,Aquifer,Groundwater storage,Glacier,Glacier storage,Ice lenses,Formation of layers/lenses,Perenially-frozen ice-rock mixture,Permafrost storage,,,,,,,,,, +106,"Munk, L.A., Boutt, D.F., Moran, B.J., McKnight, S.V. and Jenckes, J., 2021. Hydrogeologic and Geochemical Distinctions in Freshwater‐Brine Systems of an Andean Salar. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 22(3), p.e2020GC009345.",https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GC009345,Salar de Atacama,,8,"Three-dimensional conceptual diagram of the Salar de Atacama inflow, transition zone, and nucleus water system with the inflow waters to the south and the halite nucleus to the north (see transect location in Figure 2). Subsurface geology, hydrogeologic flow paths, and groundwater discharge features including the wetlands, springs, lagoons and transitional pools are depicted. Overlain is transparent blue to represent fresher waters and red/pink represents brackish and brine waters in the subsurface. The region under the transitional pools is shaded darker to highlight the area where the secondary porosity and permeability of the halite is thought to be important. Finer scale characteristics such the heterogeneity in the transition zone geology, primary, and secondary porosity and permeability features in the transition zone carbonate, interbedded gypsum and halite, and halite nucleus are detailed in the circular insets. Flow path arrows depict diffuse groundwater movement in the shallow parts of the transition zone that ultimately end in the lagoons. Wider blue arrows indicate the relative amounts of infiltration (downward) and evaporation (upward). ",Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Icons only,N,N,Geological types described,Bedrock types including hydraulic conductivity,Slopes described,Changes in slope,3D graphics,3D graphic,N,N,Scale bar ,,,,Evaporation,Evaporation,Fresh water,Infiltration ,Fresh groundwater ,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Lagoons,Depression storage,Water table,Water table,Secondary porosity,Bedrock fracture storage,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,, +107,"Pourrier, J., Jourde, H., Kinnard, C., Gascoin, S. and Monnier, S., 2014. Glacier meltwater flow paths and storage in a geomorphologically complex glacial foreland: the case of the Tapado glacier, dry Andes of Chile (30 S). Journal of Hydrology, 519, pp.1068-1083.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.08.023,Tapado catchment,,12,Schematic transect through the Tapado catchment with hypothesized hydrological interactions between compartments. ,Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Bedrock types,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,Scale bar ,,,,Springs,Springflow,Surface stream,Channel flow,Superficial flow,Overland flow,Underground fast and concentrated flow,Macropore flow within snowpack,Underground slow and diffuse flow,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Piezometric level,Water table,Aquifer,Groundwater storage,Glacier,Glacier storage,Ice lenses,Formation of layers/lenses,Perenially-frozen ice-rock mixture,Permafrost storage,,,,,,,,,, 108,"Sánchez‐Murillo, R., Gazel, E., Schwarzenbach, E.M., Crespo‐Medina, M., Schrenk, M.O., Boll, J. and Gill, B.C., 2014. Geochemical evidence for active tropical serpentinization in the Santa Elena Ophiolite, Costa Rica: An analog of a humid early Earth?. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 15(5), pp.1783-1800.",https://doi.org/10.1002/2013GC005213,Santa Elena Ophiolite,,8,"Schematic representation illustrating the hyperalkaline base flow process proposed for the Santa Elena Ophiolite. (a) Digital elevation overview of Potrero Grande watershed (Landsat Image, USGS, 90 m). Yellow line represents watershed boundary and yellow dashed-square denotes Quebrada Danta subcatchment. Red cross corresponds to the hyperalkaline system. (b) Enlargement of yellow dashed-square area over Quebrada Danta subcatchment; mean basin slope is ∼33%. Vegetation is scarce on hillslopes; but mostly concentrated in the riparian zones of the floodplain. (c) A conceptual hyperalkaline base flow process coupled with measured water chemistry and field observations. Soil profile is relatively absent (less than 20 cm). Infiltration occurs directly through the ultramafic formation (1). Piston-type flow may occur within serpertinized fractured macropores (i.e., faults) producing freshwater springs if the system is open in respect to CO2 (2). These flow paths appear to be relatively shallow. Deep groundwater flow feeds the creek during the dry season (4). Base flow discharge is a function of storage, where a corresponds to the characteristic recession time scale (presumably low due to high evapotranspiration). Hydraulic parameters such as conductivity (K), drainage porosity (f), and aquifer thickness (D) are unknown. If the system responds as a linear reservoir, then b = 1. Deep groundwater flow may dilute the signature of active serpentinizing (3). However, active serpentinizing flow paths could also emerge as hyperalkaline springs probably with an exponential-piston flow distribution due to the constant structural changes (6). Hyperalkaline fluids form riparian pools coated by a CaCO3 supernatant film where travertine terraces are evident and potential heterotrophic microbial methanogenesis may also occur (7 and 8). The hyperalkaline fluids are characterized by high pH, Ca, and low Mg. The fluids mix with receiving stream waters at low rates and volumes, thus, dilution occurs rapidly (9). As measured in the Río Murciélago watershed methane emanations (24.3% v/v) occur at the streambed (5). Other hydrocarbons may be produced during the serpentinization process. Based on the Mulligan and Burke [2005] regional hydrological model (90 m resolution), recharge could be approximately 18% of the water budget whereas runoff could reach up to 21% during the wet season and evapotranspiration is roughly 60%. Shallow storage could be as lower as 3%.",Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Icons only,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Infiltration ,Infiltration,Deep percolation,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Deep GW,Groundwater flow,Serpertinized fracture flow,Pistonflow,Alkaline runoff,Overland flow,springs,Springflow,Deep groundwater flow feeds the creek,Gaining stream,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,creek,Channel storage,deep groundwater,Groundwater storage,Riparian pools,Depression storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 109,"Webb, R.W., Fassnacht, S.R. and Gooseff, M.N., 2018. Hydrologic flow path development varies by aspect during spring snowmelt in complex subalpine terrain. The Cryosphere, 12(1), pp.287-300.",https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-287-2018,"Dry Lake, Routt National Forest, Colorado",,7,"Conceptual model of flow paths that develop during early spring snowmelt at the south aspect hillslope (SM), toe of south aspect slope (ST), flat aspect (FA), toe of north aspect slope (NT), low on the north aspect hillslope (NL), and high on the north aspect hillslope (NH).",,CC BY,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/,Hillslope position,Aspect and slope position,5,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Icons only,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Snowmelt,Snowmelt,Infiltrates,Infiltration,Wetting front across soil-bedrock interface towards stream,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,saturated overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Snowmelt is laterally diverted at the snow-soil interface,Basal flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Snow ,Snow storage,Soil,Soil water storage,water table rises,Water table rise,stream,channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, -110,"Koit, O., Tarros, S., Pärn, J., Küttim, M., Abreldaal, P., Sisask, K., Vainu, M., Terasmaa, J., Retike, I. and Polikarpus, M., 2021. Contribution of local factors to the status of a groundwater dependent terrestrial ecosystem in the transboundary Gauja-Koiva River basin, North-Eastern Europe. Journal of Hydrology, 600, p.126656.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126656,Matsi spring fen,,19,The conceptual hydrogeological model of the Matsi spring fen (M1 polygon) study site.,Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Icons only,N,N,Geology described,Describes geological units,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,Scale bar ,,,,Interflow,Subsurface stormflow,Baseflow,Gaining stream,Groundwater recharge,Groundwater flow,spring ,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,river,Channel storage,Aquifer,Groundwater storage,water table,Water table,fen,Soil saturation,confining layer,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,, +110,"Koit, O., Tarros, S., Pärn, J., Küttim, M., Abreldaal, P., Sisask, K., Vainu, M., Terasmaa, J., Retike, I. and Polikarpus, M., 2021. Contribution of local factors to the status of a groundwater dependent terrestrial ecosystem in the transboundary Gauja-Koiva River basin, North-Eastern Europe. Journal of Hydrology, 600, p.126656.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126656,Matsi spring fen,,19,The conceptual hydrogeological model of the Matsi spring fen (M1 polygon) study site.,Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Icons only,N,N,Geological types described,Describes geological units,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,Scale bar ,,,,Interflow,Subsurface stormflow,Baseflow,Gaining stream,Groundwater recharge,Groundwater flow,spring ,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,river,Channel storage,Aquifer,Groundwater storage,water table,Water table,fen,Soil saturation,confining layer,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,, 111,"Penny, G., Srinivasan, V., Apoorva, R., Jeremiah, K., Peschel, J., Young, S. and Thompson, S., 2020. A process‐based approach to attribution of historical streamflow decline in a data‐scarce and human‐dominated watershed. Hydrological Processes, 34(8), pp.1981-1995.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13707,TG Halli watershed,,9a,"Threefold strategy to attribution of hydrological change. (a) We evaluate contemporary run-off generation processes and find evidence of (1) infiltration excess run-off but not (2) saturation excess run-off or (3) baseflow (see Section 4.1). (b) Insights from field research are used to generate a conceptual model of historical processes, including two hypotheses that would explain historical changes: reduced overland flow or loss of a shallow water table (Section 4.2). c) We evaluate these hypotheses using information about infiltration capacities, open wells, and historical borewell logs, combined with additional evidence from other studies (Section 4.3)",Not open-access,Not open-access,N,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration excess run-off,Infiltration excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 112,"Marttila, H., Lohila, A., Ala‐Aho, P., Noor, K., Welker, J.M., Croghan, D., Mustonen, K., Meriö, L.J., Autio, A., Muhic, F. and Bailey, H., 2021. Subarctic catchment water storage and carbon cycling–leading the way for future studies using integrated datasets at Pallas, Finland. Hydrological Processes, 35(9), p.e14350.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14350,Pallas catchment,,Graphical Abstract,Conceptual representation of water dynamics and pathways in the Pallas catchment and interactions with biogeochemical fluxes.,https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/cms/asset/e8c13dba-036c-404f-9971-7bccc559c85e/hyp14350-toc-0001-m.jpg,CC BY,http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Icons only,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,horizontal suburface flow,Subsurface stormflow,Groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,Spring,Springflow,Seepage,Exfiltration,GW-SW interactions,Connectivity,Groundwater flow supporting winter and summer low flows,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,Water table variations,Water table rise,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 113,"Yapiyev, V., Skrzypek, G., Verhoef, A., Macdonald, D. and Sagintayev, Z., 2020. Between boreal Siberia and arid Central Asia–stable isotope hydrology and water budget of Burabay National Nature Park ecotone (Northern Kazakhstan). Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 27, p.100644.",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2019.100644,Burabay National Nature Park,,Graphical Abstract,None,https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S2214581819301740-ga1_lrg.jpg,CC BY-NC-ND,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Icons only,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Changes in slope,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Surface flow (run-off),Overland flow,Interflow,Subsurface stormflow,Groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,AET,Evapotranspiration,EL,Open water evaporation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Lake,Lake storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, @@ -132,3 +132,4 @@ from the crystalline bedrock, and (2) leaching from the unsaturated zone",https: 128,"Harrison, R., van Tol, J. and Amiotte Suchet, P., 2022. Hydropedological Characteristics of the Cathedral Peak Research Catchments. Hydrology, 9(11), p.189.",https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9110189,"CP-VI, Cathedral Peak experimental research catchment",,9,Flow path diagrams for (a) the drier periods and (b) wetter periods for CP-IX. ,https://www.mdpi.com/hydrology/hydrology-09-00189/article_deploy/html/images/hydrology-09-00189-g009-550.jpg,CC-BY 4.0,,N,N,1,Season and wetness,Drier/Wetter Periods,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,interflow,Subsurface stormflow,overland flowpaths,Overland flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soils,Soil water storage,saturated responsive soils,Soil saturation,stream network,Channel storage,deeper aquifers,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 129,"Egusa, T., Ohte, N., Oda, T. and Suzuki, M., 2016. Quantifying aggregation and change in runoff source in accordance with catchment area increase in a forested headwater catchment. Hydrological Processes, 30(22), pp.4125-4138.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10916,"Fukuroyamasawa Experimental Watershed B, Inokawa Watershed",,2,"Conceptual model of runoff sources in Inokawa catchment. Solid and dotted arrows indicate the flow of subsurface water and groundwater, respectively. Stream water was mixed by subsurface water and groundwater",Not open-access,Not open-access,,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,flow of subsurface water,Vertical matrix flow,flow of groundwater,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,subsurface water,Soil water storage,water table,Water table,groundwater,Groundwater storage,stream,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 130,"Maréchal, J.-C., Braun, J.-J., Riotte, J., Bedimo, J.-P.B. and Boeglin, J.-L. (2011), Hydrological processes of a rainforest headwater swamp from natural chemical tracing in Nsimi watershed, Cameroon. Hydrol. Process., 25: 2246-2260.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7989,Nsimi watershed,,2,"(a) Cross-section of Nsimi headwater catchment with a swamp, representation of flows exchange between swamp and hillside hydrological systems. (b) Isolated systems with their respective CMB and water budget equations",Not open-access,Not open-access,,Hillslope position,Hillslope / swamp,2,N,N,1,Vegetation icons,Vegetation icons,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,overland flow,Saturation excess flow,spring ,Springflow,groundwater flow paths,Groundwater flow,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,exchange rate between the swamp and the stream,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,bedrock aquifer,Groundwater storage,swamp aquifer,Riparian aquifer storage,stream water,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +131,"Grandjouan, O., Branger, F., Masson, M., Cournoyer, B. and Coquery, M., 2023. Identification and estimation of hydrological contributions in a mixed land‐use catchment based on a simple biogeochemical and hydro‐meteorological dataset. Hydrological Processes, 37(12), p.e15035.",https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.15035,"Ratier catchment, Yzeron Basin",,3,Perceptual hydrological model of the Ratier catchment.,Not open-access,Not open-access,,Land use / Land cover,Forest/Agricultural/Urban,3,N,N,1,Vegetation icons,Icons,Soil types described,Describes soil types,Geological types described,Describes geological types,Slopes described,Shows slopes,3D graphics,3D figure,N,N,N,,,,Fractured gneiss flow,Pistonflow,Saprolite flow,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,Collouvium groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,Arrow towards the stream,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Groundwater storage,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, diff --git a/data/ModelAnalysis_Text.csv b/data/ModelAnalysis_Text.csv index 71280b9..c543176 100644 --- a/data/ModelAnalysis_Text.csv +++ b/data/ModelAnalysis_Text.csv @@ -1,17 +1,17 @@ id,citation,figure_match,url,watershed_name,textmodel_section_number,textmodel_page_number,textmodel_section_name,attribution,attribution_url,textmodel_snipped,spatial_property,spatial_property_original,num_spatial_zones,temporal_property,temporal_property_original,num_temporal_zones,vegetation_info,vegetation_info_original,soil_info,soil_info_original,geol_info,geol_info_original,topo_info,topo_info_original,three_d_info,three_d_info_original,uncertainty_info,uncertainty_info_original,other_info,num_flux_from_sql,flux_list_from_sql,num_flux_hilary,flux1,flux1_taxonomy,flux2,flux2_taxonomy,flux3,flux3_taxonomy,flux4,flux4_taxonomy,flux5,flux5_taxonomy,flux6,flux6_taxonomy,flux7,flux7_taxonomy,flux8,flux8_taxonomy,flux9,flux9_taxonomy,flux10,flux10_taxonomy,flux11,flux11_taxonomy,flux12,flux12_taxonomy,flux13,flux13_taxonomy,flux14,flux14_taxonomy,num_store,store_list,num_stores,store1,store1_taxonomy,store2,store2_taxonomy,store3,store3_taxonomy,store4,store4_taxonomy,store5,store5_taxonomy,store6,store6_taxonomy,store7,store7_taxonomy,store8,store8_taxonomy,store9,store9_taxonomy,store10,store10_taxonomy 1,"Addisie, Meseret B, Getaneh K Ayele, Nigus Hailu, Eddy J Langendoen, Seifu A Tilahun, Petra Schmitter, J-Yves Parlange, and Tammo S Steenhuis. “Connecting Hillslope and Runoff Generation Processes in the Ethiopian Highlands: The Ene-Chilala Watershed.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 68, no. 4 (2020): 313–27.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2020-0015,"Ene-Chilala watershed, Birr River, Blue Nile Basin",5,322,Conclusion,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,"Like other watersheds in the sub humid highlands, the Ene-Chilala watershed is characterized by interflow on the hillsides and saturation excess overland flow near the rivers. The infiltration rate of the soil was greater on the hillslope than the flatter and saturated bottomlands. Flow from the hillslope was as interflow, through a perched water.",Hillslope position,Hillsides/near the rivers,2,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,interflow,Subsurface stormflow,Saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,infiltration,Infiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,surface organic LFH soils,Organic Layer,saturated bottomlands,Soil saturation,perched water,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -2,"Allan, C.J. and Roulet, N.T., 1994. Runoff generation in zero‐order precambrian shield catchments: The stormflow response of a heterogeneous landscape. Hydrological Processes, 8(4), pp.369-388.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.3360080409,Experim. Lakes Area,,387,Summary (Also Discussion for more in-depth),Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Wetness and event,"Dry antecedent conditions, wet antecedent conditions, recession limb",3,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Forest described soil,Geology described,Discusses bedrock microtopography,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow path may occur through surface organic LFH soils ,Organic layer interflow,Horton overland flow from lichen-covered bedrock surfaces ,IE flow from impermeable areas, subsurface stormflow , Subsurface stormflow,saturation overland flow , Saturation excess flow,lichen-bedrock areas draining into the soil deposits , Reinfiltration,return flow ,Return Flow,snowmelt  , Snowmelt,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,forest soil deposits become saturated , Soil saturation,bedrock depressions,Bedrock hollows,forested soil deposits , Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +2,"Allan, C.J. and Roulet, N.T., 1994. Runoff generation in zero‐order precambrian shield catchments: The stormflow response of a heterogeneous landscape. Hydrological Processes, 8(4), pp.369-388.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.3360080409,Experim. Lakes Area,,387,Summary (Also Discussion for more in-depth),Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Wetness and event,"Dry antecedent conditions, wet antecedent conditions, recession limb",3,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Forest described soil,Geological types described,Discusses bedrock microtopography,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow path may occur through surface organic LFH soils ,Organic layer interflow,Horton overland flow from lichen-covered bedrock surfaces ,IE flow from impermeable areas, subsurface stormflow , Subsurface stormflow,saturation overland flow , Saturation excess flow,lichen-bedrock areas draining into the soil deposits , Reinfiltration,return flow ,Return Flow,snowmelt  , Snowmelt,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,forest soil deposits become saturated , Soil saturation,bedrock depressions,Bedrock hollows,forested soil deposits , Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 3,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"C2, Caribou-Poker Creek, Alaska",14.2.1,225,"Caribou-Poker Creek Research Watershed (CPCRW), reference sub-watershed C2, Alaska",Public Domain,,"The CPCRW is located near Chatanika in interior Alaska (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of the northern boreal forest. The 520 ha C2 reference watershed is isolated and free of any human intervention. The vegetation in CPCRW is dominated by birch and aspen on the south-facing slopes and black spruce forests on the north-facing slopes. The climate is typically continental with warm summers and cold winters. The CPCRW is unique among the watersheds in this cross-site comparison because it is underlain by discontinuous permafrost. The permafrost distribution within the watershed exerts a strong influence over hydrological patterns (Jones and Rinehart, 2010). Studies show that as the areal extent of permafrost increases, peak discharge increases, baseflow decreases and response to precipitation events increases (Bolton et al., 2004). The C2 watershed was chosen as a reference watershed because it is underlain by only about 3% permafrost compared with the adjacent C3 and C4 watersheds which are underlain by 53% and 19%, respectively. Total mean precipitation in the C2 watershed is 412 mm, with mean snowfall and rainfall being 130 mm and 280 mm, respectively (Bolton et al., 2004). Annual maximum snow depth averages 750 mm with a snow water equivalent of 110 mm. Of the total precipitation, nearly 20% becomes streamflow while evapotranspiration makes up over 75% (Bolton et al., 2004). About 35% of the total precipitation falls as snow between October and April. Snowfall peaks around January while rainfall peaks around July. The spatial distribution of rainfall amount is influenced by elevation. The relatively flat FDC for the C2 watershed (Plates 11 and 12, Table 14.2) may be attributed to the relatively well-drained soils that allow infiltration to deeper subsurface reservoirs. Runoff is generated only when the infiltration capacity is met. Streamflow in the watershed is generated by shallow subsurface storm runoff from permafrost-dominated areas, but steady groundwater baseflows with the highest Q90 /Q50 of all the sites (Table 14.2) are produced from permafrost-free areas such as C2. Spring snowmelt is usually the major hydrological event of the year, although the annual peak flow usually occurs during summer rainstorm events, as the highest rainfall intensities are greater than the maximum snowmelt rate on a daily timescale (Kane and Hinzman, 2004). It may be noted from Fig. 14.2 that the mean monthly streamflow of C2 is relatively even over the months of April through October. During winter the gauges are mostly frozen and any flow is hardly recorded, except for relatively warm temperatures. Although rainfall peaks around July, there is an increase in mean flow from July to September due to an increase in baseflow.",Land use / Land cover,Permafrost-dominated/perfamforst-free,2,Season,spring/summer/winter,3,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,well-drained soils  that allow infiltration to deeper subsurface reservoirs  , Vertical drainage to groundwater,infiltration  , Infiltration,shallow subsurface storm runoff , Subsurface stormflow,baseflows , Gaining stream,snowmelt  , Snowmelt,streamflow  , Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snow water equivalent  , Snow storage,soils,Soil water storage,deeper subsurface reservoirs  ., Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -4,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"Casper Creek, California",14.2.2,227,"Caspar Creek Experimental Watershed (CCEW), reference watershed North Fork (NF), California",Public Domain,,"Located in a coast redwood and Douglas fir forest on the Jackson Demonstration State Forest in north-western California (Fig. 14.1), the CCEW hosts research designed to evaluate the effects of timber management on watershed processes. Initially, the entire 473 ha NF watershed served as the reference watershed, but after portions were logged in 1985, three NF sub-watersheds (16 to 39 ha) were designated as long-term reference watersheds. Bedrock is marine sandstone and shale of the Franciscan Complex. Most soils are 1–2 m deep loams and clay-loams and underlain by saprolite at depths of 3–8 m near ridgetops. Only about one-fifth of the 4.6 km/km2 drainage density supports perennial streamflow. Timber production has been the major land use, and evidence of 19th century logging and the impacts of this legacy persist. Snow is hydrologically insignificant and 95% of rainfall occurs in October–April. Fog occurs on about one-third of days in June–September, reducing summer transpiration (Keppeler, 2007). The marine influence ensures that summer air temperatures rarely exceed 20°C and winter minimums seldom drop below 0°C. Stream runoff is about half of the average annual rainfall (Reid and Lewis, 2009). Transpiration and canopy evaporation account for nearly equal portions of the remainder (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume). Actual evapotranspiration is limited by soil moisture deficits in May–September. Analysis of climate-related trends suggests that autumn rainfall and streamflow have declined, but with no change in annual totals. The FDC for CCEW spans a wide range of streamflow compared with most of the other USDA-EFR sites (Plates 11 and 12) due to the strong seasonal pattern of large, episodic winter rain events that typically produce multiple, short-duration peak flows while extended summer droughts result in a long, slow recession for about half the year (Fig. 14.2). Summer streamflow is generated primarily from groundwater, and by autumn about 300 mm of precipitation is needed to mitigate moisture deficits sufficiently to generate stormflow. Stormflow (total flow based on difference between initial discharge at start of runoff and the discharge at 3 days following the cessation of the rainfall event) comprises about two-thirds of annual runoff (Reid and Lewis, 2009). Infiltration is rapid on uncompacted soils and vertical throughflow dominates near the surface. A deeper clay-rich argillic horizon can impede downward flow and generate lateral subsurface flow, although preferential flow through interconnected soil macropores limits pore-pressure increases and the extent of this perched flow. Perennial and intermittent soil pipes occur in the upper 2 m of the regolith and are frequently encountered near channel heads. When transient groundwater tables rise to the elevation of these pipes, they rapidly transmit subsurface flow to channels, mitigating pore-pressure increases upslope (Keppeler and Brown, 1998). Saturation-excess overland (return) flow is limited, but can occur on valley bottoms during large storms.",N,N,1,Season,summer/winter,2,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geology described,Describes bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Perennial streamflow,Perennial flow,Transpiration,Transpiration,Stream runoff,Channel flow,Canopy evaporation,Canopy evaporation,Stormflow,Quickflow,Infiltration,Infiltration,Vertical throughflow,Vertical matrix flow,lateral subsurface flow,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,preferential flow through interconnected soil macropores,Vertical macropore flow,Perennial and intermittent soil pipes,Lateral macropore flow,"Saturation-excess overland (return) flow is limited, but can occur on valley bottoms",SE flow from riparian zone,(return) flow,Return flow,,,,,,,,Soil moisture deficits,Soil water storage,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,clay-rich argillic horizon,Soil stratification,transient groundwater tables rise,Water table rise,,,,,,,,,,,, +4,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"Casper Creek, California",14.2.2,227,"Caspar Creek Experimental Watershed (CCEW), reference watershed North Fork (NF), California",Public Domain,,"Located in a coast redwood and Douglas fir forest on the Jackson Demonstration State Forest in north-western California (Fig. 14.1), the CCEW hosts research designed to evaluate the effects of timber management on watershed processes. Initially, the entire 473 ha NF watershed served as the reference watershed, but after portions were logged in 1985, three NF sub-watersheds (16 to 39 ha) were designated as long-term reference watersheds. Bedrock is marine sandstone and shale of the Franciscan Complex. Most soils are 1–2 m deep loams and clay-loams and underlain by saprolite at depths of 3–8 m near ridgetops. Only about one-fifth of the 4.6 km/km2 drainage density supports perennial streamflow. Timber production has been the major land use, and evidence of 19th century logging and the impacts of this legacy persist. Snow is hydrologically insignificant and 95% of rainfall occurs in October–April. Fog occurs on about one-third of days in June–September, reducing summer transpiration (Keppeler, 2007). The marine influence ensures that summer air temperatures rarely exceed 20°C and winter minimums seldom drop below 0°C. Stream runoff is about half of the average annual rainfall (Reid and Lewis, 2009). Transpiration and canopy evaporation account for nearly equal portions of the remainder (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume). Actual evapotranspiration is limited by soil moisture deficits in May–September. Analysis of climate-related trends suggests that autumn rainfall and streamflow have declined, but with no change in annual totals. The FDC for CCEW spans a wide range of streamflow compared with most of the other USDA-EFR sites (Plates 11 and 12) due to the strong seasonal pattern of large, episodic winter rain events that typically produce multiple, short-duration peak flows while extended summer droughts result in a long, slow recession for about half the year (Fig. 14.2). Summer streamflow is generated primarily from groundwater, and by autumn about 300 mm of precipitation is needed to mitigate moisture deficits sufficiently to generate stormflow. Stormflow (total flow based on difference between initial discharge at start of runoff and the discharge at 3 days following the cessation of the rainfall event) comprises about two-thirds of annual runoff (Reid and Lewis, 2009). Infiltration is rapid on uncompacted soils and vertical throughflow dominates near the surface. A deeper clay-rich argillic horizon can impede downward flow and generate lateral subsurface flow, although preferential flow through interconnected soil macropores limits pore-pressure increases and the extent of this perched flow. Perennial and intermittent soil pipes occur in the upper 2 m of the regolith and are frequently encountered near channel heads. When transient groundwater tables rise to the elevation of these pipes, they rapidly transmit subsurface flow to channels, mitigating pore-pressure increases upslope (Keppeler and Brown, 1998). Saturation-excess overland (return) flow is limited, but can occur on valley bottoms during large storms.",N,N,1,Season,summer/winter,2,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geological types described,Describes bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Perennial streamflow,Perennial flow,Transpiration,Transpiration,Stream runoff,Channel flow,Canopy evaporation,Canopy evaporation,Stormflow,Quickflow,Infiltration,Infiltration,Vertical throughflow,Vertical matrix flow,lateral subsurface flow,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,preferential flow through interconnected soil macropores,Vertical macropore flow,Perennial and intermittent soil pipes,Lateral macropore flow,"Saturation-excess overland (return) flow is limited, but can occur on valley bottoms",SE flow from riparian zone,(return) flow,Return flow,,,,,,,,Soil moisture deficits,Soil water storage,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,clay-rich argillic horizon,Soil stratification,transient groundwater tables rise,Water table rise,,,,,,,,,,,, 5,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"Coweeta, North Carolina",14.2.3,227,"Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory (CHL), reference watershed WS18, North Carolina",Public Domain,,"The CHL is located in western North Carolina (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of southern Appalachian mixed deciduous hardwoods. The 13 ha WS18 watershed was last selectively harvested in the early 1920s prior to the establishment of the CHL (Douglass and Hoover, 1988). Although the watershed has not been actively managed for more than 80 years, there have been several natural disturbances that have altered forest structure and species composition, including Chestnut blight fungus (Endothia parasitica) in the 1920s–1930s, drought in the 1980s and 2000s, Hurricane Opal in 1995, and hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) defoliation from 2002 to the present (Boring et al., 2014). Precipitation in WS18 averages 2010 mm/year; it is highest in the late winter months and lowest in the autumn, although a disproportionate amount of large events associated with tropical storms occurs during this season. Less than 10% of precipitation occurs as snow. The variability in precipitation has been increasing over time resulting in more frequent extremely wet years and extremely dry years, while annual average air temperature has been increasing by 0.5°C/decade since 1981 (Laseter et al., 2012). Annual precipitation in WS18 is approximately equally partitioned into streamflow (49.6%) and evapotranspiration (50.4%). During the growing season, transpiration accounts for 55% of total evapotranspiration with evaporation from canopy interception making up the balance, approximately 15% of precipitation (Ford et al., 2011). Streamflow is typically highest in March–April and lowest in September–October but never ceases, even during extreme drought. Seasonal patterns in streamflow reflect the combined effects of the seasonality in precipitation and evapotranspiration (Fig. 14.2). Baseflows are relatively high, producing the third largest Q90/Q50 ratio among sites (Table 14.2). Baseflows are sustained by lateral movement of water through deep unsaturated soil (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume), driven by large hydraulic gradients induced by steep slopes (Hewlett and Hibbert, 1963). On average, approximately 5% of annual precipitation (9% of annual streamflow) is discharged as stormflow (Swift et al., 1988). Stormflow originates primarily from small portions of the watershed located adjacent to the stream in coves and in riparian zones where the water table may be near the surface (Hewlett and Hibbert, 1967). Shallow lateral subsurface discharge from upslope landscape positions to streams can also contribute to stormflow where large soil macropores exist. Overland flow is extremely rare or non-existent because of the presence of well-developed forest floors and subsurface macropores.",N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Streamflow,Channel flow,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Transpiration,Transpiration,Canopy interception,Canopy interception,Baseflows,Gaining stream,lateral movement of water through deep unsaturated soil,Lateral unsaturated flow,Stormflow,Quickflow,Shallow lateral subsurface discharge,Lateral macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Coves,Topographic convergence,Water table,Water table,Riparian zones,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -6,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"Fernow, West Virginia",14.2.4,228,"Fernow Experimental Forest (FnEF), reference watershed WS4, West Virginia",Public Domain,,"The FnEF is located in eastern West Virginia (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of the ‘unmanaged’ forests of the central Appalachian region. The 39 ha WS4 watershed is forested with an approximately 100-year-old stand of mixed deciduous hardwoods. The bedrock is acidic sandstone and shale. Depth to bedrock is generally less than 1 m and the topography is steep. Precipitation is distributed evenly throughout the year and averages 1458 mm. Although snow is common in winter, snowpack generally lasts no more than a few weeks; snow contributes approximately 14% on average of precipitation (Adams et al., 1994). Large rainfall events can occur during extra-tropical hurricanes in the summer and autumn, but about half of the largest storms have occurred during the dormant season (1 November–30 April), when streams are most responsive to rainfall because evapotranspiration losses are low (Fig. 14.2). The stream channel is intermittent near the top of the watershed. Streamflow may cease during the late summer and early autumn (about 10% of daily flows), in response to high evapotranspirative demand and low precipitation. Although baseflow contributes relatively little to Q90/Q50 (Table 14.2), it dominates stream discharge in WS4. Most discharge occurs during the dormant season (Fig. 14.2) due to greater precipitation and decreased evapotranspirative demand from deciduous forests. Baseflow is sustained by lateral subsurface flow to channels; DeWalle et al. (1997) characterized the mean transit time for baseflow on WS4 as 1.4–1.6 years, which suggests a dominance of slow movement through the soil matrix. The water balance on WS4 was well quantified by Patric (1973) with runoff accounting for about 40% of precipitation, 27% of the balance being lost through transpiration and about 16% to canopy evaporation. Seasonal differences in losses from canopy interception due to leaf development and leaf drop were detected. Stormflow discharge is fairly flashy (Plates 11 and 12), with the storm hydrograph responding rapidly to storm precipitation inputs and then returning quickly to baseflow conditions, and streamflow generation occurs via saturation excess flow. Stormflow discharge typically occurs less than 15% of the time. There is little to no infiltration-excess overland flow even during the largest storms because of the high infiltration capacity of an intact forest floor.",N,N,1,Season,Winter/summer/autumn,3,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geology described,Describes bedrock,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Stream channel is intermittent ,Intermittent streamflow,baseflow, Gaining stream,Lateral subsurface flow... through soil matrix,Lateral matrix flow,Transpiration,Transpiration,Canopy evaporation,Canopy evaporation,Saturation excess flow,Saturation excess flow,Stormflow,Quickflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Snowpack,Snow storage,Stream channel,Channel storage ,Soil matrix,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +6,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"Fernow, West Virginia",14.2.4,228,"Fernow Experimental Forest (FnEF), reference watershed WS4, West Virginia",Public Domain,,"The FnEF is located in eastern West Virginia (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of the ‘unmanaged’ forests of the central Appalachian region. The 39 ha WS4 watershed is forested with an approximately 100-year-old stand of mixed deciduous hardwoods. The bedrock is acidic sandstone and shale. Depth to bedrock is generally less than 1 m and the topography is steep. Precipitation is distributed evenly throughout the year and averages 1458 mm. Although snow is common in winter, snowpack generally lasts no more than a few weeks; snow contributes approximately 14% on average of precipitation (Adams et al., 1994). Large rainfall events can occur during extra-tropical hurricanes in the summer and autumn, but about half of the largest storms have occurred during the dormant season (1 November–30 April), when streams are most responsive to rainfall because evapotranspiration losses are low (Fig. 14.2). The stream channel is intermittent near the top of the watershed. Streamflow may cease during the late summer and early autumn (about 10% of daily flows), in response to high evapotranspirative demand and low precipitation. Although baseflow contributes relatively little to Q90/Q50 (Table 14.2), it dominates stream discharge in WS4. Most discharge occurs during the dormant season (Fig. 14.2) due to greater precipitation and decreased evapotranspirative demand from deciduous forests. Baseflow is sustained by lateral subsurface flow to channels; DeWalle et al. (1997) characterized the mean transit time for baseflow on WS4 as 1.4–1.6 years, which suggests a dominance of slow movement through the soil matrix. The water balance on WS4 was well quantified by Patric (1973) with runoff accounting for about 40% of precipitation, 27% of the balance being lost through transpiration and about 16% to canopy evaporation. Seasonal differences in losses from canopy interception due to leaf development and leaf drop were detected. Stormflow discharge is fairly flashy (Plates 11 and 12), with the storm hydrograph responding rapidly to storm precipitation inputs and then returning quickly to baseflow conditions, and streamflow generation occurs via saturation excess flow. Stormflow discharge typically occurs less than 15% of the time. There is little to no infiltration-excess overland flow even during the largest storms because of the high infiltration capacity of an intact forest floor.",N,N,1,Season,Winter/summer/autumn,3,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geological types described,Describes bedrock,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Stream channel is intermittent ,Intermittent streamflow,baseflow, Gaining stream,Lateral subsurface flow... through soil matrix,Lateral matrix flow,Transpiration,Transpiration,Canopy evaporation,Canopy evaporation,Saturation excess flow,Saturation excess flow,Stormflow,Quickflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Snowpack,Snow storage,Stream channel,Channel storage ,Soil matrix,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 7,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"Fraser, Colorado",14.2.5,228,"Fraser Experimental Forest (FrEF), reference watershed East St Louis (ESL), Colorado",Public Domain,,"The FrEF is located in the Rocky Mountain cordillera of Colorado (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of subalpine watersheds over a large portion of the central Rockies. It spans the subalpine to alpine zone; a zone that is characterized by relatively low temperatures and moderate precipitation (Love, 1960). The area is dominated by Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir on higher-elevation and shaded slopes, lodgepole pine on lower-elevation sunny slopes and alpine tundra above the treeline. The 803 ha ESL watershed has received no significant treatment in over 90 years (Retzer, 1962). Precipitation is dominated heavily by snowfall (about 75%) from October through May (Alexander et al., 1985) and runoff is dominated by snowmelt (about 90%) from May through August (Fig. 14.2). Significant summertime convective rainfall events may also temporarily increase flow. The main stem is perennial but baseflow is low, stable and unmeasured during the winter months due to logistical difficulties of stream measurements in winter. The runoff coefficient for annual flow is about 45% with significant wintertime sublimation losses from the canopy and summertime evapotranspiration. Summertime rainfall is primarily used on site by vegetation, with high evaporative losses due to dry air masses and wind. High-elevation stream reaches are intermittent with spring and summertime flows fed by snowmelt (Fig. 14.2). The hydrological regime is dominated by a typical seasonal snowmelt hydrograph with a rapid rising limb in May and June, followed by a long recession, returning to baseflow (second largest Q90/Q50 , Table 14.2) in August (Alexander et al., 1985; Troendle and King, 1985). Extensive spring networks feed the drainage systems as the annual snowmelt pulse moves through the basin (Retzer, 1962). Rainfall events punctuate the snowmelt hydrograph, but contribute insignificant amounts to the annual runoff. Infiltration-excess overland flow is rare, but may occur under the snowpack during the melt season when frozen ground impedes infiltration. Saturation-excess overland flow is extremely rare as infiltration rates for the porous soils and glacial till typically exceed maximum rainfall and snowmelt rates (Retzer, 1962). The ESL represents the highest elevation range, largest snowpack and largest watershed of this cross-site comparison. Maximum snowmelt rates are limited by incoming energy and can never reach extreme rainfall rates. Rain-on-snow flood events can alter flow statistics, but are rare in this portion of the Rockies. The relatively large size of the basin also reduces flashy response or high runoff per unit area observed in smaller basins.",Hillslope position,Mainstem/high elevation reaches,2,Season,Summer/winter/spring,3,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Snowmelt,Snowmelt,Perennial,Perennial flow,baseflow, Gaining stream,Sublimation losses from canopy,Canopy sublimation,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Intermittent,Intermittent streamflow,Spring networks,Springflow,Infiltration-excess overland flow ... when frozen ground impedes infiltration,IE flow from frozen ground,Saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Snowpack,Snow storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -8,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"H.J. Andrews, Oregon",14.2.6,229,"H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest (HJAEF), reference watershed WS02, Oregon",Public Domain,,"The HJAEF is located in the western Cascade Mountains of central Oregon (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of Pacific Northwest moist conifer forests. Watershed 2 (WS02) is 60 ha and the geology is dominated by bedrock of volcanic origin. Stream channels are steep and confined with unsorted sediment dominated by cobbles and boulders, with patches of silt and exposed bedrock. Shallow hillslope soils (generally less than 1 m deep) are loam and clay loam. Stone content ranges from 35 to 80%, increasing on south-facing slopes. The steep hillslopes in WS02 are dominated by 500- to 550-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga mensiesii) forests with western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western red cedar (Thuja plicata) (Rothacher et al., 1967). The canopy is greater than 60 m tall. The climate is continental with cold winters and cool, short, dry summers. Annual precipitation averages 2300 mm, falling primarily as rain between November and April and with occasional snow at higher elevations. Soil temperatures remain above freezing. The annual hydrograph in WS02 has a strong seasonal pattern with a high winter baseflow and frequent autumn, winter and spring stormflows in contrast to very low flows in summer (Fig. 14.3). Approximately 57% of the precipitation is streamflow (Post and Jones, 2001). Baseflow accounts for only 43% of the discharge (Q90/Q50 = 0.126) (Table 14.2) whereas quickflow comprises the remainder (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume). McGuire et al. (2005) estimated that mean baseflow residence time for WS02, based on δO18 of water, was approximately 2.2 years. They suggested that topography and steepness may be exerting greater control on residence times than watershed area. Although there are no detectable trends in streamflow from 1987 to 2007, in more recent time periods (1996–2007) slight decreasing trends have been observed (Argerich et al., 2013). The relatively steep FDC for WS02 (Plates 11 and 12) has been attributed to highly permeable soils and strong seasonal precipitation patterns. Fast percolation rates, typically greater than 0.12 m/h, are influenced by high stone content and large pore spaces (Rothacher et al., 1967). These characteristics also lead to substantial hyporheic flows lateral to and beneath the streams (Kasahara and Wondzell, 2003).",N,N,1,Season,Autumn/winter/spring/summer,4,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geology described,Describes bedrock,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,,,,baseflow, Gaining stream,Quickflow,Quickflow,Fast percolation,Vertical macropore flow,hyporheic flows lateral to and beneath the streams ,Hyporheic flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Snow,Snow storage,Permeable soils,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +8,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"H.J. Andrews, Oregon",14.2.6,229,"H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest (HJAEF), reference watershed WS02, Oregon",Public Domain,,"The HJAEF is located in the western Cascade Mountains of central Oregon (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of Pacific Northwest moist conifer forests. Watershed 2 (WS02) is 60 ha and the geology is dominated by bedrock of volcanic origin. Stream channels are steep and confined with unsorted sediment dominated by cobbles and boulders, with patches of silt and exposed bedrock. Shallow hillslope soils (generally less than 1 m deep) are loam and clay loam. Stone content ranges from 35 to 80%, increasing on south-facing slopes. The steep hillslopes in WS02 are dominated by 500- to 550-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga mensiesii) forests with western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western red cedar (Thuja plicata) (Rothacher et al., 1967). The canopy is greater than 60 m tall. The climate is continental with cold winters and cool, short, dry summers. Annual precipitation averages 2300 mm, falling primarily as rain between November and April and with occasional snow at higher elevations. Soil temperatures remain above freezing. The annual hydrograph in WS02 has a strong seasonal pattern with a high winter baseflow and frequent autumn, winter and spring stormflows in contrast to very low flows in summer (Fig. 14.3). Approximately 57% of the precipitation is streamflow (Post and Jones, 2001). Baseflow accounts for only 43% of the discharge (Q90/Q50 = 0.126) (Table 14.2) whereas quickflow comprises the remainder (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume). McGuire et al. (2005) estimated that mean baseflow residence time for WS02, based on δO18 of water, was approximately 2.2 years. They suggested that topography and steepness may be exerting greater control on residence times than watershed area. Although there are no detectable trends in streamflow from 1987 to 2007, in more recent time periods (1996–2007) slight decreasing trends have been observed (Argerich et al., 2013). The relatively steep FDC for WS02 (Plates 11 and 12) has been attributed to highly permeable soils and strong seasonal precipitation patterns. Fast percolation rates, typically greater than 0.12 m/h, are influenced by high stone content and large pore spaces (Rothacher et al., 1967). These characteristics also lead to substantial hyporheic flows lateral to and beneath the streams (Kasahara and Wondzell, 2003).",N,N,1,Season,Autumn/winter/spring/summer,4,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geological types described,Describes bedrock,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,,,,baseflow, Gaining stream,Quickflow,Quickflow,Fast percolation,Vertical macropore flow,hyporheic flows lateral to and beneath the streams ,Hyporheic flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Snow,Snow storage,Permeable soils,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 9,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"Hubbard Brook, New Hampshire",14.2.7,229,"Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (HBEF), reference watershed W3, New Hampshire",Public Domain,,"The HBEF is located in New Hampshire (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of mature northern hardwood stands. Vegetation at W3 is composed mainly of sugar maple (Acer saccharum), American beech (Fagus grandifolia) and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis). The 42 ha watershed is mostly second growth and much of the HBEF was harvested in the 1910s (Table 14.1). Additional salvage harvesting occurred at the HBEF following the Great New England Hurricane of 1938. More recently, trees incurred some damage during the North American Ice Storm of 1998, with no apparent impact on annual runoff. The climate at the HBEF is cool and humid. On average, W3 receives 1350 mm of precipitation annually, which is distributed evenly throughout the year. Precipitation has increased by 25% during the record period, which is consistent with broader regional trends (Brown et al., 2010). Approximately one-third of precipitation falls as snow (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume) and a snowpack generally persists from late December until mid-April. Soil frost forms during winter two out of every three years with an average annual maximum depth of 6 cm. The annual hydrograph shows a strong seasonal pattern with a peak during snowmelt runoff. Despite the higher flow during spring, floods can occur at any time of year when soil water deficits are reduced (Fig. 14.2). An increasing trend in precipitation has resulted in increasing trends in the magnitude of both low and high streamflows (Campbell et al., 2011). Approximately 64% of the precipitation that falls on the watershed becomes streamflow, with evapotranspiration comprising the remainder. Slight, but statistically significant declines in evapotranspiration have occurred in W3 (14% over 56 years) for reasons that are unknown. This decline appears to be due to local influences since similar trends are not consistently found at a larger regional scale. The relatively steep FCD for W3 (Plates 11 and 12) has traditionally been attributed to coarse, well-drained soils and mountainous topography that produce a flashy runoff response. Overland flow is also minimal because of the high infiltration capacity of the forest floor. In recent years, a more complete understanding of complex flow generation processes at the site has emerged. Data from a network of wells in W3 have revealed an intermittent, discontinuous water table (Detty and McGuire, 2010a; Gannon et al., 2014; Gillin et al., 2015). Stormflow generation is the result of lateral subsurface flow in the solum. Under some soil moisture conditions, small changes in groundwater can produce large changes in runoff, suggesting a threshold response that is related to flowpaths and soil transmissivity (Detty and McGuire, 2010b; Gannon et al., 2014). During low flows, only the near-stream zone is consistently hydrologically connected to the stream network. As the watershed wets up, more distal, previously isolated portions of the water table become hydrologically connected.",N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Snowmelt,Snowmelt,Streamflow,Channel flow ,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,infiltration,Infiltration,Stormflow,Quickflow,lateral subsurface flow in the solum,Subsurface stormflow,Soil transmissivity,Lateral matrix flow,Hydrologically connected,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Snowpack,Snow storage,Soil frost,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,Soil water deficits,Soil water storage,Intermittent disconnected water table,Perched water tables,Groundwater,Groundwater,Near stream zone,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,, 10,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"Marcell, Minesota",14.2.8,230,"Marcell Experimental Forest (MEF), reference watershed S2, Minnesota",Public Domain,,"The MEF is located along the southern fringe of the boreal biome, in northern Minnesota (Fig. 14.1). The landscape includes uplands, peatlands, lakes and streams. Unlike mountainous research watersheds, streamflow typically is not bedrock controlled in the western lakes section where outwash sands, some >50 m deep, form large aquifers (Verry et al., 2011). Aquifer–peatland connectivity varies between two peatland types: bogs and fens (Bay, 1967). In watersheds with either type, streamflow may originate from precipitation and flow along near-surface and shallow surface flowpaths in upland mineral soils (Verry et al., 2011). Bog watersheds may be perched due to loamy clay tills that retard the vertical flow of water from soils to the outwash aquifer (Verry et al., 2011). In fen watersheds, most streamflow, which may exceed streamflow from bogs by orders of magnitude during low flow, originates as discharge from aquifers and is perennial (Bay, 1967). The 10 ha S2 study watershed, with a bog (33% of the area), has low topographic relief (Table 14.1) with upland mineral soils that drain through peatland margins to an intermittent stream. Eleven to 33% of annual precipitation (456–981 mm) occurs as streamflow and 5–17% recharges the underlying aquifer (Nichols and Verry, 2001) (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume). Calculated evapotranspiration (precipitation – streamflow – recharge) has been 372–605 mm/year. Nine of the ten highest daily streamflows have occurred during rainfall–runoff events, not snowmelt or rain-on-snow events. Periods of no streamflow occur during any month and there has been no flow during 38% of the record (Plates 11 and 12), consistent with the zero value of Q90/Q50 (Table 14.2). Although most of the S2 area is uplands, most of the annual water budget (58%) comes from direct precipitation on the peatland (Verry et al., 2011). If the water table is >5–10 cm below the peatland surface, streamflow ceases and that storage must be replenished before resumption. Rainfall amount during summer exceeds snow water equivalents during winter and stormflows recess rapidly to no flow due to evapotranspiration. Melt from snow accumulation (November/December to March/April) results in several weeks of high flows (Sebestyen et al., 2011) (Fig. 14.2). Winter and spring frost in upland soils, exceeding 50 cm, prevents infiltration (Verry et al., 2011). Snowmelt waters flow overland until soils thaw in the spring, after which flow mostly occurs in the shallow subsurface through sandy loams above loamy clay horizons (Verry et al., 2011). Subsurface flow may persist for weeks until the upland deciduous forest begins transpiring. During large summer rainfall events, subsurface flow may last for several hours, but rarely longer.",N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,N,N,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Aquifer-peatland connectivity,Connectivity,Shallow surface flowpaths,Subsurface stormflow,Perennial,Perennial flow,Intermittent,Intermittent streamflow,Recharges the underlying aquifer,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Stormflow,Quickflow,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Melt,Snowmelt,"Winter and spring frost in upland soils, exceeding 50 cm, prevents infiltration",IE flow from frozen ground,Transpiring,Transpiration,,,,,,,,,,,,Aquifers,Groundwater storage,Bogs and fens,Soil saturation,Perched,Perched water tables,storage,Soil water storage,Water table,Water table,Snow water equivalent,Snow storage,loamy clay tills that retard the vertical flow of water,Soil stratification,Soils thaw in the spring,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,,,, -11,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"San Dimas, California",14.2.9,231,"San Dimas Experimental Forest (SDEF), reference watershed Bell 3, California",Public Domain,,"The 25 ha watershed at SDEF is located in southern California (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of the chaparral forests of the US Southwest. Chaparral forest is a dense, drought-tolerant shrubland with a closed canopy some 3–5 m in height. Chaparral is a fire-prone ecosystem and wildfires have burned the SDEF about every 40 years. Regional hydrology is controlled by climate and geology: cool, wet winters followed by long summer droughts; and ongoing tectonic uplift that has produced steep topography and exposed fractured crystalline basement rocks that weather to thin, coarse-textured, azonal soils (Dunn et al., 1988) (Table 14.1). Precipitation falls almost exclusively as rain from winter frontal storms and rare summer thunderstorms. Nearly 90% of the annual rainfall occurs between December and April with the most runoff in February (Fig. 14.2). Streamflow accounts for only roughly 11% of the rainfall, with the remainder apportioned to evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge. Groundwater dynamics on the SDEF are virtually unknown, rendering the closure of any water balance exercise moot. However, groundwater recharge is potentially large through the fractured substrate, reducing any calculated value of actual evapotranspiration. Soil moisture is at or below the wilting point by the end of the summer and the drought-adapted plants likely get their water from fractures in the bedrock. Stream runoff is generated by saturation excess flow in riparian zones, presumably as shallow throughflow moves laterally through the coarse soil mantle (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume). Infiltration-excess overland flow on hillside slopes is rare and occurs only during the most intense rainstorms, reflecting the high infiltration rates of the soil and percolation into bedrock. However, after wildfire, with the combustion of the canopy and surface litter layer as well as changes in soil properties (bulk density and water repellency), hillslope hydrology shifts to pervasive overland flow after saturation of the very thin surface wettable layer (Rice, 1974; DeBano, 1981). Water that formerly slowly flowed by subsurface pathways now moves quickly into the stream channels, increasing runoff for comparable storms by up to four orders of magnitude over pre-fire levels (Wohlgemuth, 2016). The effects of fire on the forest hydrology can persist for several years.",N,N,1,Season,Summer/winter,2,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geology described,Describes bedrock,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Streamflow,Channel flow,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Saturation excess flow in riparian zones,SE flow from riparian zone,shallow throughflow moves laterally through the coarse soil mantle,Lateral matrix flow,Infiltration excess overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,Infiltration,Infiltration,Percolation into bedrock,Infiltration into bedrock,Pervasive overland flow,Overland flow,Quickly into the stream channels,Quickflow,,,,,,,,,,,,Soil moisture,Soil water storage,Fractured substrate,Bedrock fracture storage,Water repellency,Hydrophobicity,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -12,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"Santee, South Carolina",14.2.10,231,"Santee Experimental Forest (SEF), reference watershed WS80, South Carolina",Public Domain,,"The SEF is located in eastern South Carolina (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of the subtropical coastal watersheds throughout much of the US Southeast, with hot and humid summers and moderate winter seasons. The 155 ha WS80 watershed is covered with a pine/mixed hardwood forest (Table 14.1), which has been undisturbed by management activities since 1936, but was heavily affected by Hurricane Hugo in 1989 that damaged >80% of the forest canopy (Hook et al., 1991).Seasonally, the winter is generally wet with low-intensity, long-duration rain events and rare snowfall. Summer is characterized by short-duration, high-intensity storm events and tropical depression storms are common. The seasonal runoff response to rain events is shown in Fig. 14.2. Approximately 22%, on average, of annual precipitation becomes runoff (Amatya et al., 2006), resulting in about 78% evapotranspiration, assuming negligible seepage (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume). Approximately 60% of the runoff is contributed by shallow surface or runoff/rainwater, the rest by subsurface flow (Epps et al., 2013). Based on the FDC analysis this watershed produces flow only 56.3% of the time and hence has a zero value of Q90/Q50 (Plates 11 and 12, Table 14.2). The principal flow generation mechanism is driven by the shallow water table (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume) (Harder et al., 2007; Epps et al., 2013), controlled primarily by rainfall and evapotranspiration, and minimally by deeper groundwater underlain by Santee Limestone approximately 20 m below the ground surface. The formation of an argillic horizon with poorly drained clayey subsoil provides a dynamic shallow groundwater table that has a complex non-linear relationship with streamflow (Harder et al., 2007). Saturation-excess surface and shallow subsurface runoff with rapid lateral transfers within the highly permeable upper soil layer may occur along reaches with flat topography. Surface depressional storage was shown to affect the surface runoff rate (Amoah et al., 2012). Runoff and peak flow at this watershed are dependent on both rainfall amount and intensity, as well as antecedent conditions reflected by initial water table positions (Epps et al., 2013). A key observation from WS80 is the reversal of the flow relationship between this and the treatment watershed, compared with the earlier calibration period, for a decade beginning three years after Hurricane Hugo severely damaged vegetation on both watersheds. As a result reduced evapotranspiration in selected hurricane-affected vegetation on the reference watershed enhanced its streamflow (Jayakaran et al., 2014). Long-term data also indicate rising air temperature and increasing frequency of large storms (Dai et al., 2013).",N,N,1,Season,Summer/winter,3,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geology described,Describes bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,Saturation excess surface runoff,Saturation excess flow,shallow subsurface runoff with rapid lateral transfers within the highly permeable upper soil layer,Lateral matrix flow,Streamflow,Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Shallow water table,Water table,Deeper groundwater,Groundwater storage,argillic horizon with poorly drained clayey subsoil,Soil stratification,Dynamic shallow groundwater table,Perched water tables,Surface depressional storage,Depression storage,,,,,,,,,, +11,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"San Dimas, California",14.2.9,231,"San Dimas Experimental Forest (SDEF), reference watershed Bell 3, California",Public Domain,,"The 25 ha watershed at SDEF is located in southern California (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of the chaparral forests of the US Southwest. Chaparral forest is a dense, drought-tolerant shrubland with a closed canopy some 3–5 m in height. Chaparral is a fire-prone ecosystem and wildfires have burned the SDEF about every 40 years. Regional hydrology is controlled by climate and geology: cool, wet winters followed by long summer droughts; and ongoing tectonic uplift that has produced steep topography and exposed fractured crystalline basement rocks that weather to thin, coarse-textured, azonal soils (Dunn et al., 1988) (Table 14.1). Precipitation falls almost exclusively as rain from winter frontal storms and rare summer thunderstorms. Nearly 90% of the annual rainfall occurs between December and April with the most runoff in February (Fig. 14.2). Streamflow accounts for only roughly 11% of the rainfall, with the remainder apportioned to evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge. Groundwater dynamics on the SDEF are virtually unknown, rendering the closure of any water balance exercise moot. However, groundwater recharge is potentially large through the fractured substrate, reducing any calculated value of actual evapotranspiration. Soil moisture is at or below the wilting point by the end of the summer and the drought-adapted plants likely get their water from fractures in the bedrock. Stream runoff is generated by saturation excess flow in riparian zones, presumably as shallow throughflow moves laterally through the coarse soil mantle (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume). Infiltration-excess overland flow on hillside slopes is rare and occurs only during the most intense rainstorms, reflecting the high infiltration rates of the soil and percolation into bedrock. However, after wildfire, with the combustion of the canopy and surface litter layer as well as changes in soil properties (bulk density and water repellency), hillslope hydrology shifts to pervasive overland flow after saturation of the very thin surface wettable layer (Rice, 1974; DeBano, 1981). Water that formerly slowly flowed by subsurface pathways now moves quickly into the stream channels, increasing runoff for comparable storms by up to four orders of magnitude over pre-fire levels (Wohlgemuth, 2016). The effects of fire on the forest hydrology can persist for several years.",N,N,1,Season,Summer/winter,2,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geological types described,Describes bedrock,Slopes described,Slopes described,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Streamflow,Channel flow,Evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Saturation excess flow in riparian zones,SE flow from riparian zone,shallow throughflow moves laterally through the coarse soil mantle,Lateral matrix flow,Infiltration excess overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,Infiltration,Infiltration,Percolation into bedrock,Infiltration into bedrock,Pervasive overland flow,Overland flow,Quickly into the stream channels,Quickflow,,,,,,,,,,,,Soil moisture,Soil water storage,Fractured substrate,Bedrock fracture storage,Water repellency,Hydrophobicity,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +12,"Amatya, D.M.; Campbell, J.; Wohlgemuth, P.; Elder, K.; Sebestyen, S.; Johnson, S.; Keppeler, E.; Adams, M.B.; Caldwell, P.; and Misra, D. 2016. Hydrological processes of reference watersheds in Experimental Forests, USA. In: Forest Hydrology: Processes, Management, and Applications, Amatya, Williams, Bren, and de Jong (Editors), CABI Publishers, UK, pp: 219-239. 21 p.",0.0,https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/chap/chap_2016_amatya_001.pdf,"Santee, South Carolina",14.2.10,231,"Santee Experimental Forest (SEF), reference watershed WS80, South Carolina",Public Domain,,"The SEF is located in eastern South Carolina (Fig. 14.1) and is representative of the subtropical coastal watersheds throughout much of the US Southeast, with hot and humid summers and moderate winter seasons. The 155 ha WS80 watershed is covered with a pine/mixed hardwood forest (Table 14.1), which has been undisturbed by management activities since 1936, but was heavily affected by Hurricane Hugo in 1989 that damaged >80% of the forest canopy (Hook et al., 1991).Seasonally, the winter is generally wet with low-intensity, long-duration rain events and rare snowfall. Summer is characterized by short-duration, high-intensity storm events and tropical depression storms are common. The seasonal runoff response to rain events is shown in Fig. 14.2. Approximately 22%, on average, of annual precipitation becomes runoff (Amatya et al., 2006), resulting in about 78% evapotranspiration, assuming negligible seepage (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume). Approximately 60% of the runoff is contributed by shallow surface or runoff/rainwater, the rest by subsurface flow (Epps et al., 2013). Based on the FDC analysis this watershed produces flow only 56.3% of the time and hence has a zero value of Q90/Q50 (Plates 11 and 12, Table 14.2). The principal flow generation mechanism is driven by the shallow water table (Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9, this volume) (Harder et al., 2007; Epps et al., 2013), controlled primarily by rainfall and evapotranspiration, and minimally by deeper groundwater underlain by Santee Limestone approximately 20 m below the ground surface. The formation of an argillic horizon with poorly drained clayey subsoil provides a dynamic shallow groundwater table that has a complex non-linear relationship with streamflow (Harder et al., 2007). Saturation-excess surface and shallow subsurface runoff with rapid lateral transfers within the highly permeable upper soil layer may occur along reaches with flat topography. Surface depressional storage was shown to affect the surface runoff rate (Amoah et al., 2012). Runoff and peak flow at this watershed are dependent on both rainfall amount and intensity, as well as antecedent conditions reflected by initial water table positions (Epps et al., 2013). A key observation from WS80 is the reversal of the flow relationship between this and the treatment watershed, compared with the earlier calibration period, for a decade beginning three years after Hurricane Hugo severely damaged vegetation on both watersheds. As a result reduced evapotranspiration in selected hurricane-affected vegetation on the reference watershed enhanced its streamflow (Jayakaran et al., 2014). Long-term data also indicate rising air temperature and increasing frequency of large storms (Dai et al., 2013).",N,N,1,Season,Summer/winter,3,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geological types described,Describes bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,Subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,Saturation excess surface runoff,Saturation excess flow,shallow subsurface runoff with rapid lateral transfers within the highly permeable upper soil layer,Lateral matrix flow,Streamflow,Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Shallow water table,Water table,Deeper groundwater,Groundwater storage,argillic horizon with poorly drained clayey subsoil,Soil stratification,Dynamic shallow groundwater table,Perched water tables,Surface depressional storage,Depression storage,,,,,,,,,, 13,"Anderson, AE, M Weiler, Y Alila, and RO Hudson. “Dye Staining and Excavation of a Lateral Preferential Flow Network.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 13, no. 6 (2009): 935–44.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-13-935-2009,"Russell Creek Research Watershed, Vancouver Island",4.2,942,Conceptual models of runoff,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"The general conceptual model of lateral preferential flow networks relies on the increase in soil wetness. As the soil wetness increases, there is an increase in the connections in the preferential flow network, causing faster subsurface velocities and increasing the area of hillslope contributing to runoff (Tsuboyama et al., 1994; Sidle et al., 2000; Uchida et al.,2005; Tromp-van Meerveld and McDonnell, 2006b). These excavations support this conceptual model. We observed that the preferential flow paths were connected by matrix flow through mineral and organic soils. In some areas, this saturated flow was perched above soil with low hydraulic conductivity and spread out horizontally in the overlying layers of more conductive soils. In other areas the flow had verti- cal components because the water was flowing downward to areas with higher conductivities. These observations showed that a connection may be established by increased soil wetness within a small localized area. The subsurface flow in this hillslope is highly dynamic and depends on the precipitation characteristics and antecedent condition. Trenched hillslopes from around the world have identified differences in subsurface flow characteristics based on the subsurface topography and the saturated zone connections of the hillslope and the trench (e.g. Tani, 1997; Hutchinson and Moore, 2000; Freer et al., 2002; Tromp van Meerveld and McDonnell, 2006a). The excavations presented here show that trenches with large contributing areas collect flow from preferential flow networks that are efficient at transferring water, due in part to a high degree of hydraulic connectivity. The soils in these areas could transport water one order of magnitude faster than other soils (Anderson et al., 2009). The dye staining also revealed that there is often little interaction between water in the preferential flow path and the surrounding soil matrix unless there was a constriction in the preferential flow network.",N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Preferential flow paths,Lateral macropore flow,Matrix flow,Lateral matrix flow,Matrix flow through organic soils,Organic layer interflow,saturated flow was perched above soil with low hydraulic conductivity,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,Flow had vertical components,Vertical matrix flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Soil wetness,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 14,"Anderson, Suzanne Prestrud, William E Dietrich, David R Montgomery, Raymond Torres, Mark E Conrad, and Keith Loague. “Subsurface Flow Paths in a Steep, Unchanneled Catchment.” Water Resources Research 33, no. 12 (1997): 2637–53.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1029/97wr02595,"CB1, Coos Bay, Oregon",6,2650,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Wetting conditions,Vertical matrix flow,Flow in the saturated zone at the base of the colluvium,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,Convergent topography,Topographic convergence,area of subsurface saturation in the colluvium near the channel head expands and contracts,Variable source area - subsurface stormflow,Percolating,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Bedrock flow path,Groundwater flow,Baseflow runoff,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Volumetric water content of the soil,Soil water storage,Saturated zone at the base of the colluvium,Perched water tables,Exfoliation fractures,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, @@ -22,18 +22,18 @@ cal components because the water was flowing downward to areas with higher condu 19,"Birch, Andrew L, Robert F Stallard, and Holly R Barnard. “Precipitation Characteristics and Land Cover Control Wet Season Runoff Source and Rainfall Partitioning in Three Humid Tropical Catchments in Central Panama.” Water Resources Research 57, no. 2 (2021): e2020WR028058.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028058,"MAT subcatchment, Agua Salud Watershed",4.3,15,Proposed Conceptual Model,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,preferential/lateral subsurface flow,Lateral macropore flow,baseflow, Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 20,"Birch, Andrew L, Robert F Stallard, and Holly R Barnard. “Precipitation Characteristics and Land Cover Control Wet Season Runoff Source and Rainfall Partitioning in Three Humid Tropical Catchments in Central Panama.” Water Resources Research 57, no. 2 (2021): e2020WR028058.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028058,"SEC subcatchment, Agua Salud Watershed",4.3,15,Proposed Conceptual Model,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,preferential/lateral subsurface flow,Lateral macropore flow,Overland flow,Overland flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 21,"Birch, Andrew L, Robert F Stallard, and Holly R Barnard. “Precipitation Characteristics and Land Cover Control Wet Season Runoff Source and Rainfall Partitioning in Three Humid Tropical Catchments in Central Panama.” Water Resources Research 57, no. 2 (2021): e2020WR028058.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028058,"PAS subcatchment, Agua Salud Watershed",4.3,15,Proposed Conceptual Model,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Event,During the large storm,1,Pasture described,Pasture described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,preferential subsurface flow,Vertical macropore flow,lateral subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow ,overland flow,Overland Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,due to reduced saturated hydraulic conductivity and macroporosity in the upper soil layers.,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -22,"Birkel, C, D Tetzlaff, SM Dunn, and C Soulsby. “Towards a Simple Dynamic Process Conceptualization in Rainfall–Runoff Models Using Multi-Criteria Calibration and Tracers in Temperate, Upland Catchments.” Hydrological Processes: An International Journal 24, no. 3 (2010): 260–75.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7478,"Girnock, Scotland",,261,Study Site,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Soil or Geology,The primary and secondary soil units,2,Event,Base condition & during storm,2,N,N,Soil types described,Soil type described,Geology described,Discusses bedrock conditions,Slopes described,Discusses relative altitude,N,N,Multiple interpretations demonstrated,Describes multiple possible flowpath to generate groundwater recharge & recharge,N,,,,saturation excess overland flow ,Saturation excess flow,shallow lateral flow in organic surface horizons,Organic layer interflow,saturation excess overland flow ,Saturation excess flow,Vertical water movement mainly facilitates groundwater recharge ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,groundwater recharge probably moves quickly through shallow fracture systems or freely draining drift deposits ,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,return flow,Return flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,such soils are saturated for much of the year … in organic surface horizons,Organic layer,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +22,"Birkel, C, D Tetzlaff, SM Dunn, and C Soulsby. “Towards a Simple Dynamic Process Conceptualization in Rainfall–Runoff Models Using Multi-Criteria Calibration and Tracers in Temperate, Upland Catchments.” Hydrological Processes: An International Journal 24, no. 3 (2010): 260–75.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7478,"Girnock, Scotland",,261,Study Site,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Soil or Geology,The primary and secondary soil units,2,Event,Base condition & during storm,2,N,N,Soil types described,Soil type described,Geological types described,Discusses bedrock conditions,Slopes described,Discusses relative altitude,N,N,Multiple interpretations demonstrated,Describes multiple possible flowpath to generate groundwater recharge & recharge,N,,,,saturation excess overland flow ,Saturation excess flow,shallow lateral flow in organic surface horizons,Organic layer interflow,saturation excess overland flow ,Saturation excess flow,Vertical water movement mainly facilitates groundwater recharge ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,groundwater recharge probably moves quickly through shallow fracture systems or freely draining drift deposits ,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,return flow,Return flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,such soils are saturated for much of the year … in organic surface horizons,Organic layer,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 23,"Blume, Theresa, Erwin Zehe, Dominik E Reusser, Andrés Iroumé, and Axel Bronstert. “Investigation of Runoff Generation in a Pristine, Poorly Gauged Catchment in the Chilean Andes I: A Multi-Method Experimental Study.” Hydrological Processes: An International Journal 22, no. 18 (2008): 3661–75.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6971,"Malalcahuello catchment, Andes",,3671,Runoff generation processes —conclusions and open questions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season and event,"During events/after several weeks of drought, and summer/winter",4,Forest described,Forest described,Soil texture described,Soil texture described,N,N,N,N,N,N,Multiple interpretations demonstrated,Describes multiple possible processes generating fast runoff. Describes unknown process (in the next paragraph in the paper of the snipped text),N,,,,vertical preferential flow,Vertical macropore flow,rapid lateral flow at the layers with textural differences,Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons,fingering,Fingering,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil water storage,Soil water storage,groundwater storage,Groundwater Storage,Hydrophobicity,Hydrophobicity,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 24,"Bonell, M, and JM Fritsch. “Combining Hydrometric-Hydrochemistry Methods: A Challenge for Advancing Runoff Generation Process.” Hydrochemistry, no. 244 (1997): 165.",0.0,,South Creek,,173,"The Babinda catchments, north-east Queensland",CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"A principal finding was that during the wet season, saturation overland flow (as well as subsurface stormflow principally in the top 0.2 m depth) occurred spatially much more extensively during large monsoon events (Bonell et al., 1981) than had previously been supported in the literature from humid temperate latitudes (see reviews of Dunne (1983) and Buttle (1994)). The complementary environmental tracer work (which used both deuterium and non-isotopes) confirmed one of the hypothesis (originating from the hydrometric campaign) that the storm hydrograph consists of a much larger proportion of ""new"" water (60-70% for South Creek undisturbed and 70-80% for North Creek - disturbed, Bonell et al, 1997; 50-70% South Creek, Elsenbeer et al, 1995b) than established in most humid temperate studies. In fact, around the hydrograph peak, event water proportions can exceed 90% especially from the topographically steeper, South Creek (Bonell et al, 1997). In a separate study using EMMA, Elsenbeer et al (1995a, p. 2273) remarked for one event that ""...the contribution of saturation overland flow reaches almost 80%o near peak flow at which time the groundwater contribution nearly vanishes."" Nonetheless, up to five contributing ""reservoirs"" to the storm hydrograph, were identified which could only be established by access to a more sophisticated hydrometric data base to complement the intermittent water sampling on the hillslopes (for previously stated technical reasons) (Bonell & Barnes, 1997). The upper two stores as expected, were saturation overland flow and shallow subsurface stormflow. The continuous records from piezometers and soil-water pressure transducers however, indicated exfiltration (return flow, Chorley, 1978, p. 371) occurrence at selected points so that this flow vector would modify the more-biased event signature of saturation overland flow, and thus complicate attempts at chemical storm hydrograph separation. (Bonell et al., 1997). Such modification of the surface flow vector was inferred from chemical analysis of water samples taken from shallow rills during storms and using EMMA (Elsenbeer et al, 1994, 1995a). The third possible reservoir was the detected convergence of upward/downward fluxes of soil water during transient, saturation at more substantial depths in the deep vadose zone. Even more surprising was the detection of macropore flow penetration to up to 7 m depth during large storms whose isotopic signature was not completely mixed with the surrounding matrix water (based on sampling pipeflow (Elsenbeer & Bonell, unpublished data)). Consequently the upper layer of the deep permanent groundwater is the recipient of this macropore flow, and acts as a mixing zone, thus giving a fourth reservoir on the lines described by Andersen & Burt (1982). Finally beneath is the fifth reservoir, which is a large, deep body of well-mixed groundwater whose capacity from modelling (Barnes & Bonell, 1996) was estimated to be in the order of 3000 mm. When concerning modelling despite this complexity (in terms of spatial and temporal contributions from up to four subsurface reservoirs) such diverse origins would seem in the first instance to be minimized by ""collapsing"" all these sources into one ""subsurface"" compartment. The return flow component formed part of the surface compartment, along with saturation overland flow (Barnes & Bonell, 1996). Despite the long previous hydrometric campaign, several new features were detected which led to a better understanding of storm runoff generation. By following a dual hydrometric-hydrochemistry approach, there was recognition of the greater importance of the deep, permanent groundwater table in terms of its contributions of ""old"" water to the storm hydrograph soon after peak discharge occurred. Thus this feature was much more connected to the surface hydrology than it was previously thought (Bonell et a/., 1981). In addition, the detection of deep, vertical macropore flow, whose characteristics more favored the description of Mosley (1979, 1982), cf. Pearce et al. (1986), could be attributed to the prevailing high rain intensities (Bonell et al., 1997). Moreover, there was no evidence for the existence of groundwater ridging. A sampled water table profile adjacent to organized drainage showed the characteristics of a more traditional, free water surface profile. During the course of storms, the gradient steepened in response to macropore flow and subsequently relaxed towards, or at the termination of an event, which thus provided the capability of contributing significant groundwater contributions to organized surface drainage (especially from the upper, fourth reservoir). As, previously indicated, the work also supported the notion of a very high, effective hydraulic conductivity (Bazemore et al, 1994; Bonell & Barnes, 1997) for the catchment, which also utilized an input, from the Barnes & Bonell (1996) model, to calculate the peak from the ""slow"" flow hydrograph. The fact that the effective hydraulic conductivity is in the same order of magnitude as separate measurements of field saturated hydraulic conductivity for the top 0.1 m of soil suggests that the transmissivity feedback concept of Bishop (1991), through subsurface stormflow and return flow, could be the primary explanation supplemented by described macropore flow in the deeper subsoil, including from pipes (Bonell & Barnes, 1997). There was no need to search for a particular type of groundwater mechanism, i.e., ridging (Bonell & Barnes, 1997). In addition, the hydrometric hydrochemistry approach supported the Bonell-Cassells mechanism (Cassells et al, 1985; named and reviewed in Crapper & Barnes, 1993), whereby the intense tropical rainfall rapidly exceeds the superficial unsaturated zone storage capacity of the soil profile, and is independent of any downslope subsurface stormflow. This mechanism is capable of inducing near-instantaneous areas of saturation over a large area of the catchment. Nevertheless the recognition of more significant vertical, preferential flow via macropores has caused a modification of the conceptual model previously put forward in Bonell (1993, fig. 1). The shallow ""impeding"" layer (>0,2m depth) is penetrated by spatially-variable, preferential flow.",N,N,1,Event,"During large monsoon events, transient period, over the course of events",3,N,N,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,saturation overland flow ,Saturation excess flow,subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,exfiltration,Exfiltration,macropore flow penetration,Vertical macropore flow,return flow,Return Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,The upper two stores,Soil water storage,The upper two stores,Soil water storage,"The third possible reservoir, saturation",Soil saturation,"the upper layer of the deep permanent groundwater is the recipient of this macropore flow, and acts as a mixing zone",Water table,"Finally beneath is the fifth reservoir, which is a large, deep body of well-mixed groundwater ",Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,, 25,"Bonell, M. and Gilmour, D.A., 1978. The development of overland flow in a tropical rainforest catchment. Journal of Hydrology, 39(3-4), pp.365-382.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(78)90012-4,South Creek,,381,Conclusion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,Both seasons,2,Forest described,Forest described,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,N,N,N,N,N,N,Limitations discussed,Describes exceptions where the perceptual model may not apply,N,,,,subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched water table,Perched water tables,"its (the upper store) emergence at the surface developes an ""impermetable surface""",Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 26,"Bonell, M., Gilmour, D.A. and Sinclair, D.F., 1979. A statistical method for modelling the fate of rainfall in a tropical rainforest catchment. Journal of Hydrology, 42(3-4), pp.251-267.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(79)90050-7,South Creek,,252,Experimental Details,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Rainfall intensity,Moderate and high rainfall intensity,2,Forest described,Forest described,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,N,N,N,N,N,N,Limitations discussed,Describes that the model validation is not done yet,N,,,,saturation overland flow ,Saturation excess flow,lateral subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,saturation will occur above these layers (2 layer),Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 27,"Bonell, M., Gilmour, D.A. and Sinclair, D.F., 1981. Soil hydraulic properties and their effect on surface and subsurface water transfer in a tropical rainforest catchment/Propriétés hydrauliques du sol et leur effet sur les transferts d'eau de surface ou hypodermique dans un bassin de forêt en zone tropicale humide. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 26(1), pp.1-18.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1080/02626668109490858,South Creek,,7,The Runoff Process,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season and rainfall intensity,"Summer monsoon/post-monsoon, and during the intensity peak/before that",4,N,N,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,N,N,Slopes described,Discusses slope,N,N,N,N,N,,,,"""saturation overland flow"" ",Saturation excess flow,throughfall,Throughfall,exfiltration,Exfiltration,quickflow,Quickflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,a perched water table in the upper horizon,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -28,"Bormann, H, T Fass, S Giertz, B Junge, B Diekkrüger, B Reichert, and A Skowronek. “From Local Hydrological Process Analysis to Regional Hydrological Model Application in Benin: Concept, Results and Perspectives.” Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 30, no. 6–7 (2005): 347–56.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2005.06.005,"Aguima catchment, Upper Oueme",3.3,,Conceptual model of hydrogeological processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Catchment spatial scale,Local/regional,2,Season,Stages in rainy season,2,N,N,Soil texture described,Soil texture described,Geology described,Geology described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,percolation of the infiltrating precipitation ,Vertical matrix flow,the surface water (interflow),Subsurface stormflow,through preferential flow paths (thick arrow in the centre of Fig. 6) and thus contributes to the groundwater recharge ,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,deeper aquifer is replenished mainly by lateral inflow from outside ,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,The fractured basement aquifer ,Bedrock fracture storage,water table,Water table,deeper aquifer,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +28,"Bormann, H, T Fass, S Giertz, B Junge, B Diekkrüger, B Reichert, and A Skowronek. “From Local Hydrological Process Analysis to Regional Hydrological Model Application in Benin: Concept, Results and Perspectives.” Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 30, no. 6–7 (2005): 347–56.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2005.06.005,"Aguima catchment, Upper Oueme",3.3,,Conceptual model of hydrogeological processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Catchment spatial scale,Local/regional,2,Season,Stages in rainy season,2,N,N,Soil texture described,Soil texture described,Geological types described,Geological types described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,percolation of the infiltrating precipitation ,Vertical matrix flow,the surface water (interflow),Subsurface stormflow,through preferential flow paths (thick arrow in the centre of Fig. 6) and thus contributes to the groundwater recharge ,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,deeper aquifer is replenished mainly by lateral inflow from outside ,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,The fractured basement aquifer ,Bedrock fracture storage,water table,Water table,deeper aquifer,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 29,"Giertz, S., Diekkrüger, B. and Steup, G., 2006. Physically-based modelling of hydrological processes in a tropical headwater catchment (West Africa)–process representation and multi-criteria validation. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 10(6), pp.829-847.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-10-829-2006,"Aguima catchment, Upper Oueme",3,831,Hydrological Processes,CC-BY-NC-SA,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/,"In the Upper Aguima catchment surface runoff occurs only on pathways (Hortonian overland flow) or at the bottom of the hillslope (saturated overland flow), when the inland valley is saturated during the rainy season. But as inland valleys only occur at 1/3 of the channel length of the Upper Aguima, this process is not as important as in the Upper Niaou, where the whole river is characterized by inland valleys (Giertz and -Diekkr ̈uger, 2003). Due to the high macroporosity in soils of natural Grassland and woodland vegetation, the infiltration rates are very high. The low permeability of the subsoil of Lixisols and Plinthosols results in subsurface flow processes, which can be considered as the prevailing processes on the hillslopes.",Catchment spatial scale,Subcatchments,2,N,N,1,Grassland described,Grassland described and woodland,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,Geology described,Geology described,Slopes described,Discusses slope position,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Hortonian overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,saturated overland flow,Saturation excess flow,subsurface flow process,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +Diekkr ̈uger, 2003). Due to the high macroporosity in soils of natural Grassland and woodland vegetation, the infiltration rates are very high. The low permeability of the subsoil of Lixisols and Plinthosols results in subsurface flow processes, which can be considered as the prevailing processes on the hillslopes.",Catchment spatial scale,Subcatchments,2,N,N,1,Grassland described,Grassland described and woodland,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,Geological types described,Geological types described,Slopes described,Discusses slope position,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Hortonian overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,saturated overland flow,Saturation excess flow,subsurface flow process,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 30,"Brown, V.A., McDonnell, J.J., Burns, D.A. and Kendall, C., 1999. The role of event water, a rapid shallow flow component, and catchment size in summer stormflow. Journal of Hydrology, 217(3-4), pp.171-190.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(98)00247-9,"Shelter Creek, New York",5.2,186,Evidence of a rapid shallow subsurface flow component,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,overland flow,Overland Flow,Throughfall,Throughfall,The O-horizon component is postulated to occur as lateral flow above the mineral soil surface ,Organic layer interflow,Bypass flow to bedrock ,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,the saturated channel area,Channel storage,the water table,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -31,"Calderon, Heyddy, and Stefan Uhlenbrook. “Characterizing the Climatic Water Balance Dynamics and Different Runoff Components in a Poorly Gauged Tropical Forested Catchment, Nicaragua.” Hydrological Sciences Journal 61, no. 14 (2016): 2465–80.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2014.964244,"Rompeviento and El Nancite, Nicaragua",5.4,2475,Synthesis: conceptual model of runoff generation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Catchment spatial scale,Catchment / subcatchment,2,Wetness,Dry/wet antecedent condition,2,Multiple land-covers described,"Forest described, pasture, and agriculture",Multiple properties described,Soil texture described and soil hydraulic properties,Geology described,Geology described,Topography described,Discusses valley topography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Intermittent springs,Springflow,preferential flow of groundwater through perpendicular joints and fissures ,Pistonflow,subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,groundwater,Groundwater flow,surface runoff,Overland Flow,rapid water percolation and subsoil drainage ,Vertical macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water table,Water table,narrow riparian zone ,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -32,"Camacho Suarez, VV, AML Saraiva Okello, JW Wenninger, and S Uhlenbrook. “Understanding Runoff Processes in a Semi-Arid Environment through Isotope and Hydrochemical Hydrograph Separations.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 19, no. 10 (2015): 4183–99.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-4183-2015,Kaap catchment,5.1,4194,Runoff processes in the Kaap catchment,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"In the upstream area, granite is the dominant formation explaining the lower ionic content in groundwater, in contrast to the downstream areas, where geologically diverse formations and land use increase the ionic content of groundwater. The weathered granite layer allows rain to infiltrate to the deeper groundwater reservoir through preferential flowpaths with less contact time for weathering processes to occur. This explains the hydrochemical signature of the deep groundwater component, which is characterized by its moderate electrical conductivities, moderate to high dissolved silica, lower ionic content, and low potassium concentrations. The chemical signature of the shallow groundwater component is characterized by the high electrical conductivities, alkalinity, sulfates, potassium, and nitrates that are washed from top geological layers with large ionic content and land uses such as agriculture and mining that are more predominant in the downstream region of the catchment. The three-component hydrograph separations suggest that the shallow groundwater component (potentially including surface runoff) is quickly activated during rainfall events, and its contribution increases as the antecedent precipitation increases as observed during Events 1 and 4, where the shallow groundwater contributions were 45 and 20–21 %, respectively. Moreover, a connection between surface and groundwater is evident from the groundwater contour map (Fig. 2d), which shows a gaining river system, and from the flow duration curves, which indicate exfiltrating groundwater storages to the streams. Further literature (Hughes, 2010) suggests that most of South Africa’s groundwater is stored in secondary aquifers and that surface flow may be nourished by lateral flow from semi-saturated fracture systems after storm events. Other studies (Petersen, 2012) in the nearby Kruger National Park (KNP) have shown that groundwater recharge occurs mostly during the wet season and groundwater flow travels in accordance with the topographical relief. Petersen (2012) studied a granite-dominated area and a basaltic-rock-dominated area, approximately 30 km east of the Kaap outlet. The study found that the granite region was mainly characterized by the steep topography, which favors overland flow that infiltrates through depressions, cracks and fractures by preferential pathways, while the southern basaltic section with a flatter topography showed piston flow processes to be more predominant. The Petersen (2012) findings, covering studies of approximately 1011 boreholes in the KNP, support the findings in the Kaap catchment where high fracturing in the granite section allows recharge of deeper groundwater reservoirs through preferential flowpaths.",N,N,1,Wetness,Antecedent wetness,4,N,N,Soil types described,Soil type described,Geology described,Geology described,Slopes described,Discusses topographical gradient,N,N,Uncertainty described,Different auxiliary verb used to express the certainty,N,,,,infiltrate to the deeper groundwater reservoir through preferential flowpaths ,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,surface runoff,Saturation excess flow,gaining river system,Gaining stream,exfiltrating groundwater storages to the streams ,Exfiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,the deep groundwater component,Groundwater Storage,the shallow groundwater component,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +31,"Calderon, Heyddy, and Stefan Uhlenbrook. “Characterizing the Climatic Water Balance Dynamics and Different Runoff Components in a Poorly Gauged Tropical Forested Catchment, Nicaragua.” Hydrological Sciences Journal 61, no. 14 (2016): 2465–80.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2014.964244,"Rompeviento and El Nancite, Nicaragua",5.4,2475,Synthesis: conceptual model of runoff generation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Catchment spatial scale,Catchment / subcatchment,2,Wetness,Dry/wet antecedent condition,2,Multiple land-covers described,"Forest described, pasture, and agriculture",Multiple properties described,Soil texture described and soil hydraulic properties,Geological types described,Geological types described,Topography described,Discusses valley topography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Intermittent springs,Springflow,preferential flow of groundwater through perpendicular joints and fissures ,Pistonflow,subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,groundwater,Groundwater flow,surface runoff,Overland Flow,rapid water percolation and subsoil drainage ,Vertical macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water table,Water table,narrow riparian zone ,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +32,"Camacho Suarez, VV, AML Saraiva Okello, JW Wenninger, and S Uhlenbrook. “Understanding Runoff Processes in a Semi-Arid Environment through Isotope and Hydrochemical Hydrograph Separations.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 19, no. 10 (2015): 4183–99.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-4183-2015,Kaap catchment,5.1,4194,Runoff processes in the Kaap catchment,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"In the upstream area, granite is the dominant formation explaining the lower ionic content in groundwater, in contrast to the downstream areas, where geologically diverse formations and land use increase the ionic content of groundwater. The weathered granite layer allows rain to infiltrate to the deeper groundwater reservoir through preferential flowpaths with less contact time for weathering processes to occur. This explains the hydrochemical signature of the deep groundwater component, which is characterized by its moderate electrical conductivities, moderate to high dissolved silica, lower ionic content, and low potassium concentrations. The chemical signature of the shallow groundwater component is characterized by the high electrical conductivities, alkalinity, sulfates, potassium, and nitrates that are washed from top geological layers with large ionic content and land uses such as agriculture and mining that are more predominant in the downstream region of the catchment. The three-component hydrograph separations suggest that the shallow groundwater component (potentially including surface runoff) is quickly activated during rainfall events, and its contribution increases as the antecedent precipitation increases as observed during Events 1 and 4, where the shallow groundwater contributions were 45 and 20–21 %, respectively. Moreover, a connection between surface and groundwater is evident from the groundwater contour map (Fig. 2d), which shows a gaining river system, and from the flow duration curves, which indicate exfiltrating groundwater storages to the streams. Further literature (Hughes, 2010) suggests that most of South Africa’s groundwater is stored in secondary aquifers and that surface flow may be nourished by lateral flow from semi-saturated fracture systems after storm events. Other studies (Petersen, 2012) in the nearby Kruger National Park (KNP) have shown that groundwater recharge occurs mostly during the wet season and groundwater flow travels in accordance with the topographical relief. Petersen (2012) studied a granite-dominated area and a basaltic-rock-dominated area, approximately 30 km east of the Kaap outlet. The study found that the granite region was mainly characterized by the steep topography, which favors overland flow that infiltrates through depressions, cracks and fractures by preferential pathways, while the southern basaltic section with a flatter topography showed piston flow processes to be more predominant. The Petersen (2012) findings, covering studies of approximately 1011 boreholes in the KNP, support the findings in the Kaap catchment where high fracturing in the granite section allows recharge of deeper groundwater reservoirs through preferential flowpaths.",N,N,1,Wetness,Antecedent wetness,4,N,N,Soil types described,Soil type described,Geological types described,Geological types described,Slopes described,Discusses topographical gradient,N,N,Uncertainty described,Different auxiliary verb used to express the certainty,N,,,,infiltrate to the deeper groundwater reservoir through preferential flowpaths ,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,surface runoff,Saturation excess flow,gaining river system,Gaining stream,exfiltrating groundwater storages to the streams ,Exfiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,the deep groundwater component,Groundwater Storage,the shallow groundwater component,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 33,"Carey, SK, and WL Quinton. “Evaluating Runoff Generation during Summer Using Hydrometric, Stable Isotope and Hydrochemical Methods in a Discontinuous Permafrost Alpine Catchment.” Hydrological Processes: An International Journal 19, no. 1 (2005): 95–114.",1.0,https://doi.org./10.1002/hyp.5764,"Granger Basin, Wolf Creek, Yukon",,111,Summer runoff mechanisms,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Process,"Permafrost/permafrost free, upslope/lower slope",4,Season,Summer/mid-summer,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Uncertainty described,Different auxiliary verb used to express the certainty,N,,,,rapid flow within the organic layer ,Organic layer interflow,allowing some event water (possibly through preferential or bypass flow ) to reach the stream with little mixing,Lateral macropore flow,"that flow through the mineral substrate , ",subsurface stormflow,water tables fall ,Water table fall,drainage,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,small surface-saturated area,Soil saturation,the descent of the frost table,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 34,"Carey, SK, and WL Quinton. “Evaluating Snowmelt Runoff Generation in a Discontinuous Permafrost Catchment Using Stable Isotope, Hydrochemical and Hydrometric Data.” Hydrology Research 35, no. 4–5 (2004): 309–24.",1.0,"https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2004.0023 ","Granger Basin, Wolf Creek, Yukon",,321,Snowmelt runoff mechanism,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season with snow,Stages in snowmelt,5,N,N,Soil types described,Soil type described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,melt,Snowmelt,percolating from the snowpack ,Infiltration into snowpack,infiltrates the frozen ground ,Infiltration into frozen ground,infiltration is restricted to the porous organic soils ,Infiltration,soil thaw,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,runoff is rapidly conveyed to the stream from permafrost-underlain slopes ,Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons,", as meltwater is then allowed to pass rapidly from the melting snowpack to the stream via the organic layer ",Organic layer interflow,mixing ,Mixing,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,permafrost soils ,Permafrost storage,perched water table,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, @@ -41,19 +41,19 @@ Diekkr ̈uger, 2003). Due to the high macroporosity in soils of natural Grasslan 36,"Chappell, N.A. and Sherlock, M.D., 2005. Contrasting flow pathways within tropical forest slopes of Ultisol soils. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms: The Journal of the British Geomorphological Research Group, 30(6), pp.735-753.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1173,Bukit Timah,,735,Abstract,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,N,N,N,N,N,N,Limitations discussed,Describe the limitation of observation methods,N,,,,subsurface flows,Subsurface stormflow,vertical flow / percolation,Vertical matrix flow,the effect of the large and small 'natural soil pipes' present within both catchments,Lateral macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 37,"Chappell, N.A. and Sherlock, M.D., 2005. Contrasting flow pathways within tropical forest slopes of Ultisol soils. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms: The Journal of the British Geomorphological Research Group, 30(6), pp.735-753.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1173,"W8S5 catchment, Danum Valley, Borneo Island",,735,Abstract,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,N,N,N,N,N,N,Limitations discussed,Describe the limitation of observation methods,N,,,,subsurface flows,Subsurface stormflow,vertical flow / percolation,Vertical matrix flow,the effect of the large and small 'natural soil pipes' present within both catchments,Lateral macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 38,"Chappell, N.A., Bidin, K. and Tych, W., 2001. Modelling rainfall and canopy controls on net-precipitation beneath selectively-logged tropical forest. Plant Ecology, 153(1), pp.215-229.",0.0,https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1017532411978,"W8S5 catchment, Danum Valley, Borneo Island",,226,Conclusions and implications (partial - throughfall only),Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,Forest described,Forest described,N,N,N,N,Topography described,Describes lowland,N,N,Limitations discussed,Describe the limitation due to sample size and inconsistency with previous studies ,N,,,,the gross rain lost as wet-canopy evaporation,Canopy evaporation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -39,"Chaves, J., Neill, C., Germer, S., Neto, S.G., Krusche, A. and Elsenbeer, H., 2008. Land management impacts on runoff sources in small Amazon watersheds. Hydrological Processes: An International Journal, 22(12), pp.1766-1775.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6803,"Forest watershed, Rancho Grande",,1772,Conclusions: Effect of forest conversion to pasture (partial),Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Land cover,Land-use,2,Season,Stages of rainy season,2,Multiple land-covers described,Forest described and pasture,Multiple properties described,Soil type described and soil hydraulic properties,Geology described,Geology described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,surface stream flow,Channel flow,saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,the soil close to saturation,Soil saturation,soil become throughly wet … from reduced permeability,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +39,"Chaves, J., Neill, C., Germer, S., Neto, S.G., Krusche, A. and Elsenbeer, H., 2008. Land management impacts on runoff sources in small Amazon watersheds. Hydrological Processes: An International Journal, 22(12), pp.1766-1775.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6803,"Forest watershed, Rancho Grande",,1772,Conclusions: Effect of forest conversion to pasture (partial),Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Land cover,Land-use,2,Season,Stages of rainy season,2,Multiple land-covers described,Forest described and pasture,Multiple properties described,Soil type described and soil hydraulic properties,Geological types described,Geological types described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,surface stream flow,Channel flow,saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,the soil close to saturation,Soil saturation,soil become throughly wet … from reduced permeability,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 40,"Dahlke, Helen E, Steve W Lyon, Peter Jansson, Torbjörn Karlin, and Gunhild Rosqvist. “Isotopic Investigation of Runoff Generation in a Glacierized Catchment in Northern Sweden.” Hydrological Processes 28, no. 3 (2014): 1383–98.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9668,Tarfala catchment,,1394,Seasonal variations in runoff processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,Wet/dry summer,2,N,N,Soil described,Describes permafrost,Glacier described,Describes glacier,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,streamflow,Channel flow,glacier melt,Glacier melt,overland flow (after soil near saturation),Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"water that existed in the catchment prior to storm events (e.g., glacier melt, groudwater and soil water)",Glacier storage,"water that existed in the catchment prior to storm events (e.g., glacier melt, groudwater and soil water)",Groundwater Storage,"water that existed in the catchment prior to storm events (e.g., glacier melt, groudwater and soil water)",Soil water storage,soil are near saturation,Soil saturation,during the post-snowmelt season when the active layer depth is the greatest,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,,,,,,,,,, 41,"De Moraes, J.M., Schuler, A.E., Dunne, T., Figueiredo, R.D.O. and Victoria, R.L., 2006. Water storage and runoff processes in plinthic soils under forest and pasture in eastern Amazonia. Hydrological Processes: An International Journal, 20(12), pp.2509-2526.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6213,"Forest catchment, Fazenda Vitoria, Para state",,2518,Results and Discussion: Runoff Processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Land cover,Land-use,2,Season,Wet/dry season,2,Multiple land-covers described,Forest described and pasture,Soil types described,Soil type described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Horton overland flow (HOF). ,Infiltration excess flow,"shallow SSF / Given the generally higher moisture contents and water table elevations at the pasture sites, a larger fraction of the surviving macropores were probably utilized in most storms, but when the forest soils were fully wetted, a larger set of macropores, reflected by the outliers (not shown in Figure 6) would be available",Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons,"shallow SSF / Given the generally higher moisture contents and water table elevations at the pasture sites, a larger fraction of the surviving macropores were probably utilized in most storms, but when the forest soils were fully wetted, a larger set of macropores, reflected by the outliers (not shown in Figure 6) would be available",Lateral Unsaturated flow,SOF,Saturation excess flow,vertical recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,anisotropy of Ksat in both soils / Ksat value declined,Soil stratification,perched water table,Perched water tables,water table,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 42,"Elsenbeer, H. and Lack, A., 1996. Hydrometric and hydrochemicai evidence for fast flowpaths at La Cuenca, Western Amazonia. Journal of Hydrology, 180(1-4), pp.237-250.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(95)02889-7,La Cuenca,4.1,242,Hydrometric observations,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Process,Process,2,Season,Wet/dry season,2,Forest described,Describes rainforest,N,N,N,N,Topography described,Describes microtopography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,saturation overland flow ,Saturation excess flow,Horton overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,return flow,Return Flow,return flow from soil pipes,Lateral macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,in certain restricted places which we termed concentrated-flow ,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 43,"Elsenbeer, H. and Vertessy, R.A., 2000. Stormflow generation and flowpath characteristics in an Amazonian rainforest catchment. Hydrological Processes, 14(14), pp.2367-2381.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1085(20001015)14:14<2367::AID-HYP107>3.0.CO;2-H,La Cuenca,,2373,Results and Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,Up/downslope,2,N,N,1,N,N,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,N,N,Topography described,Describes topographic index,N,N,N,N,N,,,,lateral subsurface flow … owing to the marked decrease of Ksat over the next depth increments ,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,a connection of near-surface flowpaths and deep soil or groundwater,Connectivity ,overland flow,Overland Flow,return flow,Return Flow,return flow from pipes,Lateral macropore flow,saturation excess,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched water table,Perched water tables,surface saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 44,"Elsenbeer, H., Lack, A. and Cassel, K., 1995. Chemical fingerprints of hydrological compartments and flow paths at La Cuenca, western Amazonia. Water Resources Research, 31(12), pp.3051-3058.",0.0,https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1029/95WR02537?casa_token=vy5IxTH7XTsAAAAA:jUW5053hPuhr0tCkGwnq-nu1wf9Nyo6fkEntDHTfneYih0HHdqnbcIyI2T8JX2WJmOVRJ_tQ0T3-tIE,La Cuenca,,3057,Conclusions (partial),Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Event,Base condition & during storm,2,Vegetation described,Vegetation described impacts,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,pipe flow,Lateral macropore flow,overland flow actually generated at the soil surface,Overland Flow,overlandflow is in many places generated by pipe flow,Return Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater,Groundwater,soil water,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 45,"Elsenbeer, H., Lorieri, D. and Bonell, M., 1995. Mixing model approaches to estimate storm flow sources in an overland flow‐dominated tropical rain forest catchment. Water Resources Research, 31(9), pp.2267-2278.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1029/95WR01651,South Creek,,2277,Conclusions (partial),Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,Forest described,Forest described,Soil types described,Soil type described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,overland flow was shown to be a mixture of subsurface and surface sources,Overland flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater,Groundwater,soil water,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -46,"Flerchinger, G.N., Cooley, K.R. and Ralston, D.R., 1992. Groundwater response to snowmelt in a mountainous watershed. Journal of Hydrology, 133(3-4), pp.293-311.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(92)90260-3,"Upper Sheep Creek, Reynolds Creek, Idaho",,307,Discussion and Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,Stages in winter & recharge amount,4,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Geology described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,melt,Snowmelt,Recharge from the general snowmelt ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,a pressure pulse through the altered basalt layer. ,Displacement of groundwater,water movement through the system (altered basalt layer),Groundwater Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,general snow-covered area,Snow storage,the isolated drift,Snow storage,groundwater rise,Water table rise,a confining layer ,Soil stratification,formed perched water tables ,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,, -47,"Flerchinger, G.N., Deng, Y. and Cooley, K.R., 1993. Groundwater response to snowmelt in a mountainous watershed: Testing of a conceptual model. Journal of Hydrology, 152(1-4), pp.201-214.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(93)90146-Z,"Upper Sheep Creek, Reynolds Creek, Idaho",,204,Conceptual model,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,Season & inter-annua;,4,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Geology described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,melt,Snowmelt,snow accumulation is sufficient to fill the altered basalt layer ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,a pressure pulse through the altered basalt layer. ,Displacement of groundwater,"from water movement through the system , ",Groundwater Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snow typically covers the entire watershed,Snow storage,the isolated drift,Snow storage,rise in groundwater levels,Water table rise,flow to be confined,Soil stratification,sufficient to fill the altered basalt layer ,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,, +46,"Flerchinger, G.N., Cooley, K.R. and Ralston, D.R., 1992. Groundwater response to snowmelt in a mountainous watershed. Journal of Hydrology, 133(3-4), pp.293-311.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(92)90260-3,"Upper Sheep Creek, Reynolds Creek, Idaho",,307,Discussion and Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,Stages in winter & recharge amount,4,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Geological types described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,melt,Snowmelt,Recharge from the general snowmelt ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,a pressure pulse through the altered basalt layer. ,Displacement of groundwater,water movement through the system (altered basalt layer),Groundwater Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,general snow-covered area,Snow storage,the isolated drift,Snow storage,groundwater rise,Water table rise,a confining layer ,Soil stratification,formed perched water tables ,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,, +47,"Flerchinger, G.N., Deng, Y. and Cooley, K.R., 1993. Groundwater response to snowmelt in a mountainous watershed: Testing of a conceptual model. Journal of Hydrology, 152(1-4), pp.201-214.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(93)90146-Z,"Upper Sheep Creek, Reynolds Creek, Idaho",,204,Conceptual model,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,Season & inter-annua;,4,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Geological types described,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,melt,Snowmelt,snow accumulation is sufficient to fill the altered basalt layer ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,a pressure pulse through the altered basalt layer. ,Displacement of groundwater,"from water movement through the system , ",Groundwater Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snow typically covers the entire watershed,Snow storage,the isolated drift,Snow storage,rise in groundwater levels,Water table rise,flow to be confined,Soil stratification,sufficient to fill the altered basalt layer ,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,, 48,"Freyberg, Jana von, P Suresh C Rao, Dirk Radny, and Mario Schirmer. “The Impact of Hillslope Groundwater Dynamics and Landscape Functioning in Event-Flow Generation: A Field Study in the Rietholzbach Catchment, Switzerland.” Hydrogeology Journal 23, no. 5 (2015): 935–48.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-015-1238-1,Rietholzbach Catchment,,940,Dominant flow processes and delineation of hydrological landscape units,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,Up/downslope & subcatchments,5,N,N,1,N,N,Multiple properties described,Soil type described and soil hydraulic properties,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,streamflow contributions from,Gaining stream,quick groundwater fluxes ,Riparian Groundwater Flow,surface runoff. ,Saturation excess flow,vertical percolation though the vadose zone ,Vertical matrix flow,and lateral flux through the saturated soil matrix ,Lateral matrix flow,the upper organic-rich soil layer that facilitates rapid lateral flux of shallow groundwater during rainfall ,Organic layer interflow,capillary rise ,Capillary Rise,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,non-linear storage–discharge relationship ,Storage-discharge relationship,multiple storage reservoirs ,Multiple storage reservoirs producing discharge,saturated soils,Soil saturation,low-permeability soils,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,, 49,"Gabrielli, Christopher P, JJ McDonnell, and WT Jarvis. “The Role of Bedrock Groundwater in Rainfall–Runoff Response at Hillslope and Catchment Scales.” Journal of Hydrology 450 (2012): 117–33.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.05.023,Maimai M8 experimental catchment,5.1.1,128,Maimai M8,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,a structure that promotes bulk water flow and significant storm response in the bedrock aquifer ,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,groundwater likely influences stream response ,Gaining stream,"of shallow, lateral flow paths ",Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,the bedrock to be quite permeable & bedrock groundwater,Bedrock matrix storage,soil water ,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 50,"Gabrielli, Christopher P, JJ McDonnell, and WT Jarvis. “The Role of Bedrock Groundwater in Rainfall–Runoff Response at Hillslope and Catchment Scales.” Journal of Hydrology 450 (2012): 117–33.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.05.024,"WS10, H.J. Andrews, Oregon",5.1.2,130,H.J. Andrews WS10,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,to lateral subsurface stormflow at the soil bedrock interface / fractured bedrock,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,some portion of the flow is lost as seepage to the fractured bedrock,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,connectivity (fractured bedrock storage),Connectivity,Some flow follows deeper fracture pathways connecting to a deeper bedrock aquifer,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,remerge at the soil bedrock interface ,Exfiltration,directly bypass to the stream channel ,Connectivity of lateral preferential flow pathways,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater table,Water table,"Considering the heterogeneity of fractured bedrock, it is possible to conceive of a patchy network of saturated zones ",Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -51,"Gannon, John P, Scott W Bailey, and Kevin J McGuire. “Organizing Groundwater Regimes and Response Thresholds by Soils: A Framework for Understanding Runoff Generation in a Headwater Catchment.” Water Resources Research 50, no. 11 (2014): 8403–19.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR015498,"WS3, Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire",5.3,8415,Implications for Runoff Generation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,Slope position,3,Rainfall intensity,Event intensity,2,N,N,Multiple properties described,"Soil type described, soil horizon, and soil hydraulic properties",Geology described,Geology described,Topography described,Discusses topographical gradient,N,N,N,N,N,,,,lateral subsurface flow in the solum of the catchment,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,infiltrate to deeper storage ,Infiltration into bedrock,"When water from these soils does enter stream channels, it often flows into portions of the stream network ",Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,a spatial patchwork of water table occurrence within the solum,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +51,"Gannon, John P, Scott W Bailey, and Kevin J McGuire. “Organizing Groundwater Regimes and Response Thresholds by Soils: A Framework for Understanding Runoff Generation in a Headwater Catchment.” Water Resources Research 50, no. 11 (2014): 8403–19.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR015498,"WS3, Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire",5.3,8415,Implications for Runoff Generation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,Slope position,3,Rainfall intensity,Event intensity,2,N,N,Multiple properties described,"Soil type described, soil horizon, and soil hydraulic properties",Geological types described,Geological types described,Topography described,Discusses topographical gradient,N,N,N,N,N,,,,lateral subsurface flow in the solum of the catchment,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,infiltrate to deeper storage ,Infiltration into bedrock,"When water from these soils does enter stream channels, it often flows into portions of the stream network ",Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,a spatial patchwork of water table occurrence within the solum,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 52,"Gao, Hongkai, Christian Birkel, Markus Hrachowitz, Doerthe Tetzlaff, Chris Soulsby, and Hubert HG Savenije. “A Simple Topography-Driven and Calibration-Free Runoff Generation Module.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 23, no. 2 (2019): 787–809.",0.0,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-787-2019,"Bruntland Burn catchment, Scotland",3.1,795,The Bruntland Burn catchment,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"The 3.2 km2 Bruntland Burn catchment (Fig. 6), located in north-eastern Scotland, was used as a benchmark study to test the model's performance based on a rich data base of hydrological measurements. The Bruntland Burn is a typical upland catchment in northwestern Europe (e.g., Birkel et al., 2010), namely a combination of steep and rolling hillslopes and over-widened valley bottoms due to the glacial legacy of this region. The valley bottom areas are covered by deep (in parts >30 m) glacial drift deposits (e.g., till) containing a large amount of stored water superimposed on a relatively impermeable granitic solid geology (Soulsby et al., 2016). Peat soils developed (>1 m deep) in these valley bottom areas, which remain saturated throughout most of the year with a dominant near-surface runoff generation mechanism delivering runoff quickly via micro-topographical flow pathways connected to the stream network (Soulsby et al., 2015). Brown rankers, peaty rankers and peat soils are responsible for a flashy hydrological regime driven by saturation excess overland flow, while humus iron podzols on the hillslopes do not favor near-surface saturation but rather facilitate groundwater recharge through vertical water movement (Tetzlaff et al., 2014). Land use is dominated by heather moorland, with smaller areas of rough grazing and forestry on the lower hillslopes. Its annual precipitation is 1059 mm, with the summer months (May–August) generally being the driest (Ali et al., 2014). Snow makes up less than 10 % of annual precipitation and melts rapidly below 500 m. The evapotranspiration is around 400 mm per year and annual discharge around 659 mm. The daily precipitation, potential evaporation, and discharge data range from 1 January 2008 to 30 September 2014. The calibration period is from 1 January 2008 to 31 December 2010, and the data from 1 January 2011 to 30 September 2014 is used as validation. The LiDAR-derived DEM map with 2 m resolution shows elevation ranging from 250 to 539 m (Fig. 6). There are seven saturation area maps (Fig. 7) (2 May, 2 July, 4 August, 3 September, 1 October, 26 November 2008, and 21 January 2009), measured directly by the “squishy boot” method and field mapping by the global positioning system (GPS), to delineate the boundary of saturation areas connected to the stream network (Birkel et al., 2010; Ali et al., 2014). These saturation area maps revealed a dynamic behavior of expanding and contracting areas connected to the stream network that were used as a benchmark test for the HSC module.",Soil or Geology,Soil or Geology,4,N,N,1,Shrubland described,Describes moorland,Multiple properties described,Soil type described and thicknes,Glacier described,Describes glacier,Topography described,Describes microtopography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,dominant near-surface runoff generation mechanism delivering runoff quickly via micro-topographical flow pathways connected to the stream network ,Quickflow,saturation excess overland flow ,Saturation excess flow,groundwater recharge through vertical water movement ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,a dynamic behavior of expanding and contracting areas connected to the stream network ,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,a large amount of stored water superimposed on a relatively impermeable granitic solid geology ,Soil water storage,a dynamic behavior of expanding and contracting areas ,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 53,"Germer, S., Neill, C., Krusche, A.V. and Elsenbeer, H., 2010. Influence of land-use change on near-surface hydrological processes: undisturbed forest to pasture. Journal of hydrology, 380(3-4), pp.473-480.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.11.022,"Forest watershed, Rancho Grande",,479,Land-use effect on stormflow generation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Land cover,Land-use,2,N,N,1,Multiple land-covers described,Forest described and pasture,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil hydraulic properties described,N,N,N,N,N,N,Uncertainty described,Describes uncertainty in identifying processes,N,,,,Return flow ,Return flow,saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,baseflow ,Gaining stream,slow lateral subsurface stormflow due to low near-surface conductivities,Lateral matrix flow ,return flow from macropores,Lateral macropore flow,groundwater flow ,Groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched water table & VSA & contributing area in the pasture,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 54,"Gibson, JJ, JS Price, R Aravena, DF Fitzgerald, and D Maloney. “Runoff Generation in a Hypermaritime Bog–Forest Upland.” Hydrological Processes 14, no. 15 (2000): 2711–30.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1085(20001030)14:15<2711::AID-HYP88>3.0.CO;2-2,"Smith Island, British Columbia",,2728,"Study site, runoff mechanisms",Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Land cover,Bog/non-bog area,2,Season,Wet/dry season,2,Forest described,Forest described,Multiple properties described,Soil type described and soil hydraulic properties,N,Describes bog,Topography described,Discusses topographical gradient,N,N,Uncertainty described,Describes uncertainty in identifying processes,N,,,,seep flow,Exfiltration,contributing most groundwater to stream,Gaining stream,Drainage from the slopes occurs primarily via channelized flow in seepage tracks,Channel flow,that typically are connected to the main stream channel,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,vertical bypass structures ,Vertical macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Depression storage,Depression storage,water tables,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, @@ -82,101 +82,101 @@ The clay's low permeability will limit infiltration and favour water to pond on 69,"Hissler, Christophe, Núria Martínez-Carreras, François Barnich, Laurent Gourdol, Jean François Iffly, Jérôme Juilleret, Julian Klaus, and Laurent Pfister. “The Weierbach Experimental Catchment in Luxembourg: A Decade of Critical Zone Monitoring in a Temperate Forest-from Hydrological Investigations to Ecohydrological Perspectives.” Hydrological Processes 35, no. 5 (2021): e14140.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14140,Weierbach catchment,2,2,SITE DESCRIPTION AND RESEARCH MOTIVATIONS,CC-BY-NC,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/,"The catchment's hydrological response is driven by an interplay between surface and subsurface processes. One of its most characteristic features is its double peak runoff response, only occurring after a certain amount of catchment storage is exceeded (Martínez-Carreras et al., 2016). A first peak occurs almost simultaneously to rainfall and is mainly composed of event water, whereas the second peak is broader, lagged in time (several hours or days) and mainly composed of pre-event water (Martínez-Carreras et al., 2015; Wrede et al., 2015). Despite continuous refinement of the perceptual model of the WEC, a clear understanding of stream flow generation processes remains incomplete. Experimental studies suggest that lateral preferential flow through macropores along the hillslopes potentially contribute to the generation of the first peak of the hydrograph (Angermann et al., 2017; Martínez-Carreras et al., 2016). Modelling studies suggest that the first peak is solely generated by precipitation falling directly onto the stream and infiltration excess occurring in the riparian zone (Glaser et al., 2016, 2020; Rodriguez & Klaus, 2019). This finding is corroborated through high-resolution simulations of δ2H dynamics in the WEC, suggesting three distinct age components: catchment travel times from young water near the stream, weeks to a few years old water from hillslopes and weathered bedrock (saprock), and water with several years of mean travel times from weathered bedrock (saprock and saprolite) (Rodriguez & Klaus, 2019). ",N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Uncertainty described,Describes uncertainty in identifying processes,N,,,,lateral preferential flow through macropores ,Lateral macropore flow,precipitation falling directly onto the stream ,Channel interception,infiltration excess occurring in the riparian zone ,Infiltration excess flow,"weeks to a few years old water from hillslopes and weathered bedrock (saprock), and water with several years of mean travel times from weathered bedrock (saprock and saprolite) ",Displacement of groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,pre-event water ,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 70,"Hoeg, S, S Uhlenbrook, and Ch Leibundgut. “Hydrograph Separation in a Mountainous Catchment—Combining Hydrochemical and Isotopic Tracers.” Hydrological Processes 14, no. 7 (2000): 1199–1216.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(200005)14:7<1199::AID-HYP35>3.0.CO;2-K,"Zastler catchment, Black Forest",,1212,CONCLUSIONS,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Event,Stages in event,3,N,N,Multiple properties described,Soil type described and thickness,N,N,Topography described,Discusses topographical gradient,N,N,N,N,N,,,,"low silica runoff components are discharging, contributing from impervious and saturated areas",IE flow from impermeable areas,"low silica runoff components are discharging, contributing from impervious and saturated areas",Saturation excess flow,Lateral flow processes ,Subsurface stormflow,piston flow,Pistonflow,vertical macropore flows ,Vertical macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,pre-event water ,Soil water storage,stratified periglacial debris ,Soil stratification,a perched water table spread ,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 71,"Hogan, J.F. and Blum, J.D., 2003. Tracing hydrologic flow paths in a small forested watershed using variations in 87Sr/86Sr,[Ca]/[Sr],[Ba]/[Sr] and δ18O. Water Resources Research, 39(10).",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2002WR001856,"Watershed 1, Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire",5.4,10,Hydrograph Separation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,stream channel area/upper portion of the watershed,2,Season and event,month/Season and event,8,Vegetation described,trees,N,N,Glacier described,Discusses presence of till,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,channel interception,Channel interception,shallow subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,transpiration,Transpiration,groundwater flow,Groundwater Flow,flowing quickly through macropores,Lateral macropore flow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,deep flow contributions,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture/soil water,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -72,"Hrnčíř, M., Šanda, M., Kulasová, A. and Císlerová, M., 2010. Runoff formation in a small catchment at hillslope and catchment scales. Hydrological processes, 24(16), pp.2248-2256.",,https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/hyp.7614,Uhlířská,,2251,Results: Runoff Formation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,hillslopes/stream bed/bottom of the valley/catchment,4,Season and event,Season and event,3,N,N,Soil types described,Cambisols with preferential pathways,Geology described,thick weathered and fractured granite bedrock with an uneven surface/sedimentary geological formations/aquifer about 150-200 m wide and over 30 m deep,Topography described,hydrogeological catchment boundary does not follow the topographical boundary,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltrating,Infiltration,drains to the aquifer,Vertical drainage to groundwater,baseflow,Gaining stream,shallow subsurface flow/subsurface stormflow, Subsurface stormflow,saturation,Soil saturation,surface ponding,Depression storage,partial overland flow,Partial area IE flow,preferential pathways,Vertical macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -73,"Hughes, Justin D, Shahbaz Khan, Russell S Crosbie, Stuart Helliwell, and David L Michalk. “Runoff and Solute Mobilization Processes in a Semiarid Headwater Catchment.” Water Resources Research 43, no. 9 (2007).",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2006WR005465,Brays Flat Creek Catchment,5,9,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,scald area/upper catchment area/streamline areas/catchment outlet/gauges,5,Season and event,event/season,2,N,N,Soil types described,Sodosol soils dominate the catchment,Geology described,thick and low permeability unsaturated regolith/low Ksat and hydraulic gradient,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,saturated overland flow,Saturation excess flow,evaporative demand,Evaporation,overland flow from runoff producing areas,Expansion of saturated areas,reinfiltrate,Reinfiltration,recharge ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,groundwater flow,Groundwater Flow,subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater/groundwater surface,Water table,saturation,Soil saturation,perched aquifer,Perched water tables,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,, +72,"Hrnčíř, M., Šanda, M., Kulasová, A. and Císlerová, M., 2010. Runoff formation in a small catchment at hillslope and catchment scales. Hydrological processes, 24(16), pp.2248-2256.",,https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/hyp.7614,Uhlířská,,2251,Results: Runoff Formation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,hillslopes/stream bed/bottom of the valley/catchment,4,Season and event,Season and event,3,N,N,Soil types described,Cambisols with preferential pathways,Geological types described,thick weathered and fractured granite bedrock with an uneven surface/sedimentary geological formations/aquifer about 150-200 m wide and over 30 m deep,Topography described,hydrogeological catchment boundary does not follow the topographical boundary,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltrating,Infiltration,drains to the aquifer,Vertical drainage to groundwater,baseflow,Gaining stream,shallow subsurface flow/subsurface stormflow, Subsurface stormflow,saturation,Soil saturation,surface ponding,Depression storage,partial overland flow,Partial area IE flow,preferential pathways,Vertical macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +73,"Hughes, Justin D, Shahbaz Khan, Russell S Crosbie, Stuart Helliwell, and David L Michalk. “Runoff and Solute Mobilization Processes in a Semiarid Headwater Catchment.” Water Resources Research 43, no. 9 (2007).",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2006WR005465,Brays Flat Creek Catchment,5,9,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,scald area/upper catchment area/streamline areas/catchment outlet/gauges,5,Season and event,event/season,2,N,N,Soil types described,Sodosol soils dominate the catchment,Geological types described,thick and low permeability unsaturated regolith/low Ksat and hydraulic gradient,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,saturated overland flow,Saturation excess flow,evaporative demand,Evaporation,overland flow from runoff producing areas,Expansion of saturated areas,reinfiltrate,Reinfiltration,recharge ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,groundwater flow,Groundwater Flow,subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater/groundwater surface,Water table,saturation,Soil saturation,perched aquifer,Perched water tables,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 74,"Inamdar, Shreeram P, and Myron J Mitchell. “Contributions of Riparian and Hillslope Waters to Storm Runoff across Multiple Catchments and Storm Events in a Glaciated Forested Watershed.” Journal of Hydrology 341, no. 1–2 (2007): 116–30.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.05.007,"Point Peter Brook watershed, New York",,125,Conceptual model for runoff generation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,valley-bottom riparian areas/wetland areas/hillslope/headwater catchments,4,Event,baseflow prior to storm event/rising limb/recession limb,3,Wetland described,wetland,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,steep slope gradients,N,N,N,N,N,,,,riparian saturated areas recharged by deep groundwater seepage,Exfiltration,groundwater discharged at seeps,Exfiltration,surficial runoff,Overland flow,riparian water contributions to streamflow,Riparian Groundwater Flow,throughfall,Throughfall,saturation excess runoff,Saturation excess flow,hillslope interflow,Subsurface stormflow,hydrologically connected,Connectivity,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,riparian reservoir,Riparian aquifer storage,elevated groundwater elevations,Water table rise,surface saturated areas,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 75,"Iwasaki, Kenta, Masanori Katsuyama, and Makoto Tani. “Contributions of Bedrock Groundwater to the Upscaling of Storm-Runoff Generation Processes in Weathered Granitic Headwater Catchments.” Hydrological Processes 29, no. 6 (2015): 1535–48.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10279,Kiryu Experimental Watershed,,1546,Implication of bedrock groundwater for upscaling of storm-runoff generation processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,hillslopes/riparian zones/stream channels/zero-order/first-order/second-order,6,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,groundwater contributions to storm runoff,Gaining stream,infiltrates into bedrock,Infiltration into bedrock,Exfiltration,Exfiltration,baseflow,Gaining Stream,recharge by deeper bedrock groundwater flow,Gaining Stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 76,"Jackson, C. R., Du, E., Klaus, J., Griffiths, N. A., Bitew, M., & McDonnell, J. J. (2016). Interactions among hydraulic conductivity distributions, subsurface topography, and transport thresholds revealed by a multitracer hillslope irrigation experiment. Water Resources Research, 52, 6186–6206.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR018364,"Watershed R, Fourmile Creek, Sandhills, North Carolina",,6203,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,hillslope segment/upper half of the plot,2,Event,event/preevent,2,N,N,Horizons described,"Different horizons exhibit different behaviors/argillic/A, E, BE, and Bt horizons/sand",N,,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,bypass flow,Vertical macropore flow,preferential flowpaths,Vertical macropore flow,interflow,Subsurface stormflow,unsaturated flow,Vertical matrix flow,percolation,Vertical drainage to groundwater,wetting front,Vertical matrix flow,fill and spill,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,some flow moved through higher conductivity layers,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perching,Perched water tables,subsurface depressional storage,Depression storage,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -77,"Jin, Zhao, Li Guo, Yunlong Yu, Da Luo, Bihang Fan, and Guangchen Chu. “Storm Runoff Generation in Headwater Catchments on the Chinese Loess Plateau after Long-Term Vegetation Rehabilitation.” Science of the Total Environment 748 (2020): 141375.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141375,"Nanxiaohe watershed, Qingyang, Gansu","4.2, 4.3",12,"Soil moisture thresholds for storm runoff generation in the two contrasting revegetated catchments, Hydrological connectivity between the upper hillslope and downhill gully in the catchment",Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Land cover,grassland catchment/forestland catchment/upper hillslope/downhill gully,4,Event,event/June 19 2017/maximum stream discharge/peak of soil moisture/July 10 2018,5,Multiple land-covers described,grassland catchment has short vegetation and minimal rainfall interception/forestland catchment covered by high density of trees and understory grasses/,Soil types described,loessial soils,Geology described,vertical loess cliff,Topography described,vertical loess cliff cuts off topographical connectivity between upper hillslope and downhill gully,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration,Infiltration,surface runoff,Infiltration excess flow,subsurface lateral flow,Subsurface stormflow,canopy interception,Canopy Interception,hydrological connectivity,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,surface stormflow,Infiltration excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,groundwater table,Water table,rainwater accumulate at the soil surface,Detention storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +77,"Jin, Zhao, Li Guo, Yunlong Yu, Da Luo, Bihang Fan, and Guangchen Chu. “Storm Runoff Generation in Headwater Catchments on the Chinese Loess Plateau after Long-Term Vegetation Rehabilitation.” Science of the Total Environment 748 (2020): 141375.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141375,"Nanxiaohe watershed, Qingyang, Gansu","4.2, 4.3",12,"Soil moisture thresholds for storm runoff generation in the two contrasting revegetated catchments, Hydrological connectivity between the upper hillslope and downhill gully in the catchment",Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Land cover,grassland catchment/forestland catchment/upper hillslope/downhill gully,4,Event,event/June 19 2017/maximum stream discharge/peak of soil moisture/July 10 2018,5,Multiple land-covers described,grassland catchment has short vegetation and minimal rainfall interception/forestland catchment covered by high density of trees and understory grasses/,Soil types described,loessial soils,Geological types described,vertical loess cliff,Topography described,vertical loess cliff cuts off topographical connectivity between upper hillslope and downhill gully,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration,Infiltration,surface runoff,Infiltration excess flow,subsurface lateral flow,Subsurface stormflow,canopy interception,Canopy Interception,hydrological connectivity,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,surface stormflow,Infiltration excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,groundwater table,Water table,rainwater accumulate at the soil surface,Detention storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 78,"Johnson, M.S., Lehmann, J., Couto, E.G. and Riha, S.J., 2006. DOC and DIC in flowpaths of Amazonian headwater catchments with hydrologically contrasting soils. Biogeochemistry, 81(1), pp.45-57.",,https://link-springer-com.libproxy.sdsu.edu/content/pdf/10.1007/s10533-006-9029-3.pdf,"Oxisol and Ultisol watersheds, Juruena",,55,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,watershed,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Ultisol and Oxisol,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,quickflow,Quickflow,lateral flow,Subsurface stormflow,subsurface percolation,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Overland flow,Overland flow,throughfall,Throughfall,Hortonian runoff,Infiltration excess flow,base flow,Gaining stream,groundwater flow,Groundwater Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 79,"Johnson, Mark S, William F Coon, Vishal K Mehta, Tammo S Steenhuis, Erin S Brooks, and Jan Boll. “Application of Two Hydrologic Models with Different Runoff Mechanisms to a Hillslope Dominated Watershed in the Northeastern US: A Comparison of HSPF and SMR.” Journal of Hydrology 284, no. 1–4 (2003): 57–76.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2003.07.005,"Irondequoit Creek basin, New York",2.1,63,Site description,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,Irondogenesee River Valley/upland/tributaries/Railroad Mills/Irondequoit Creek,5,Wetness,dry/wet periods,2,N,N,Soil types described,glacial sand and silty sand deposits,Glacier described,glacially scoured bedrock trough/filled with unconsolidated glacial material,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,aquifer recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,infiltration,Infiltration,Groundwater discharges from the watershed as springs,Springflow,seepage,Exfiltration,underflow,Groundwater Flow,saturation-excess runoff,Saturation excess flow,variable-source areas,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,deep aquifer,Regional Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -80,"Katsuyama, M., Ohte, N., & Kabeya, N. (2005). Effects of bedrock permeability on hillslope and riparian groundwater dynamics in a weathered granite catchment. Water Resources Research, 41, W01010. ",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003275,Kiryu Experimental Watershed,,10,Conclusion ,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,headwater catchment/hillslope/riparian zone/hillslope riparian interface,4,Season,during rainstorms/year round except for the driest season,2,N,N,Soil types described,weathered granite,Geology described,weathered granite,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,hydrological pathways through the bedrock,Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow,saturated through flow,Subsurface stormflow,hillslope-riparian linkage,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,infiltrates,Infiltration,recharge,Infiltration into bedrock,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,riparian groundwater,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +80,"Katsuyama, M., Ohte, N., & Kabeya, N. (2005). Effects of bedrock permeability on hillslope and riparian groundwater dynamics in a weathered granite catchment. Water Resources Research, 41, W01010. ",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003275,Kiryu Experimental Watershed,,10,Conclusion ,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,headwater catchment/hillslope/riparian zone/hillslope riparian interface,4,Season,during rainstorms/year round except for the driest season,2,N,N,Soil types described,weathered granite,Geological types described,weathered granite,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,hydrological pathways through the bedrock,Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow,saturated through flow,Subsurface stormflow,hillslope-riparian linkage,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,infiltrates,Infiltration,recharge,Infiltration into bedrock,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,riparian groundwater,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 81,"Kim, Jin Kwan, Yuichi Onda, Min Seok Kim, and Dong Yoon Yang. “Plot-Scale Study of Surface Runoff on Well-Covered Forest Floors under Different Canopy Species.” Quaternary International 344 (2014): 75–85.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.07.036,Woldong catchment,4.1,82,Pseudo-Hortonian overland flow generation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Event,rainfall events,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration,Infiltration,Hortonian overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,surface runoff,Overland flow,biomat flow,Organic layer interflow,percolation,Vertical drainage to groundwater,saturate fully the litter layer,Forest floor interception,saturated overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -82,"Klaus, Julian, JJ McDonnell, CR Jackson, Enhao Du, and Natalie A Griffiths. “Where Does Streamwater Come from in Low-Relief Forested Watersheds? A Dual-Isotope Approach.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 19, no. 1 (2015): 125–35.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-125-2015,"3 watersheds (R, C, B) in Upper Fourmile Branch, South Carolina",4,131,Discussion,CC BY 3.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/,"The three watersheds showed very low annual runoff ratios during the 3-year record, combined with long spells of zero flow. [...] Like Amatya et al. (1996) and Slattery et al. (2006), we found that soil properties, especially buried argillic horizons with low permeability (i.e., the throttle for lateral flow), strongly influenced runoff generation in these low-relief coastal plain regions [...] Our site, like that reported by Devito et al. (2005a), showed that dry catchment conditions frequently led to dis-connectivity of the uplands with the valley bottom and stream. This resulted in low runoff coefficients and the dominance of evaporation in the water balance. In addition, direct precipitation on the stream channel can alter the isotope signal, when flow is close to zero. This was observed during March 2011, when very heavy precipitation (δ18O = 3.9 ‰) led to a deviation between stream isotope signals and riparian isotopic signals adjacent to the streams throughout the area. Figure 8 conceptually summarizes the runoff generation and isotopic signature at the study site. A key element is the rare or nonexistent connectivity in the hillslope–riparian–stream continuum and the enrichment in heavy water isotopes in the riparian zone/wetlands that supplies baseflow. Further, the deeper groundwater system can interact with the groundwater of the riparian zone during wet conditions and is likely a major contributor to the riparian groundwater. [...] The strong evaporative enrichment of groundwater suggests groundwater recharge influenced by enriched soil water. Streams and riparian groundwater were even more enriched in heavy isotopes, suggesting further isotopic enrichment of the riparian groundwater as it reemerged in the low-relief and slow-moving stream floodplain. Our measured isotopic enrichment and the low annual runoff coefficients suggest that evapotranspiration strongly influences the runoff dynamics in the R, B, and C watersheds, consistent with the behavior of other lower-relief watersheds in the Atlantic Coastal Plain of the USA (La Torre Torres et al., 2011) and elsewhere (Devito et al., 2005a).",Hillslope position,uplands/valley bottom/stream/riparian zone/wetlands/floodplain,6,N,March 2011,1,N,N,Horizons described,buried argillic horizons with low permeability,Geology described,low-relief coastal plain regions,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,zero flow,Intermittent streamflow,evaporation,Evaporation,direct precipitation on the stream channel,Channel interception,riparian zone/wetlands that supplies baseflow,Riparian Groundwater Flow,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -83,"Koch, J.C., Kikuchi, C.P., Wickland, K.P. and Schuster, P., 2014. Runoff sources and flow paths in a partially burned, upland boreal catchment underlain by permafrost. Water Resources Research, 50(10), pp.8141-8158.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR015586,"West Twin Creek, Nome Creek Watershed, Alaska",5.2,8154,Catchment Runoff Mechanisms,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,in the stream/hillslope/riparian area/upper catchment,4,Season and event,spring/winter/May/summer/inter-storm periods/June/storm events/seasonal/interannual,9,Shrubland described,woody shrubs dominate the riparian zone/upper catchment has sparser vegetation/boreal catchments,Soil types described,organic-mineral boundary/coarse mineral soils/boreal soils,Geology described,loess cap,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snowmelt,Snowmelt,Runoff Over Frozen Soils,IE flow from frozen ground,water moving through organic soil pipes,Lateral macropore flow,thaw,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,base flow,Gaining stream,soil drainage,Vertical drainage to groundwater,aquifer drainage/flow paths ,Groundwater Flow,Fill and Spill,Groundwater flooding,Preferential Flow,Vertical macropore flow,Storm Runoff/flashiness/quick flow,Quickflow,overland flow,IE flow from impermeable areas,ephemeral anabranches,Ephemeral streamflow,infiltrated,Infiltration,throughflow,Subsurface stormflow,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,soil storage,Soil water storage,permafrost,Permafrost storage,subsurface aquifer,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -84,"Koch, K., J. Wenninger, S. Uhlenbrook, and M. Bonell. “Joint Interpretation of Hydrological and Geophysical Data: Electrical Resistivity Tomography Results from a Process Hydrological Research Site in the Black Forest Mountains, Germany.” Hydrological Processes: An International Journal 23, no. 10 (2009): 1501–13.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7275,"Brugga experimental basin, Black Forest Mountains",,1509,DISCUSSION,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,valley floodplain/near the main stream channel,2,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Pleistocene glacial processes of erosion and deposition,Slopes described,steep slopes,N,N,Unknown items identified,nothing can be said abuot the general pressure status of the deep aquifer,N,,,,exfiltration/groundwater discharge,Exfiltration,saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater body,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +82,"Klaus, Julian, JJ McDonnell, CR Jackson, Enhao Du, and Natalie A Griffiths. “Where Does Streamwater Come from in Low-Relief Forested Watersheds? A Dual-Isotope Approach.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 19, no. 1 (2015): 125–35.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-125-2015,"3 watersheds (R, C, B) in Upper Fourmile Branch, South Carolina",4,131,Discussion,CC BY 3.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/,"The three watersheds showed very low annual runoff ratios during the 3-year record, combined with long spells of zero flow. [...] Like Amatya et al. (1996) and Slattery et al. (2006), we found that soil properties, especially buried argillic horizons with low permeability (i.e., the throttle for lateral flow), strongly influenced runoff generation in these low-relief coastal plain regions [...] Our site, like that reported by Devito et al. (2005a), showed that dry catchment conditions frequently led to dis-connectivity of the uplands with the valley bottom and stream. This resulted in low runoff coefficients and the dominance of evaporation in the water balance. In addition, direct precipitation on the stream channel can alter the isotope signal, when flow is close to zero. This was observed during March 2011, when very heavy precipitation (δ18O = 3.9 ‰) led to a deviation between stream isotope signals and riparian isotopic signals adjacent to the streams throughout the area. Figure 8 conceptually summarizes the runoff generation and isotopic signature at the study site. A key element is the rare or nonexistent connectivity in the hillslope–riparian–stream continuum and the enrichment in heavy water isotopes in the riparian zone/wetlands that supplies baseflow. Further, the deeper groundwater system can interact with the groundwater of the riparian zone during wet conditions and is likely a major contributor to the riparian groundwater. [...] The strong evaporative enrichment of groundwater suggests groundwater recharge influenced by enriched soil water. Streams and riparian groundwater were even more enriched in heavy isotopes, suggesting further isotopic enrichment of the riparian groundwater as it reemerged in the low-relief and slow-moving stream floodplain. Our measured isotopic enrichment and the low annual runoff coefficients suggest that evapotranspiration strongly influences the runoff dynamics in the R, B, and C watersheds, consistent with the behavior of other lower-relief watersheds in the Atlantic Coastal Plain of the USA (La Torre Torres et al., 2011) and elsewhere (Devito et al., 2005a).",Hillslope position,uplands/valley bottom/stream/riparian zone/wetlands/floodplain,6,N,March 2011,1,N,N,Horizons described,buried argillic horizons with low permeability,Geological types described,low-relief coastal plain regions,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,zero flow,Intermittent streamflow,evaporation,Evaporation,direct precipitation on the stream channel,Channel interception,riparian zone/wetlands that supplies baseflow,Riparian Groundwater Flow,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +83,"Koch, J.C., Kikuchi, C.P., Wickland, K.P. and Schuster, P., 2014. Runoff sources and flow paths in a partially burned, upland boreal catchment underlain by permafrost. Water Resources Research, 50(10), pp.8141-8158.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR015586,"West Twin Creek, Nome Creek Watershed, Alaska",5.2,8154,Catchment Runoff Mechanisms,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,in the stream/hillslope/riparian area/upper catchment,4,Season and event,spring/winter/May/summer/inter-storm periods/June/storm events/seasonal/interannual,9,Shrubland described,woody shrubs dominate the riparian zone/upper catchment has sparser vegetation/boreal catchments,Soil types described,organic-mineral boundary/coarse mineral soils/boreal soils,Geological types described,loess cap,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snowmelt,Snowmelt,Runoff Over Frozen Soils,IE flow from frozen ground,water moving through organic soil pipes,Lateral macropore flow,thaw,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,base flow,Gaining stream,soil drainage,Vertical drainage to groundwater,aquifer drainage/flow paths ,Groundwater Flow,Fill and Spill,Groundwater flooding,Preferential Flow,Vertical macropore flow,Storm Runoff/flashiness/quick flow,Quickflow,overland flow,IE flow from impermeable areas,ephemeral anabranches,Ephemeral streamflow,infiltrated,Infiltration,throughflow,Subsurface stormflow,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,soil storage,Soil water storage,permafrost,Permafrost storage,subsurface aquifer,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +84,"Koch, K., J. Wenninger, S. Uhlenbrook, and M. Bonell. “Joint Interpretation of Hydrological and Geophysical Data: Electrical Resistivity Tomography Results from a Process Hydrological Research Site in the Black Forest Mountains, Germany.” Hydrological Processes: An International Journal 23, no. 10 (2009): 1501–13.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7275,"Brugga experimental basin, Black Forest Mountains",,1509,DISCUSSION,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,valley floodplain/near the main stream channel,2,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Pleistocene glacial processes of erosion and deposition,Slopes described,steep slopes,N,N,Unknown items identified,nothing can be said abuot the general pressure status of the deep aquifer,N,,,,exfiltration/groundwater discharge,Exfiltration,saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater body,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 85,"Kubota, Jumpei, and Murugesu Sivapalan. “Towards a Catchment-Scale Model of Subsurface Runoff Generation Based on Synthesis of Small-Scale Process-Based Modelling and Field Studies.” Hydrological Processes 9, no. 5–6 (1995): 541–54.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.3360090506,"Hakyuchi catchment, Tokyo",,545,Field observations on Hakyuchi catchment,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Event,storm events/pre-event/September 1992,3,Forest described,forested catchments,N,N,N,N,Topography described,steep catchments,N,N,N,N,N,,,,surface saturated area,Expansion of saturated areas,subsurface saturated area,Variable source area - subsurface stormflow,water draining from soil pipes,Lateral macropore flow,displaced water,Displacement of groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,saturated groundwater volume,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 86,"La Torre Torres, I.B., Amatya, D.M., Sun, G. and Callahan, T.J., 2011. Seasonal rainfall–runoff relationships in a lowland forested watershed in the southeastern USA. Hydrological Processes, 25(13), pp.2032-2045.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7955,"Turkey Creek watershed (WS 78), Francis Marion National Forest, South Carolina",,2043,Summary and Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,lowland,1,N,N,1,Forest described,forested watershed,Horizons described,shallow argillic horizon,N,N,Topography described,low-gradient,N,N,N,N,N,,,,storm flow,Quickflow,Variable Sources Area/saturated area can expand,Expansion of saturated areas,shallow saturated overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 87,"Ladouche, B., Probst, A., Viville, D., Idir, S., Baqué, D., Loubet, M., Probst, J.L. and Bariac, T., 2001. Hydrograph separation using isotopic, chemical and hydrological approaches (Strengbach catchment, France). Journal of hydrology, 242(3-4), pp.255-274.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(00)00391-7,"Strengbach catchment, Vosges",5,271,Discussion and conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,hillslope/hydrological subcatchment/at the outlet/upper subcatchment/upper hillslope/downstream part of the basin/upper part of catchment,7,Event,event/pre-event/recession stage,3,N,N,Soil texture described,coarse texture soils,Glacier described,moraine,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,old-water draining the deep layers,Displacement of groundwater,overland runoff,Overland flow,rainwater penetrates,Infiltration,rainwater falling on saturated areas,Saturation excess flow,lateral piston,Pistonflow,connected to the stream,Connectivity,lateral deep flow,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,saturated areas,Soil saturation,groundwater ridging,Groundwater ridging,aquifers,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 88,"Laine-Kaulio, Hanne, Soile Backnäs, Harri Koivusalo, and Ari Laurén. “Dye Tracer Visualization of Flow Patterns and Pathways in Glacial Sandy till at a Boreal Forest Hillslope.” Geoderma 259 (2015): 23–34.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.05.004,Kangaslampi,4.3,32,Runoff generation at the Kangaslampi hillslope,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,midslope area/slope shoulder/slope foot,3,N,N,1,N,N,Horizons described,"B, C, BC, E horizons",N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,preferential flowpaths/lateral by-pass flow,Lateral macropore flow,transmissivity feedback,Lateral matrix flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil matrix,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -89,"Lange, J, N Greenbaum, S Husary, M Ghanem, Ch Leibundgut, and AP Schick. “Runoff Generation from Successive Simulated Rainfalls on a Rocky, Semi-Arid, Mediterranean Hillslope.” Hydrological Processes 17, no. 2 (2003): 279–96.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1124,"Deir Ibzei, Judean Mountains",,290,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,the outlet/slope,2,Event,first day/second day,2,N,N,N,N,Geology described,"dolostone bedrock, rock outrcops, underlying carbonate rock, underground karst water systems",N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltrating water,Infiltration,partial area runoff contribution,Partial area IE flow,became saturated and generated flow,Saturation excess flow,losses into bedrock/deep infiltration,Infiltration into bedrock,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil pockets,Soil water storage,soil was saturated,Soil saturation,surface depressions,Depression storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +89,"Lange, J, N Greenbaum, S Husary, M Ghanem, Ch Leibundgut, and AP Schick. “Runoff Generation from Successive Simulated Rainfalls on a Rocky, Semi-Arid, Mediterranean Hillslope.” Hydrological Processes 17, no. 2 (2003): 279–96.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1124,"Deir Ibzei, Judean Mountains",,290,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,the outlet/slope,2,Event,first day/second day,2,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,"dolostone bedrock, rock outrcops, underlying carbonate rock, underground karst water systems",N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltrating water,Infiltration,partial area runoff contribution,Partial area IE flow,became saturated and generated flow,Saturation excess flow,losses into bedrock/deep infiltration,Infiltration into bedrock,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil pockets,Soil water storage,soil was saturated,Soil saturation,surface depressions,Depression storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 90,"Latron, J, and F Gallart. “Runoff Generation Processes in a Small Mediterranean Research Catchment (Vallcebre, Eastern Pyrenees).” Journal of Hydrology 358, no. 3–4 (2008): 206–20.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.06.014,"Can Vila, Vallcebre, Pyrenees",,217,Summary and conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Wetness,dry conditions/wetting-up transition/wet conditions,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,Topography described,terraced area,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration-excess runoff,Infiltration excess flow,saturation excess runoff,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water table rise,Water table rise,water table fall,Water table fall,perched saturation layer/perched water tables,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 91,"Latron, J, P Llorens, and F Gallart. “The Hydrology of Mediterranean Mountain Areas.” Geography Compass 3, no. 6 (2009): 2045–64.",,https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8198.2009.00287.x,"Can Vila, Vallcebre, Pyrenees",6,2055,Runoff Processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,catchment outlet/close to the stream/downslope locations,3,Season,dry conditions/summer period/wetting-up periods/wet conditions,4,Vegetation described,Mediterranean,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,runoff-contributing areas correspond to local low-permeable areas,IE flow from impermeable areas,infiltration excess runoff,Infiltration excess flow,saturation excess runoff,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water table,Water table,soils,Soil water storage,formation of water-saturated areas,Expansion of saturated areas,perched saturation layers,Perched water tables,soils are saturated or close to saturation,Soil saturation,rise of the shallow water table,Water table rise,,,,,,,, 92,"Lindenmaier, FALK, ERWIN Zehe, MARTIN Helms, O Evadakov, and Jürgen Ihringer. “Effect of Soil Shrinkage on Runoff Generation in Micro and Mesoscale Catchments.” IAHS PUBLICATION 303 (2006): 305.",,https://iahs.info/uploads/dms/13443.40-305-317-S7-39-Lindenmaier-et-al.pdf,"Tannhausen catchment, Sechta creek",,314,SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"Rainfall events in summer with sums of more than 20 mm and dry soil moisture states can experience up to 20 mm of initial loss or more before runoff is generated (Figs 5(a), 6(b)), even high intensity rainstorms are dominated only by runoff from sealed surfaces, including roads and lanes and pasture patches near the creek. The tile drains do not necessarily contribute in such summer events, but this is highly dependent on the antecedent soil moisture conditions and crack development. The “transition” months April and May are still influenced by winter soil moisture conditions. In October runoff generation is dependent on the gradual soil moisture rise through declining evapotranspiration rates and so features the highest variability in runoff coefficients (Fig. 4(a)). The winter months are characterized through constantly high soil moisture states, continuous tile drain discharge and a quick response of the saturated fields to surface runoff. Concluding the behaviour of the Tannhausen catchment, individual events show a classifiable behaviour but they are strongly dependent on soil moisture and antecedent climatic conditions so that predictions seem to be difficult without knowledge about actual soil moisture conditions. A spatial observation of soil moisture could be helpful for prediction of antecedent conditions (Zehe et al., 2005). On the other hand, seasonal prediction seems to be rather easy in clay soil catchments. The process study in the Tannhausen microscale catchment shows the strong domination of soil moisture for runoff generation. In winter the soil reacts like a sealed surface, contributing to most of the runoff volume. The precipitation pattern of an event dominates runoff generation. In summer the soil with its cracks reacts like a sponge, reducing surface runoff generation to sealed surfaces.",N,near the creek,1,Season,summer/transition months/April/May/winter,5,Pasture described,pasture,Soil texture described,clay soil/crack development/reacts like a sealed surface,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,runoff from sealed surfaces,IE flow from impermeable areas,crack development,Soil swelling/cracking,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,quick response of the saturated fields to surface runoff,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 93,"Liu, F., Hunsaker, C. and Bales, R.C., 2013. Controls of streamflow generation in small catchments across the snow–rain transition in the Southern Sierra Nevada, California. Hydrological Processes, 27(14), pp.1959-1972.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9304,"Bull and Providence catchments, Kings River Experimental Watersheds, Southern Sierra Nevada, California",,1971,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,snow-rain transition elevations,1,N,N,1,Forest described,forested,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,infiltration to the interface of lower soil horizons and bedrock through preferential pathways,Vertical macropore flow,fill and spill,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,snowmelt,Snowmelt,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,hollows,bedrock hollows,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 94,"Liu, F., Parmenter, R., Brooks, P.D., Conklin, M.H. and Bales, R.C., 2008. Seasonal and interannual variation of streamflow pathways and biogeochemical implications in semi‐arid, forested catchments in Valles Caldera, New Mexico. Ecohydrology: Ecosystems, Land and Water Process Interactions, Ecohydrogeomorphology, 1(3), pp.239-252.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.22,"Valles Caldera, Jemez, New Mexico",,248,"Discussion: Headwaters versus large catchments, Flowpaths in snowmelt versus monsoon season",Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,headwater/higher-order streams/higher elevations/along valley bottoms and streams/lower elevations/northwestern side,6,Season with snow,spring snowmelt/summer monsoon/fall of 2006/4 and 5 August 2006,4,Multiple land-covers described,"observed grassroots and woody roots of ponderosa pines, trees such as juniper and mixed conifer, wetland and grassland plant species",Multiple properties described,"soil distribution changes along elevations, Higher elevations have deep and well-drained soil subunits of Mirand Alanos complexes, Redondo-Rubble land associations, Redondo coarse sandy loams, Redondo cobbly coarse sandy loams -and Calaveras loams; O, A, and C horizons with sandy clay loam, sandy loam and loamy sand, respectively; clay-rich, poorly drained vertisols or mollisols developed in alluvial and fan deposits;fine-textured, ranging from clay to loam, ith well-developed organic horizons and few rock fragments",Geology described,ring fractures,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,contributions of groundwater,Gaining stream,near-surface runoff,Overland flow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,infiltration,Infiltration,subsurface flow occurs laterally,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,infiltration-excess,Infiltration excess flow,saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,fractures convey groundwater,Pistonflow,contribution of groundwater,Gaining stream,Transpiration,Transpiration,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +and Calaveras loams; O, A, and C horizons with sandy clay loam, sandy loam and loamy sand, respectively; clay-rich, poorly drained vertisols or mollisols developed in alluvial and fan deposits;fine-textured, ranging from clay to loam, ith well-developed organic horizons and few rock fragments",Geological types described,ring fractures,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,contributions of groundwater,Gaining stream,near-surface runoff,Overland flow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,infiltration,Infiltration,subsurface flow occurs laterally,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,infiltration-excess,Infiltration excess flow,saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,fractures convey groundwater,Pistonflow,contribution of groundwater,Gaining stream,Transpiration,Transpiration,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 95,"Liu, F., Williams, M.W. and Caine, N., 2004. Source waters and flow paths in an alpine catchment, Colorado Front Range, United States. Water Resources Research, 40(9).",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003076,"Martinelli catchment, Green Lakes Valley, Colorado",5.3.1,13,"Conceptual Model of Source Waters and Flow Paths, Martinelli Catchment",Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,near-channel portion of the lower watershed/near the stream channels,2,Season,stage 1/day 155/mid-May to early June/stage 2/day 156 to 200/early June to mid-July/rising limb/late spring/early summer/stage 3/day 201 to about 270/mid-July to late September,12,N,N,N,N,N,N,Topography described,high mountain catchments,N,N,Unknown items identified,It is unclear at this time whether preferential pathways exist at the Martinelli catchment,N,,,,snowmelt,Snowmelt,infiltrates soils and unconsolidated materials,Infiltration,snowmelt appears to flow directly into the stream channel,Overland flow,saturation-excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,surface flow,Overland flow,seasonally frozen ground,Frozen Ground Processes,lateral flow,Lateral matrix flow,water can also reach to bedrock and soil interface via vertical preferential pathways,Vertical macropore flow,base flow,Gaining stream,saturated zone,Groundwater,,,,,,,,,,snowpack,Snow storage,soil moisture,Soil water storage,soils become saturated,Soil saturation,storage in fractured bedrock,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 96,"Liu, F., Williams, M.W. and Caine, N., 2004. Source waters and flow paths in an alpine catchment, Colorado Front Range, United States. Water Resources Research, 40(9).",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003076,"GL4 catchment, Green Lakes Valley, Colorado",5.3.2,14,"Conceptual Model of Source Waters and Flow Paths, GL4 Catchment",Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,near-channel portion of the lower watershed/near the stream channels,2,N,stage 1/day 155/mid-May to early June/stage 2/day 156 to 200/early June to mid-July/rising limb/late spring/early summer/stage 3/day 201 to about 270/mid-July to late September,12,N,N,N,N,N,N,Topography described,high mountain catchments,N,N,Unknown items identified,It is unclear at this time whether preferential pathways exist at the Martinelli catchment,N,,,,snowmelt,Snowmelt,infiltrates soils and unconsolidated materials,Infiltration,snowmelt appears to flow directly into the stream channel,Overland flow,saturation-excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,surface flow,Overland flow,seasonally frozen ground,Frozen Ground Processes,lateral flow,Lateral matrix flow,water can also reach to bedrock and soil interface via vertical preferential pathways,Vertical macropore flow,base flow,Gaining stream,saturated zone,Groundwater,,,,,,,,,,snowpack,Snow storage,soil moisture,Soil water storage,soils become saturated,Soil saturation,storage in fractured bedrock,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 97,"Maier, Fabian, and Ilja van Meerveld. “Long-Term Changes in Runoff Generation Mechanisms for Two Proglacial Areas in the Swiss Alps I: Overland Flow.” Water Resources Research 57, no. 12 (2021): e2021WR030221.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2021WR030223,Sustenpass,6,24,Conclusions,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"Our experimental study on moraine chronosequences in two proglacial areas in the Central Swiss Alps shows that despite the increase in vegetation cover, root density, and soil organic matter content, the saturated hydraulic conductivity decreased with moraine age due to the decrease in gravel and increase in silt and clay content. However, this did not affect the effective infiltration rates during the sprinkling experiments, which was high for all moraines and increased with rainfall intensity. The peak OF ratios increased with moraine age and were largest for the oldest moraines on silicate bedrock, where OF was driven by flow along the dense root network and saturation-excess due to ponding above a lower permeability clay-rich layer at 20–40 cm below the soil surface. In the calcareous glacier forefield, however, OF did not occur on the old moraines during the intense sprinkling experiments, presumably because the clay-rich layers were less pronounced and the sprinkling experiments were too small to cause saturation. During larger (but lower intensity) natural rainfall events that exceeded the storage threshold, OF was observed for these moraines. OF occurred most frequently on the young moraines and was likely caused by saturation of the soil above stones and rocks that were buried near the surface, even-though the infiltration rate in the sediment between the stones was very high. The larger water storage in the soils of the older moraines, due to the higher water retention caused by the larger silt-, clay-, and organic matter content, resulted in more mixing of rainfall and soil water and a larger contribution of pre-event water to OF than for the younger moraines. The higher soil aggregate stability and vegetation cover—rather than differences in the OF volume or flow rates—caused the sediment fluxes to be lower for the old moraines than the young moraines. -These results, in combination with the changes in SSF (Maier et al., 2021), help us to understand how hillslope characteristics and runoff generation processes change during the first millennia of soil development and the interactions between these processes (cf. Figure 1). This is important for understanding the spatial and temporal changes in runoff generation in rapidly changing Alpine areas and can be used to inform landscape evolution models.",Hillslope position,proglacial areas/hillslope,2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,"dense root network, higher vegetation cover for old moraines",Multiple properties described,"decrease in saturated hydraulic conductivity and gravel and increase in silt and clay content with moraine age; older moraines have larger silt, clay, and organic matter content and have higher soil aggregate stability",Geology described,oldest moraines on silicate bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration,Infiltration,OF,overland flow,saturation-excess,Saturation excess flow,ponding,Depression storage,SSF,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,ponding,Perched water tables,saturation of the soil,Soil saturation,water storage in the soils,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -98,"Mayer-Anhalt, Leia, Christian Birkel, Ricardo Sánchez-Murillo, and Stephan Schulz. “Tracer-Aided Modelling Reveals Quick Runoff Generation and Young Streamflow Ages in a Tropical Rainforest Catchment.” Hydrological Processes 36, no. 2 (2022): e14508.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14508,"Cerro Dantas, Quebrada Grande",5.1,11,Runoff generation and mixing in a very humid rainforest catchment,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"The weak damping effect of the isotope ratios in streamflow compared to rainfall (Table 3; Figure S4) indicated a rapid runoff generation with limited isotope mixing in soils and groundwater, similar and even more pronounced than for other catchments in Costa Rica (Birkel et al., 2021). [...] Nonetheless, the TAM identified quickly draining water from the upper soil water storage at the hillslopes directly into the saturated riparian zone (Sánchez-Murillo, Romero-Esquivel, et al., 2019). From there, mostly unmixed water (Figure 6f,g with low mixing volume parameters MV) rapidly contributes to streamflow, as reflected by high values (Figure 6a,e) of the linear rate coefficients a (Flow from hillslope to riparian area; Table 2) and the non-linear parameter α (flow from riparian area to stream; Table 2). The most likely runoff generation mechanism is saturation excess overland flow and near-surface stormflow. In fact, field observations during sampling campaigns confirmed the prevalence of swamp areas near the riparian zones. Hortonian overland flow can be excluded due to the measured high infiltration capacities of the humic top soil layer that exceed the highest observed rainfall intensities in contrast to other small-scale catchments in Latin America (Chaves et al., 2008; Zimmermann et al., 2012). [...] The comparison of different calibration periods and storage parameters showed that only the upper hillslope has a larger mixing volume (Figure 6f), but that water passes too fast likely via preferential flow pathways to noticeably dampen the isotope output variability. [...] In our case, however, the hydrograph separation (Figure 8) indicated a constant but small contribution of water from a deeper substrate to the perennial stream (average BFI of 37% ± 22%; Figure 7b). The water balance showed a loss of water from our system (Table 4) indicating that a fraction of vertical water fluxes percolates into the highly fractured volcanic bedrock, and thus cannot be measured as streamflow at the catchment outlet. Evidence for re-emerging regional groundwater were found in the floodplains downstream of the study site using age dating tracers (Genereux et al., 2013) and modelling (Osburn et al., 2018; Zanon et al., 2014). [...] The low BFIs support the notion of a saturation excess surface runoff and shallow interflow dominated system (Sánchez-Murillo, Romero-Esquivel, et al., 2019). Interestingly, the BFIs in our study area were also much lower than observed for other catchments in Costa Rica (Birkel et al., 2012; Westerberg & Birkel, 2015) and other tropical catchments (Beck et al., 2013; Peña-Arancibia et al., 2010) which are commonly characterized by high groundwater contributions to total streamflow. Even in other fast responding catchments in Costa Rica, the flashy response in streamflow after storm events is characterized by mixing and dampening effects from available deeper soil and groundwater (Dehaspe et al., 2018). Therefore, our study site is a pristine catchment (Klaus & McDonnell, 2013) in the central American tropics that deviates from the old water paradox (Barthold & Woods, 2015; Sidle et al., 2000), that is, the rapid mobilization of previously stored “old” water via subsurface flow paths during storm events (Muñoz-Villers & McDonnell, 2012), resulting in strongly damped tracer output composition (Kirchner, 2003). Due to the young water dominance, short TTs and low groundwater contribution to streamflow, we, therefore, rejected our previously formulated working hypothesis.",Hillslope position,hillslopes/riparian zone/stream/upper hillslope/at the catchment outlet/floodplains downstream,6,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,humic top soil layer,Geology described,highly fractured volcanic bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,near-surface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,infiltration,Infiltration,preferential flow pathways,Vertical macropore flow,contribution of water from a deeper substrate,Gaining stream,perennial stream,Perennial flow,percolates into the highly fractured volcanic bedrock,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,re-emerging regional groundwater,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,upper soil water storage,Soil water storage,saturated riparian zone,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +These results, in combination with the changes in SSF (Maier et al., 2021), help us to understand how hillslope characteristics and runoff generation processes change during the first millennia of soil development and the interactions between these processes (cf. Figure 1). This is important for understanding the spatial and temporal changes in runoff generation in rapidly changing Alpine areas and can be used to inform landscape evolution models.",Hillslope position,proglacial areas/hillslope,2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,"dense root network, higher vegetation cover for old moraines",Multiple properties described,"decrease in saturated hydraulic conductivity and gravel and increase in silt and clay content with moraine age; older moraines have larger silt, clay, and organic matter content and have higher soil aggregate stability",Geological types described,oldest moraines on silicate bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration,Infiltration,OF,overland flow,saturation-excess,Saturation excess flow,ponding,Depression storage,SSF,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,ponding,Perched water tables,saturation of the soil,Soil saturation,water storage in the soils,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +98,"Mayer-Anhalt, Leia, Christian Birkel, Ricardo Sánchez-Murillo, and Stephan Schulz. “Tracer-Aided Modelling Reveals Quick Runoff Generation and Young Streamflow Ages in a Tropical Rainforest Catchment.” Hydrological Processes 36, no. 2 (2022): e14508.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14508,"Cerro Dantas, Quebrada Grande",5.1,11,Runoff generation and mixing in a very humid rainforest catchment,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"The weak damping effect of the isotope ratios in streamflow compared to rainfall (Table 3; Figure S4) indicated a rapid runoff generation with limited isotope mixing in soils and groundwater, similar and even more pronounced than for other catchments in Costa Rica (Birkel et al., 2021). [...] Nonetheless, the TAM identified quickly draining water from the upper soil water storage at the hillslopes directly into the saturated riparian zone (Sánchez-Murillo, Romero-Esquivel, et al., 2019). From there, mostly unmixed water (Figure 6f,g with low mixing volume parameters MV) rapidly contributes to streamflow, as reflected by high values (Figure 6a,e) of the linear rate coefficients a (Flow from hillslope to riparian area; Table 2) and the non-linear parameter α (flow from riparian area to stream; Table 2). The most likely runoff generation mechanism is saturation excess overland flow and near-surface stormflow. In fact, field observations during sampling campaigns confirmed the prevalence of swamp areas near the riparian zones. Hortonian overland flow can be excluded due to the measured high infiltration capacities of the humic top soil layer that exceed the highest observed rainfall intensities in contrast to other small-scale catchments in Latin America (Chaves et al., 2008; Zimmermann et al., 2012). [...] The comparison of different calibration periods and storage parameters showed that only the upper hillslope has a larger mixing volume (Figure 6f), but that water passes too fast likely via preferential flow pathways to noticeably dampen the isotope output variability. [...] In our case, however, the hydrograph separation (Figure 8) indicated a constant but small contribution of water from a deeper substrate to the perennial stream (average BFI of 37% ± 22%; Figure 7b). The water balance showed a loss of water from our system (Table 4) indicating that a fraction of vertical water fluxes percolates into the highly fractured volcanic bedrock, and thus cannot be measured as streamflow at the catchment outlet. Evidence for re-emerging regional groundwater were found in the floodplains downstream of the study site using age dating tracers (Genereux et al., 2013) and modelling (Osburn et al., 2018; Zanon et al., 2014). [...] The low BFIs support the notion of a saturation excess surface runoff and shallow interflow dominated system (Sánchez-Murillo, Romero-Esquivel, et al., 2019). Interestingly, the BFIs in our study area were also much lower than observed for other catchments in Costa Rica (Birkel et al., 2012; Westerberg & Birkel, 2015) and other tropical catchments (Beck et al., 2013; Peña-Arancibia et al., 2010) which are commonly characterized by high groundwater contributions to total streamflow. Even in other fast responding catchments in Costa Rica, the flashy response in streamflow after storm events is characterized by mixing and dampening effects from available deeper soil and groundwater (Dehaspe et al., 2018). Therefore, our study site is a pristine catchment (Klaus & McDonnell, 2013) in the central American tropics that deviates from the old water paradox (Barthold & Woods, 2015; Sidle et al., 2000), that is, the rapid mobilization of previously stored “old” water via subsurface flow paths during storm events (Muñoz-Villers & McDonnell, 2012), resulting in strongly damped tracer output composition (Kirchner, 2003). Due to the young water dominance, short TTs and low groundwater contribution to streamflow, we, therefore, rejected our previously formulated working hypothesis.",Hillslope position,hillslopes/riparian zone/stream/upper hillslope/at the catchment outlet/floodplains downstream,6,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,humic top soil layer,Geological types described,highly fractured volcanic bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,near-surface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,infiltration,Infiltration,preferential flow pathways,Vertical macropore flow,contribution of water from a deeper substrate,Gaining stream,perennial stream,Perennial flow,percolates into the highly fractured volcanic bedrock,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,re-emerging regional groundwater,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,upper soil water storage,Soil water storage,saturated riparian zone,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 99,"McCaig, Michael. “Contributions to Storm Quickflow in a Small Headwater Catchment—the Role of Natural Pipes and Soil Macropores.” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 8, no. 3 (1983): 239–52.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290080306,"Slithero Clough, Ripponden, Yorkshire",,250,Summary of field observations,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,around the stream/stream head/slope summit,3,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,flatter slope summit and topographic hollow around the stream,N,N,N,N,N,,,,dynamic source area,Variable source area - subsurface stormflow,quickflow,Quickflow,Surface (saturated) stream head source area,Expansion of saturated areas,pipe effluxes,Lateral macropore flow,perennial stream,Perennial flow,subsurface quickflow,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,surface soil saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 100,"McDaniel, P. A., Regan, M. P., Brooks, E., Boll, J., Barndt, S., Falen, A., et al. (2008). Linking fragipans, perched water tables, and catchment-scale hydrological processes. Catena, 73(2), 166–173. ",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2007.05.011,"Troy, Idaho",,166,Abstract,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,hillslopes ,1,Season,wet winter and spring months/early spring,2,N,N,Multiple properties described,slowly permeable fragipans and fragipan-like argillic horizons are extensive/shallow depth to the fragipans and high Ksat in surface soil layers,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,lateral throughflow,Subsurface stormflow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,saturation-excess surface runoff,Saturation excess flow,flashy hydrological system,Quickflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,seasonal perched water tables,Perched water tables,soil water storage,Soil water storage,saturated conditions,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -101,"McGuire, Kevin J, and Jeffrey J McDonnell. “Hydrological Connectivity of Hillslopes and Streams: Characteristic Time Scales and Nonlinearities.” Water Resources Research 46, no. 10 (2010).",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2010WR009341,"WS10, H.J. Andrews, Oregon",5,15,Concluding Remarks,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,hillslope/catchment,2,Event,storm event/wet-up period/nonstorm conditions,3,N,N,Horizons described,thin zone above weathered bedrock,Geology described,weathered bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,expansion of saturated areas,Expansion of saturated areas,quick flow,Quickflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -102,"McNamara, James P, David Chandler, Mark Seyfried, and Shiva Achet. “Soil Moisture States, Lateral Flow, and Streamflow Generation in a Semi-Arid, Snowmelt-Driven Catchment.” Hydrological Processes: An International Journal 19, no. 20 (2005): 4023–38.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5869,"Upper Dry Creek, near Boise, Idaho",,4035,CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE LINK BETWEEN HYDRAULIC CONNECTIVITY AND RUNOFF GENERATION,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,hillslopes/streambed,2,Season,winter,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,underlying granite,Topography described,southeast-facing unchanneled gullies,N,N,N,N,N,,,,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,wetting front,Vertical matrix flow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,stream loses water,Losing stream,lateral flow along the bedrock interface,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,near-stream subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow from riparian zone,connectivity,Connectivity,gaining stream,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,saturated wedge below the stream,Perched water tables,snowpack,Snow storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +101,"McGuire, Kevin J, and Jeffrey J McDonnell. “Hydrological Connectivity of Hillslopes and Streams: Characteristic Time Scales and Nonlinearities.” Water Resources Research 46, no. 10 (2010).",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2010WR009341,"WS10, H.J. Andrews, Oregon",5,15,Concluding Remarks,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale,hillslope/catchment,2,Event,storm event/wet-up period/nonstorm conditions,3,N,N,Horizons described,thin zone above weathered bedrock,Geological types described,weathered bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,expansion of saturated areas,Expansion of saturated areas,quick flow,Quickflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +102,"McNamara, James P, David Chandler, Mark Seyfried, and Shiva Achet. “Soil Moisture States, Lateral Flow, and Streamflow Generation in a Semi-Arid, Snowmelt-Driven Catchment.” Hydrological Processes: An International Journal 19, no. 20 (2005): 4023–38.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5869,"Upper Dry Creek, near Boise, Idaho",,4035,CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE LINK BETWEEN HYDRAULIC CONNECTIVITY AND RUNOFF GENERATION,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,hillslopes/streambed,2,Season,winter,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,underlying granite,Topography described,southeast-facing unchanneled gullies,N,N,N,N,N,,,,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,wetting front,Vertical matrix flow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,stream loses water,Losing stream,lateral flow along the bedrock interface,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,near-stream subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow from riparian zone,connectivity,Connectivity,gaining stream,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,saturated wedge below the stream,Perched water tables,snowpack,Snow storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 103,"Meerveld, HJ van, BMC Fischer, Michael Rinderer, Manfred Stähli, and Jan Seibert. “Runoff Generation in a Pre-Alpine Catchment: A Discussion between a Tracer and a Shallow Groundwater Hydrologist.” Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica 44, no. 2 (2018): 429–52.",,https://publicaciones.unirioja.es/ojs/index.php/cig/article/viewFile/3349/3083,Alptal watershed,6,444,Discussion on the main runoff generation processes in the Alptal catchments,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"The mean groundwater levels and the groundwater response timing were correlated with topographic indices. This suggests that groundwater levels in depressions and the footslopes are high and respond quickly (Fig. 10b, letter G). The ridge sides respond later and less frequently. [...] The rise of the groundwater level into soil layers close to the soil surface with higher saturated hydraulic conductivity means that lateral, preferential flowpaths are activated and contribute water to the streams with only a short delay (Fig. 10b, letters E-G). Once lateral connectivity is established between the individual groundwater response areas and the channel network (Fig. 10b, number VII), the midslope areas also contribute to streamflow. [...] During these smaller events, the initial rise in streamflow is maybe not only generated by fast lateral flow from the hillslopes but the wetlands close to the streams also become more connected during events and also contribute pre-event water to streamflow [...] shallow subsurface flow from the near stream areas likely occurs throughout the year but that the midslope and ridge sites only become active and connected during larger events. Overall, these results suggest that the contributing areas expand during rainfall events and that different areas of the catchment become connected and contribute to streamflow at different times. Groundwater will mainly deliver pre-event water to the stream but the preferential flow pathways in the near surface layers may deliver a mixture of event and pre-event water. T: Dye tracer tests in the Vogelbach catchment by Weiler et al. (1999) showed that preferential flow can be a source of event water. I think that these shallow pathways may get flushed during large events. H: Surface runoff also contributes some of the event water to the stream, although its isotopic composition and chemistry suggest that it is a mixture of event and pre-event water (Sauter, 2017). Saturation overland flow from the meadows and wetlands is important during rainfall events. Infiltration excess overland flow occurs on the bare areas but likely infiltrates when it reaches the vegetated areas. So there are multiple runoff processes happening at the same time",Hillslope position,in depressions and the footslopes/ridge sides/midslope areas/hillslopes/close to the streams,5,Event,during smaller events/throughout the year/during larger events,3,Wetland described,wetlands and meadows,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,groundwater,Groundwater,lateral preferential flowpaths,Subsurface stormflow,lateral connectivity,Connectivity,contributing areas expand,Variable source area - subsurface stormflow,surface runoff,Overland flow,Saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Infiltration excess overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,infiltrates,Infiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater levels,Water table,rise of the groundwater level,Water table rise,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 104,"Miyata, Shusuke, Ken’ichirou Kosugi, Takashi Gomi, Yuichi Onda, and Takahisa Mizuyama. “Surface Runoff as Affected by Soil Water Repellency in a Japanese Cypress Forest.” Hydrological Processes: An International Journal 21, no. 17 (2007): 2365–76.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6749,Hinotani-ike watershed,,2374,SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Event,storm events,1,Forest described,cypress forest,Soil hydraulic properties described,"high inherent infiltration capacity, but becomes repellent in dry conditions",N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,water repellency,Hydrophobicity,Hortonian overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,infiltration,Infiltration,surface runoff generation,Overland flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 105,"Mohammed, Aaron A, Edwin E Cey, Masaki Hayashi, and Michael V Callaghan. “Simulating Preferential Flow and Snowmelt Partitioning in Seasonally Frozen Hillslopes.” Hydrological Processes 35, no. 8 (2021): e14277.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14277,"Triple G, Spyhill, and Stauffer Catchments, Northern Prairie Region",2,2,STUDY REGION AND EFFECTS OF PREFERENTIAL FLOW IN FROZEN SOILS,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,uplands/hillslope,2,Season,midwinter/spring,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration,Infiltration,snowmelt,Snowmelt,shallow lateral flow or interflow,Subsurface stormflow,groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,ground remaining frozen,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,refreezing of infiltrated water,Refreezing,water ponding in depressions,Depression storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 106,"Mohammed, Aaron A, Igor Pavlovskii, Edwin E Cey, and Masaki Hayashi. “Effects of Preferential Flow on Snowmelt Partitioning and Groundwater Recharge in Frozen Soils.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 23, no. 12 (2019): 5017–31.",,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-5017-2019,"Triple G, Spyhill, and Stauffer Catchments, Northern Prairie Region",6,,Conclusion,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"This study highlighted the effects of preferential flow in frozen soils and infiltration–refreezing mechanisms on the hydrologic functioning and winter water balance of prairie grasslands. Despite the ground remaining frozen throughout snowmelt events, infiltration into frozen soil was the major sink of snowmelt at all three sites, and this modulated the amount of runoff available for depression-focused recharge. In addition, focused infiltration and preferential flow in frozen soil enabled meltwater to bypass a portion of the soil profile and groundwater recharge prior to ground thaw. Field data suggested that the refreezing of infiltrated meltwater during midwinter snowmelt enhanced runoff generation in frozen grassland soils, highlighting the feedback effect of previous melt events on later snowmelt event partitioning. Time delays between snow cover depletion and ponding in depressions demonstrated that shallow subsurface flow, in addition to overland flow, can be an important runoff mechanism on frozen prairie hillslopes. Both of these flow paths may facilitate preferential mass transport to groundwater.",N,hillslopes,1,Season,winter/midwinter,2,Grassland described,prairie grasslands,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,preferential flow in frozen soils,Vertical macropore flow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,infiltration into frozen soil,Infiltration into frozen ground,groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,shallow subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,overland flow,Overland flow,preferential mass transport to groundwater,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,infiltration-refreezing,Refreezing,depression-focused recharge,Depression storage,snow cover,Snow storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -107,"Mosquera, Giovanny M, Rolando Célleri, Patricio X Lazo, Kellie B Vaché, Steven S Perakis, and Patricio Crespo. “Combined Use of Isotopic and Hydrometric Data to Conceptualize Ecohydrological Processes in a High-Elevation Tropical Ecosystem.” Hydrological Processes 30, no. 17 (2016): 2930–47.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10927,"Zhurucay River Ecohydrological Observatory, Andean cordillera",,2942,Conceptualization of ecohydrological processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,in the slopes/at the valley bottom,2,N,N,1,Wetland described,wetlands,Soil types described,"andosols, histosols, mineral horizon",Geology described,fractured top layer of bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow through the soils' organic horizon,Organic layer interflow,infiltrated rainfall,Infiltration,new water pushes old stored water in histosols forward into streams,Displacement of groundwater,hydrologic connectivity between wetlands and the drainage network,Connectivity,piston flow,Pistonflow,saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,reservoir of the histosols,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -108,"Muñoz-Villers, Lyssette E, and Jeffrey J McDonnell. “Runoff Generation in a Steep, Tropical Montane Cloud Forest Catchment on Permeable Volcanic Substrate.” Water Resources Research 48, no. 9 (2012).",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1029/2011wr011316,A catchment in Cofre de Perote volcano,5,12,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,hillslope/catchment/in and around the near-stream valley/upslope,4,Season and event,wet season/dry season/storms,3,N,N,Soil types described,highly permeable volcanic soils,Geology described,permeable weathered volcanic breccias-saprolite substrate,N,N,N,N,Limitations discussed,lack measurements of the details of subsurface flow process response internal to the catchment,N,,,,vertical percolation of rainfall,Vertical drainage to groundwater,subsurface storm runoff,Subsurface stormflow,infiltrating rainwater,Infiltration,water that bypasses the soil matrix,Vertical macropore flow,direct channel precipitation,Channel interception,seasonal hydrophobicity,Hydrophobicity,overland flow,Overland flow,stormflow,Quickflow,deeper flow contribution seems to be provided by groundwater,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil water,Soil water storage,groundwater sources,Groundwater storage,Groundwater tables,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +107,"Mosquera, Giovanny M, Rolando Célleri, Patricio X Lazo, Kellie B Vaché, Steven S Perakis, and Patricio Crespo. “Combined Use of Isotopic and Hydrometric Data to Conceptualize Ecohydrological Processes in a High-Elevation Tropical Ecosystem.” Hydrological Processes 30, no. 17 (2016): 2930–47.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10927,"Zhurucay River Ecohydrological Observatory, Andean cordillera",,2942,Conceptualization of ecohydrological processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,in the slopes/at the valley bottom,2,N,N,1,Wetland described,wetlands,Soil types described,"andosols, histosols, mineral horizon",Geological types described,fractured top layer of bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow through the soils' organic horizon,Organic layer interflow,infiltrated rainfall,Infiltration,new water pushes old stored water in histosols forward into streams,Displacement of groundwater,hydrologic connectivity between wetlands and the drainage network,Connectivity,piston flow,Pistonflow,saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,reservoir of the histosols,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +108,"Muñoz-Villers, Lyssette E, and Jeffrey J McDonnell. “Runoff Generation in a Steep, Tropical Montane Cloud Forest Catchment on Permeable Volcanic Substrate.” Water Resources Research 48, no. 9 (2012).",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1029/2011wr011316,A catchment in Cofre de Perote volcano,5,12,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,hillslope/catchment/in and around the near-stream valley/upslope,4,Season and event,wet season/dry season/storms,3,N,N,Soil types described,highly permeable volcanic soils,Geological types described,permeable weathered volcanic breccias-saprolite substrate,N,N,N,N,Limitations discussed,lack measurements of the details of subsurface flow process response internal to the catchment,N,,,,vertical percolation of rainfall,Vertical drainage to groundwater,subsurface storm runoff,Subsurface stormflow,infiltrating rainwater,Infiltration,water that bypasses the soil matrix,Vertical macropore flow,direct channel precipitation,Channel interception,seasonal hydrophobicity,Hydrophobicity,overland flow,Overland flow,stormflow,Quickflow,deeper flow contribution seems to be provided by groundwater,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil water,Soil water storage,groundwater sources,Groundwater storage,Groundwater tables,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 109,"Munyaneza, O, J Wenninger, and S Uhlenbrook. “Identification of Runoff Generation Processes Using Hydrometric and Tracer Methods in a Meso-Scale Catchment in Rwanda.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 16, no. 7 (2012): 1991–2004.",,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-16-1991-2012,Migina catchment,5,2000,Discussion,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"This indicates that the stormflow reaches the stream largely through the soil by subsurface runoff due to high infiltration rates. [...] the soil can hold up to 60–70 % of water. This forms an important shallow subsurface water storage, which makes agriculture possible even in dry periods. Hence, this can lead to a shallow subsurface runoff component contributing to the total streamflow if the storage threshold is exceeded. [...] Therefore, it can be concluded from the rainfall-runoff response analysis that runoff generation at the Kansi and Migina catchments is dominated by subsurface flows as highly supported by the hydrograph separation [...] The observed dominance of old water (up to 80 %) in the Migina catchment confirms the finding of van den Berg and Bolt (2010) in their study during the dry season. They found that the locations of shallow groundwater in the Migina catchment are between 0.2 m and 2 m, which enables infiltrated rain to reach the groundwater quickly and contribute to subsurface stormflow and later to baseflow.",N,N,1,Season,dry season,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,stormflow,Quickflow,subsurface runoff,Subsurface stormflow,infiltration,Infiltration,infiltrated rain to reach the groundwater,Vertical drainage to groundwater,baseflow,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,shallow subsurface water storage,Soil water storage,shallow groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -110,"Negishi, J.N., Noguchi, S., Sidle, R.C., Ziegler, A.D. and Rahim Nik, A., 2007. Stormflow generation involving pipe flow in a zero‐order basin of Peninsular Malaysia. Hydrological Processes: An International Journal, 21(6), pp.789-806.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6271,Bukit Tarek,,804,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,downstream,1,N,N,N,Forest described,forest,N,N,Geology described,saprolite,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow pathways during stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,soil pipes,Lateral macropore flow,preferential flow,Vertical macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil-derived shallow groundwater,Soil water storage,perched,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +110,"Negishi, J.N., Noguchi, S., Sidle, R.C., Ziegler, A.D. and Rahim Nik, A., 2007. Stormflow generation involving pipe flow in a zero‐order basin of Peninsular Malaysia. Hydrological Processes: An International Journal, 21(6), pp.789-806.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6271,Bukit Tarek,,804,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,downstream,1,N,N,N,Forest described,forest,N,N,Geological types described,saprolite,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow pathways during stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,soil pipes,Lateral macropore flow,preferential flow,Vertical macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil-derived shallow groundwater,Soil water storage,perched,Perched water tables,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 111,"Newman, B. D., Campbell, A. R., & Wilcox, B. P. (1998). Lateral subsurface flow pathways in a semiarid ponderosa pine hillslope. Water Resources Research, 34(12), 3485–3496.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/98WR02684,Los Alamos National Laboratory's Environmental Research Park,5,3496,Summary and Conclusion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,hillslope,1,Season with snow,snowmelt periods,1,Forest described,semiarid ponderosa pine,Horizons described,B horizon,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,lateral subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,preferential flow,Lateral macropore flow,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,matrix,Lateral matrix flow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil water,Soil water storage,soils at or near saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 112,"Newman, Brent D, Bradford P Wilcox, and Robert C Graham. “Snowmelt-Driven Macropore Flow and Soil Saturation in a Semiarid Forest.” Hydrological Processes 18, no. 5 (2004): 1035–42.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5521,Los Alamos National Laboratory's Environmental Research Park,,1041,Summary and Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,hillslope,1,N,N,1,Forest described,ponderosa pine,Horizons described,"A horizon, Bt-horizon",N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snowmelt,Snowmelt,lateral subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,root macropores that are actively transporting water laterally,Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons,downward matrix flow,Vertical matrix flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 113,"Noguchi, S., Nik, A.R., Kasran, B., Tani, M., Sammori, T. and Morisada, K., 1997. Soil physical properties and preferential flow pathways in tropical rain forest, Bukit Tarek, Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Forest Research, 2(2), pp.115-120.",,https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02348479,Bukit Tarek,,119,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Horizons described,"tropical soils, organic-rich soil and B layers",N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,vertical percolation,Infiltration,deflected laterally between the organic-rich soil and B layers,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,porous zones which were mostly decomposed root channels that existed continuously in the vertical direction,Vertical macropore flow,preferential flow in lateral directions,Lateral macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 114,"Noguchi, S., Nik, A.R., Yusop, Z., Tani, M. and Sammori, T., 1997. Rainfall-runoff responses and roles of soil moisture variations to the response in tropical rain forest, Bukit Tarek, Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Forest Research, 2(3), pp.125-132.",,https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF02348209.pdf,Bukit Tarek,2.2,130,"Discussion 2: 2 Hydrological responses during dry and wet conditions, Conclusion",Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,on the slope/in stream channel and riparian areas/upper parts of the slope,3,Wetness,dry conditions/wet conditions/recession limbs,3,N,N,Horizons described,organic-rich soil and B layers,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,stormflow,Quickflow,downward soil water flux,Vertical matrix flow,subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,subsurface stormflow from a perched water table,Lateral matrix flow at soil horizons,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 115,"Nunes, João Pedro, Léonard Bernard-Jannin, Maria Luz Rodriguez Blanco, Juliana Marisa Santos, Celeste de Oliveira Alves Coelho, and Jan Jacob Keizer. “Hydrological and Erosion Processes in Terraced Fields: Observations from a Humid Mediterranean Region in Northern Portugal.” Land Degradation & Development 29, no. 3 (2018): 596–606.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2550,Macieira de Alcôba,,603,Hydrological Processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,downslope,1,Season,wet season/winter/winter drought of 2011-2012/April and May 2012/06 December 2010,5,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,run-on,Reinfiltration,saturation-excess,Saturation excess flow,infiltration-excess,Infiltration excess flow,groundwater re-surfacing,Exfiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,shallow water table,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 116,"Ocampo, Carlos J, Murugesu Sivapalan, and Carolyn E Oldham. “Field Exploration of Coupled Hydrological and Biogeochemical Catchment Responses and a Unifying Perceptual Model.” Advances in Water Resources 29, no. 2 (2006): 161–80.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2005.02.014,"SB2 subcatchment, Susannah Brook, Western Australia",4.5,175,Perceptual model of  transport and release within SB catchment,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,stream riparian zones/mid-slope/upland locations,3,Season,rainy season/spring season,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,flat and steep hillslopes,N,N,N,N,N,,,,preferential recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,infiltrating,Infiltration,connected,Connectivity,subsurface flow,Groundwater flow,riparian zones act as a source,Riparian Groundwater Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,shallow perched aquifer,Perched water tables,rising water tables,Water table rise,soil water,Soil water storage,water table level declines,Water table fall,riparian zones act as a sink,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,, -117,"Onda, Y., Komatsu, Y., Tsujimura, M. and Fujihara, J.I., 2001. The role of subsurface runoff through bedrock on storm flow generation. Hydrological processes, 15(10), pp.1693-1706.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.234,"Nio Basin, Oe region",,1693,Abstract,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Bedrock type,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Spring ,Springflow,Seasonal flow,Ephemeral streamflow,Deep subsurface flow system through bedrock fissures,Pistonflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,forest-covered,Canopy storage,forest-covered watersheds ,Soil water storage,bedrock ,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -118,"Onda, Y., Komatsu, Y., Tsujimura, M. and Fujihara, J.I., 2001. The role of subsurface runoff through bedrock on storm flow generation. Hydrological processes, 15(10), pp.1693-1706.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.234,Ina Basin,,1693,Abstract,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Bedrock type,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Springs ,Springflow,Large and rapid runoff peak,Quickflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,bedrock fissures ,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -119,"Onda, Yuichi, Maki Tsujimura, Jun-ichi Fujihara, and Jun Ito. “Runoff Generation Mechanisms in High-Relief Mountainous Watersheds with Different Underlying Geology.” Journal of Hydrology 331, no. 3–4 (2006): 659–73.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.06.009,Ina Basin,,670,Conclusion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Soil or Geology,shale (K) watersheds/granite (Y) watersheds ,2,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Describes shale and granite bedrock,Topography described,Describes steep terrain,N,N,N,N,N,,,,storm runoff water was “old water”.  ,Displacement of groundwater,percolated vertically downward into the bedrock ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,subsurface storm flow ,Subsurface stormflow,bedrock flow ,Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow,Bedrock springs ,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +117,"Onda, Y., Komatsu, Y., Tsujimura, M. and Fujihara, J.I., 2001. The role of subsurface runoff through bedrock on storm flow generation. Hydrological processes, 15(10), pp.1693-1706.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.234,"Nio Basin, Oe region",,1693,Abstract,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Bedrock type,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Spring ,Springflow,Seasonal flow,Ephemeral streamflow,Deep subsurface flow system through bedrock fissures,Pistonflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,forest-covered,Canopy storage,forest-covered watersheds ,Soil water storage,bedrock ,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +118,"Onda, Y., Komatsu, Y., Tsujimura, M. and Fujihara, J.I., 2001. The role of subsurface runoff through bedrock on storm flow generation. Hydrological processes, 15(10), pp.1693-1706.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.234,Ina Basin,,1693,Abstract,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Bedrock type,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Springs ,Springflow,Large and rapid runoff peak,Quickflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,bedrock fissures ,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +119,"Onda, Yuichi, Maki Tsujimura, Jun-ichi Fujihara, and Jun Ito. “Runoff Generation Mechanisms in High-Relief Mountainous Watersheds with Different Underlying Geology.” Journal of Hydrology 331, no. 3–4 (2006): 659–73.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.06.009,Ina Basin,,670,Conclusion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Soil or Geology,shale (K) watersheds/granite (Y) watersheds ,2,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Describes shale and granite bedrock,Topography described,Describes steep terrain,N,N,N,N,N,,,,storm runoff water was “old water”.  ,Displacement of groundwater,percolated vertically downward into the bedrock ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,subsurface storm flow ,Subsurface stormflow,bedrock flow ,Lateral unsaturated bedrock flow,Bedrock springs ,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 120,"Penna, D, HJ Tromp-van Meerveld, A Gobbi, M Borga, and G Dalla Fontana. “The Influence of Soil Moisture on Threshold Runoff Generation Processes in an Alpine Headwater Catchment.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 7, no. 5 (2010): 8091–8124.",,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-15-689-2011,Rio Vauz Basin,5,,Towards a conceptual model of hydrological behaviour at BCC,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"(i) During dry conditions (soil moisture at 0–30 cm in the 35%–45% range), streamflow and hillslope water table were low. Small storms resulted in low runoff coefficients (Fig. 4) and stormflow generation was likely related to the response of the near-stream riparian zone that was prone to saturation and reactive to precipitation. The increase in stormflow with precipitation was 9% of the precipitation, which suggested that stormflow could volumetrically be explained by the contribution of the entire riparian zone (representing approximately 9% of the total catchment area). Streamflow and soil moisture were very sensitive to rainfall inputs whereas groundwater was less reactive (Fig. 3). Streamflow response was faster than soil moisture measured on the hillslope, resulting in a clockwise hysteretic relationship between the two variables (Fig. 8a). (ii) As wetness increased, saturation in the riparian zone likely expanded laterally to the lower parts of hillslopes that are characterized by gentle slopes and shallow soils. Experimental evidence is not available to support this view but such a behaviour could be assumed based on a comparison of the topographic and geomorphologic properties of BCC with those of the Hitachi Ohta Watershed (e.g., incised morphology, shallow soils, steep slopes). (iii) With further increasing wetness, a moisture threshold was exceeded, resulting in a marked increase of streamflow (Fig. 5a) and likely the triggering of transient lateral subsurface flow on the hillslopes (Fig. 5b) as suggested by the abrupt increase in runoff coefficients above the 45% soil moisture threshold (Fig. 4) and the much larger increase in runoff depth with increasing precipitation (Fig. 9). A connection was likely established between the riparian area and hillslopes, which became hydrologically active zones. Response times changed compared to dry conditions: hillslope soil moisture peaked before streamflow, resulting in an anticlockwise hysteretic loop (Fig. 8b). Saturation overland flow over the hillslopes was not observed in the field during rainfall events and is assumed to be a negligible contribution to total catchment runoff. Therefore it is concluded that hillslope contributions to streamflow were most likely in the form of subsurface flow.",Hillslope position,near-stream riparian zone/hillslopes,2,Wetness,dry conditions (soil moisture at 0–30 cm in the 35%–45% range)/wetness increased/further increasing wetness,3,N,N,Horizons described,Describes shallow soils,N,N,Slopes described,Describes gentle slopes,N,N,Unknown items identified,Discuss that experimental evidence is not available to support the lateral expansion of saturation zone,N,,,,transient lateral subsurface flow on the hillslopes, Subsurface stormflow,Saturation overland flow ,Saturation excess flow,connection was likely established between the riparian area and hillslopes,Connectivity,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water table,Water table,saturation in the riparian zone likely expanded laterally to the lower parts of hillslopes,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 121,"Perrin, Jean-Louis, and Marie-George Tournoud. “Hydrological Processes Controlling Flow Generation in a Small Mediterranean Catchment under Karstic Influence.” Hydrological Sciences Journal 54, no. 6 (2009): 1125–40.",,https://doi.org/10.1623/hysj.54.6.1125,River Vène,,1134,Perceptual model,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Land cover,urban/agricultural/natural areas,3,Season,beginning of the rainy season/after significant cumulative rainfall amounts/At the beginning of the dry period/At the end of the dry period,4,N,N,Horizons described,Describes tiled soils,Karst described,Describes karstic geology,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,flash floods of high amplitude and short duration,IE flow from impermeable areas,subsurface flow that is drained by tributaries or ditches,Subsurface stormflow,Rainfall is entirely infiltrated,Infiltration,feeding the underlying karstic aquifers,Vertical drainage to groundwater,"karstic inputs  (of both external and internal origin), which produce floods of high amplitude and long duration",Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,These springs also control the recession period up to the spring depletion , Storage-discharge relationship,riverbed is completely dry  except in some reaches , Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -122,"Peters, DL, JM Buttle, CH Taylor, and BDs LaZerte. “Runoff Production in a Forested, Shallow Soil, Canadian Shield Basin.” Water Resources Research 31, no. 5 (1995): 1291–1304.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/94WR03286,"PC1-08 Plastic Lake Basin, Ontario",,1301,Conceptual Model of Runoff Production,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Soil or Geology,upper soil matrix/soil-bedrock interface ,2,Event,preevent water/event water,2,Forest described,Describe forested land cover,Horizons described,Describes shallow soil,Geology described,Describes impermeable bedrock,N,N,N,N,Unknown items identified,"Discusses that processes by which slope contributions interact with near stream soil and groundwater prior to discharge to the channel are unknown, and studies linking slope runoff with near-stream hydrologic conditions are needed",N,,,,infiltrates to the impermeable bedrock via vertical preferential flow,Vertical macropore flow,slower Darcian matrix flow,Vertical matrix flow,mixing with preevent water ,Mixing,initial flow at the soil-bedrock interface ,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,phreatic conditions,Perched water tables,near-stream groundwater ,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -123,"Post, D.A. and Jones, J.A., 2001. Hydrologic regimes of forested, mountainous, headwater basins in New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oregon, and Puerto Rico. Advances in Water Resources, 24(9-10), pp.1195-1210.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1708(01)00036-7,"W2,8,9; H.J. Andrews, Oregon",4,1205,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Topography,low elevations/high elevations,2,Season,winter/fall and spring/summer,3,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geology described,Discusses underlying bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,"ephemerally saturated zones (macropores) at shallow (<1 m) depths [14], which appear to transmit precipitation inputs to stream channels on average within a day",Variable source area - subsurface stormflow,accumulation and melt of a transient snowpack (at low elevations)  , Snowmelt,interception,Canopy Interception,transpiration,Transpiration,rapid shallow subsurface saturated flow in macropores  ,Lateral macropore flow,water may also be stored and drained from relatively fine-textured soil matrices,Vertical matrix flow,"longest flowpaths through deep, fine-textured soil or fractured bedrock .",Pistonflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,seasonal snowpack (at high elevations)  , Seasonal snow storage,water may also be stored and drained from relatively fine-textured soil matrices,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +122,"Peters, DL, JM Buttle, CH Taylor, and BDs LaZerte. “Runoff Production in a Forested, Shallow Soil, Canadian Shield Basin.” Water Resources Research 31, no. 5 (1995): 1291–1304.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/94WR03286,"PC1-08 Plastic Lake Basin, Ontario",,1301,Conceptual Model of Runoff Production,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Soil or Geology,upper soil matrix/soil-bedrock interface ,2,Event,preevent water/event water,2,Forest described,Describe forested land cover,Horizons described,Describes shallow soil,Geological types described,Describes impermeable bedrock,N,N,N,N,Unknown items identified,"Discusses that processes by which slope contributions interact with near stream soil and groundwater prior to discharge to the channel are unknown, and studies linking slope runoff with near-stream hydrologic conditions are needed",N,,,,infiltrates to the impermeable bedrock via vertical preferential flow,Vertical macropore flow,slower Darcian matrix flow,Vertical matrix flow,mixing with preevent water ,Mixing,initial flow at the soil-bedrock interface ,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,phreatic conditions,Perched water tables,near-stream groundwater ,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +123,"Post, D.A. and Jones, J.A., 2001. Hydrologic regimes of forested, mountainous, headwater basins in New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oregon, and Puerto Rico. Advances in Water Resources, 24(9-10), pp.1195-1210.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1708(01)00036-7,"W2,8,9; H.J. Andrews, Oregon",4,1205,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Topography,low elevations/high elevations,2,Season,winter/fall and spring/summer,3,Vegetation described,Vegetation described,Soil described,Soil described,Geological types described,Discusses underlying bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,"ephemerally saturated zones (macropores) at shallow (<1 m) depths [14], which appear to transmit precipitation inputs to stream channels on average within a day",Variable source area - subsurface stormflow,accumulation and melt of a transient snowpack (at low elevations)  , Snowmelt,interception,Canopy Interception,transpiration,Transpiration,rapid shallow subsurface saturated flow in macropores  ,Lateral macropore flow,water may also be stored and drained from relatively fine-textured soil matrices,Vertical matrix flow,"longest flowpaths through deep, fine-textured soil or fractured bedrock .",Pistonflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,seasonal snowpack (at high elevations)  , Seasonal snow storage,water may also be stored and drained from relatively fine-textured soil matrices,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 124,"Post, D.A. and Jones, J.A., 2001. Hydrologic regimes of forested, mountainous, headwater basins in New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oregon, and Puerto Rico. Advances in Water Resources, 24(9-10), pp.1195-1210.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1708(01)00036-7,"Coweeta, North Carolina",4,1205,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Topography,low elevations/high elevations,2,Season,winter/summer,2,Forest described,Describes deciduous forest vegetation,Soil texture described,Describes fine textured soils,N,N,Topography described,Discuss relationship between elevation and soil depth,N,N,Unknown items identified,"longest flowpaths through deep, fine-textured soil or fractured bedrock",N,,,,two days to transmit precipitation inputs to stream channels , Subsurface stormflow,contribute water as baseflow ,Gaining stream,interception,Canopy Interception,snow interception,Canopy snow interception ,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,drained from relatively fine-textured soil matrices,Vertical matrix flow,"longest flowpaths through deep, fine-textured soil or fractured bedrock .",Pistonflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil water storage and release,Soil water storage,little groundwater storage ,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 125,"Post, D.A. and Jones, J.A., 2001. Hydrologic regimes of forested, mountainous, headwater basins in New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oregon, and Puerto Rico. Advances in Water Resources, 24(9-10), pp.1195-1210.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1708(01)00036-7,"WS1,3,6,7,8; Hubbard Brook, New Hampshire",4,1205,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,forest vegetation is leafless/forest is in leaf/a time closer to the time of summer vegetation physiological activity,3,Forest described,Describes deciduous forest vegetation,Soil texture described,Describes shallow coarse soils,Glacier described,Discusses Holocene glaciation,Slopes described,Describes relatively steep slopes,N,N,N,N,N,,,,transmit most water inputs rapidly to stream channels , Subsurface stormflow,"accumulation and melt of a seasonal snowpack , ",Snowmelt,interception (primarily of snow),Canopy snow interception ,interception  ,Canopy Interception,water uptake (evapotranspiration),Evapotranspiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"accumulation and melt of a seasonal snowpack , ", Seasonal snow storage,limited soil moisture storage  ,Soil water storage,little groundwater storage  ,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 126,"Post, D.A. and Jones, J.A., 2001. Hydrologic regimes of forested, mountainous, headwater basins in New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oregon, and Puerto Rico. Advances in Water Resources, 24(9-10), pp.1195-1210.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1708(01)00036-7,"Bisley, Luquillo",4,1205,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,Forest described,Describes tropical rainforest canopies ,Horizons described,Describes upper soil with macropores and deep clay soil,N,N,N,N,N,N,Unknown items identified,"longest flowpaths through deep, fine-textured soil or fractured bedrock",N,,,,shallow saturated flow through numerous macropores in the upper 0.5 m of soil  ,Lateral macropore flow,slowly released into stream channels as baseflow ,Gaining stream,intercept precipitation,Interception,evapotranspire,Evapotranspiration,"longest flowpaths through deep, fine-textured soil or fractured bedrock .",Pistonflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,moisture storage in the very deep (9 m) clay soils  ,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 127,"Quinton, WL, and M Hayashi. “The Flow and Storage of Water in the Wetland-Dominated Central Mackenzie River Basin: Recent Advances and Future Directions.” Prediction in Ungauged Basins: Approaches for Canada’s Cold Regions, 2005, 45–66.",,"http://www.scottycreek.com/media/documents/publications/17_Quinton%20&%20Hayashi,%202004.pdf","Scotty Creek Catchment, Liard River, Northwest Territories",,62,SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS,Open Access,,"From the results of recent studies (e.g. Hayashi et al., 2004; Quinton et al., 2003), a conceptual model of runoff generation for the wetland-dominated basins of the lower Liard River valley has begun to develop. Peat plateaus represent areas of saturated permafrost that rise above the surrounding terrain. This enables them to effectively impound water in the bogs, while re-directing flow in the fens. Owing to their relatively high topographic position and the limited water storage capacity within their active layer, peat plateaus also shed water to the surrounding wetlands. The flowpath then followed by this drainage water depends upon the type of wetland that receives it. Water entering channel fens is more likely to be conveyed toward the basin outlet, than water entering bogs. This conceptual model contributes to resolving some of the difficult issues in the hydrological modelling of northern basins, especially in relation to the storage and routing functions of wetlands. Runoff-generation algorithms in hydrological models must account for the storage capacity of the bogs. Similarly, routing algorithms in distributed hydrological models need to incorporate the network of channel fens. Preliminary studies suggest that surface roughness and channel slope may be the essential factors controlling the flow of surface water in channel fens.",Land use / Land cover,Peat plateaus (saturated permaforst)/channel fens/bogs,3,N,N,1,Wetland described,Describes peat/wetland vegetations,N,N,N,N,Topography described,Describes saturated permafrost on high topographic position surrounded by wetlands,N,N,N,N,N,,,,re-directing flow in the fens ,Organic layer interflow,Water entering channel fens is more likely to be conveyed toward the basin outlet ,SE flow from riparian zone,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,permafrost,Permafrost storage,limited water storage capacity within their active layer ,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,water entering bogs ,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 128,"Quinton, WL, M Hayashi, and LE Chasmer. “Peatland Hydrology of Discontinuous Permafrost in the Northwest Territories: Overview and Synthesis.” Canadian Water Resources Journal 34, no. 4 (2009): 311–28.",,https://doi.org/10.4296/cwrj3404311,"Scotty Creek Catchment, Liard River, Northwest Territories",,316,Runoff Generation on Permafrost Plateaus,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Interannual,years with greater water inputs/years with lower precipitation depths,2,N,N,Soil hydraulic properties described,Describes saturated hydraulic conductivity being depth dependent due to decomposition of organic materials,N,N,Topography described,Describes about frost table forming an irregular topography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface drainage  , Subsurface stormflow,Snowmelt,Snowmelt,infiltration  ,Infiltration,"frost table depressions are filled and become interconnected to form a continuous subsurface drainage pathway  (Wright et al., 2009), similar to the “fill and spill” effects  ",Groundwater flooding,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,permafrost,Permafrost storage,soil thaws  ,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,soil moisture ,Soil water storage,water table depth increases,Water table fall,,,,,,,,,,,, 129,"Reid, L.M. and Lewis, J., 2009. Rates, timing, and mechanisms of rainfall interception loss in a coastal redwood forest. Journal of Hydrology, 375(3-4), pp.459-470.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.06.048,"North Fork Caspar Creek watershed, California",,469,Conclusions,Public Domain,,"Measurements of rainfall, stemflow, and throughfall at Caspar Creek indicate that approximately 22.4% of the rainfall in this 120-year-old redwood forest is stored by foliage and bark and evaporates before it reaches the litter layer. More than half of the water contributing to total interception loss is intercepted after the initial wet-up period during a storm, either to evaporate during the storm or to be held in storage for evaporation after the storm. Because leaf-area indices are relatively high in coniferous forests, the surface area of wetted foliage is large during storms, so low evaporation rates (per unit area of water surface) can lead to large volumes of water evaporated (per unit area of ground surface). Nevertheless, interception rates observed during periods of intense rainfall appear to be too high to be explained by in rain evaporation alone, even if all foliage surfaces are wetted. An additional component of in-rain interception might be accounted for by absorption by bark. Because the water storage capacity in bark is quite large in the Caspar Creek forest, the amount of rainfall absorbed by bark during most storms is expected to be roughly proportional to the amount of rain encountering the bark. The volume of water sequestered per unit time would thus increase with rainfall intensity, while the proportion of rainfall intercepted would remain relatively constant, as observed. Comparison of the timing of throughfall relative to rainfall in a nearby clearing indicates that the volume of water in storage in the canopy varies with rainfall intensity. Static storage in foliage is estimated to be about 1 mm, while the dynamic component of foliar storage can be as high as 2.4 mm. During periods of high-intensity rain, total foliar storage is therefore expected to exceed 3 mm. Water balance calculations suggest that interception loss accounted for about half the annual evapotranspiration in the North Fork Caspar Creek watershed when it supported a 120-year-old redwood forest (Table 4). About 68% of the annual evapotranspiration occurs during the October–April wet season, and during this time interception accounts for about two-thirds of the loss. ",N,N,1,Season and rainfall intensity,periods of high-intensity rain/October-April wet seasons,2,Forest described,Describes redwood forest vegetation,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Stemflow,Stemflow,Throughfall,Throughfall,interception loss,Canopy Interception,reaches the litter layer,Forest floor interception,evaporate,Canopy evaporation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -130,"Sanda, M., Vitvar, T., Kulasova, A., Jankovec, J., & Cislerova, M. (2014). Run-off formation in a humid, temperate headwater catchment using a combined hydrological, hydrochemical and isotopic approach (Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic). Hydrological Processes, 28(8), 3217–3229.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9847,Uhlířská,,3225,Results and Discussion: Runoff generation during events; Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,slopes/wetlands/GWs,3,Season,winter periods/rain and snowmelt periods,2,N,N,Soil types described,Describes granitic sediments below histosols,Geology described,Describes fractured bedrocks,Slopes described,Describes hillslopes,N,N,N,N,N,,,,mixes  with the GW in the granitic sediments below the histosols,Mixing,bypasses the peatland and contributes directly to the stream ,Subsurface stormflow,hillslope return flow  ,Return flow,preferential flow ,Lateral macropore flow,slower soil matrix flow  ,Lateral matrix flow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,"the perennial GW in deluviofluvial sediments, primarily recharged via snowmelt ",Vertical drainage to groundwater,supplies the stream in winter periods  ,Gaining stream,preferential flow through the upslope saturated soil-weathered bedrock interface,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,,,,,,,,,,,,,,hillslope pore water,Tension storage,peatland,Organic layer,Perennial GW ,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +130,"Sanda, M., Vitvar, T., Kulasova, A., Jankovec, J., & Cislerova, M. (2014). Run-off formation in a humid, temperate headwater catchment using a combined hydrological, hydrochemical and isotopic approach (Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic). Hydrological Processes, 28(8), 3217–3229.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9847,Uhlířská,,3225,Results and Discussion: Runoff generation during events; Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,slopes/wetlands/GWs,3,Season,winter periods/rain and snowmelt periods,2,N,N,Soil types described,Describes granitic sediments below histosols,Geological types described,Describes fractured bedrocks,Slopes described,Describes hillslopes,N,N,N,N,N,,,,mixes  with the GW in the granitic sediments below the histosols,Mixing,bypasses the peatland and contributes directly to the stream ,Subsurface stormflow,hillslope return flow  ,Return flow,preferential flow ,Lateral macropore flow,slower soil matrix flow  ,Lateral matrix flow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,"the perennial GW in deluviofluvial sediments, primarily recharged via snowmelt ",Vertical drainage to groundwater,supplies the stream in winter periods  ,Gaining stream,preferential flow through the upslope saturated soil-weathered bedrock interface,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,,,,,,,,,,,,,,hillslope pore water,Tension storage,peatland,Organic layer,Perennial GW ,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 131,"Sayer, A.M., Walsh, R.P. and Bidin, K., 2006. Pipeflow suspended sediment dynamics and their contribution to stream sediment budgets in small rainforest catchments, Sabah, Malaysia. Forest Ecology and Management, 224(1-2), pp.119-130.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.12.012,"W8S5 catchment, Danum Valley, Borneo Island",5.3-5.5,128,Discussion and Implications ,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Multiple catchments,W3/W7,2,Rainfall intensity,very high magnitude and intensity rainstorms/smaller intensity and magnitude storms,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Multiple interpretations demonstrated,Describes alternative explanations,N,,,,pipe and macropore segments become more connected thereby increasing the contributing area  ,Connectivity of lateral preferential flow pathways,The speed of pipe response implies a preferential flow mechanism,Vertical macropore flow,pipeflow  ,Lateral macropore flow,"to some extent, Hortonian overland flow ",Infiltration excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture (antecedent wetness)  ,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 132,"Scheffler, R., Neill, C., Krusche, A.V. and Elsenbeer, H., 2011. Soil hydraulic response to land-use change associated with the recent soybean expansion at the Amazon agricultural frontier. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 144(1), pp.281-289.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2011.08.016,Tanguro,4.3,286,Permeabilities vs. storm intensities – expected runoff mechanisms,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Land cover,forest/soybeans/pasture,3,Event,stronger storms/all the other storms,2,Vegetation described,Describes various vegetations,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Describes absence of slope,N,N,N,N,N,,,,"HOF, may occur occasionally in some places ",Infiltration excess flow,sub-surface storm flow (SSF)  ,Subsurface stormflow,saturation overland flow (SOF)  ,Saturation excess flow,vertical flowpaths  ,Vertical matrix flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched water table ,Perched water tables,water retention of the soil  ,Tension storage,Ponding,Depression storage,Impeding layer,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,, 133,"Schellekens, J., Scatena, F.N., Bruijnzeel, L.A., Van Dijk, A.I.J.M., Groen, M.M.A. and Van Hogezand, R.J.P., 2004. Stormflow generation in a small rainforest catchment in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico. Hydrological Processes, 18(3), pp.505-530.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1335,"Bisley II, Luquillo",,527,Discussion: A conceptual model of the runoff generation picture in the Bisley II catchment,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Multiple properties described,Describes abundant macropores and a pronounced soil structure of the topsoil,N,N,Topography described,Describes topography favoring rapid lateral flow,N,N,Limitations discussed,Describes a flaw in the present application of the mixing model,N,,,,percolate ,Vertical matrix flow,"subsurface storm flow, SSSF",Subsurface stormflow,SOF ,Saturation excess flow,return flow (RF) ,Return Flow,"At places where SSSF converges, such as in hillslope hollows",Topographic convergence,baseflow  ,Gaining stream,soil water that flows along the weathering front before entering the stream channel ,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,abundant macropores,Lateral macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched water table  ,Perched water tables,soil moisture,Soil water storage,groundwater,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 134,"Seibert, Jan, and Jeffrey J McDonnell. “On the Dialog between Experimentalist and Modeler in Catchment Hydrology: Use of Soft Data for Multicriteria Model Calibration.” Water Resources Research 38, no. 11 (2002): 23–1.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2001WR000978,Maimai M8 experimental catchment,2.2,3,Perceptual Model of the Maimai Watershed,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,hillslopes/hollows/riparian zones,3,Event,small events/larger events,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Describes hillslopes,N,N,N,N,N,,,,"riparian zone (i.e., the near-stream valley bottom) could account for the volume of old water in the channel hydrograph ",Subsurface stormflow from riparian zone,topographic convergent zones on the slopes,Topographic convergence,new water moved to depth ,Vertical matrix flow,Lateral pipe flow then formed along the soil bedrock interface  ,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,old water,Displacement of groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched water table  ,Perched water tables,riparian zone,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 135,"Sen, Sumit, Puneet Srivastava, Kyung H Yoo, Jacob H Dane, Joey N Shaw, and Moon S Kang. “Runoff Generation Mechanisms in Pastures of the Sand Mountain Region of Alabama—a Field Investigation.” Hydrological Processes 22, no. 21 (2008): 4222–32.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7025,"Sand Mountain Research and Experimental Station, DeKalb County, Alabama",,4226,Runoff generation mechanism,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Catchment spatial scale,location 4/location 6/location 16/location 26,4,Event,event 1/event2/event 3,3,N,N,Horizons described,Describes a presence of a restrictive layer near the surface,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,IE mechanism ,Infiltration excess flow,residual runoff from the high intensity rainfall period ,Subsurface stormflow,"runoff for the initial 10 – 15 min, followed by no runoff ",Partial area IE flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched water table ,Perched water tables,restrictive layer,Soil stratification,initial existence of hydrophobicity of the soil ,Hydrophobicity,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -136,"Shanley, J.B., Sebestyen, S.D., McDonnell, J.J., McGlynn, B.L. and Dunne, T., 2015. Water's Way at Sleepers River watershed–revisiting flow generation in a post‐glacial landscape, Vermont USA. Hydrological Processes, 29(16), pp.3447-3459.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10377,"Sleepers River, Vermont",,3456,Summing Up,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Describes glacial deposits,Geology described,Describes high storage capacity in a low-permeability material,Topography described,Describes rugged topography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,VSA concept  ,Expansion of saturated areas,return flow,Return Flow,snowmelt ,Snowmelt,SOF,Saturation excess flow,baseflow,Groundwater Flow,water delivery from hillslope to stream,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,"jointing and fracturing, which form primary controls on drainage patterns (Newell, 1970) and spring locations (Dunne, 1980)",Pistonflow,mixing of return flow and direct precipitation,Mixing,old water dominates stormflow ,Displacement of groundwater,spring locations,springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,high storage capacity in a low-permeability material,Groundwater Storage,fragipan,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +136,"Shanley, J.B., Sebestyen, S.D., McDonnell, J.J., McGlynn, B.L. and Dunne, T., 2015. Water's Way at Sleepers River watershed–revisiting flow generation in a post‐glacial landscape, Vermont USA. Hydrological Processes, 29(16), pp.3447-3459.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10377,"Sleepers River, Vermont",,3456,Summing Up,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,Soil types described,Describes glacial deposits,Geological types described,Describes high storage capacity in a low-permeability material,Topography described,Describes rugged topography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,VSA concept  ,Expansion of saturated areas,return flow,Return Flow,snowmelt ,Snowmelt,SOF,Saturation excess flow,baseflow,Groundwater Flow,water delivery from hillslope to stream,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,"jointing and fracturing, which form primary controls on drainage patterns (Newell, 1970) and spring locations (Dunne, 1980)",Pistonflow,mixing of return flow and direct precipitation,Mixing,old water dominates stormflow ,Displacement of groundwater,spring locations,springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,high storage capacity in a low-permeability material,Groundwater Storage,fragipan,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 137,"Singh, Nitin K, Ryan E Emanuel, Brian L McGlynn, and Chelcy F Miniat. “Soil Moisture Responses to Rainfall: Implications for Runoff Generation.” Water Resources Research 57, no. 9 (2021): e2020WR028827.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028827,"WS02, Coweeta, North Carolina",5.5,13,Soil Moisture and Runoff,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,hillslopes/riparian zones,2,Event and rainfall intensity,larger storms/mean storm intensity,2,N,N,Soil hydraulic properties described,Describes high infiltration rates and large storage capacities,N,N,N,N,N,N,Uncertainty described,Describes not detecting any effect of preferential flow on soil moisture-runoff relationships,N,,,,infiltration ,Infiltration,subsurface contributions from hillslopes to runoff  ,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,subsurface flows from riparian zones influence streamflow,Subsurface stormflow from riparian zone,unsaturated flow from NS areas of hillslopes  ,Lateral Unsaturated flow,rapid propagation of wetting fronts  , Vertical matrix flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture is believed to contribute substantially to subsurface storage ,Soil water storage,Shallow groundwater ,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 138,"Sklash, M.G. and Farvolden, R.N., 1979. The role of groundwater in storm runoff. Journal of Hydrology, 43(1-4), pp.45-65.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(79)90164-1,Ruisseau des Eaux Volees,,45,Abstract,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Catchment spatial scale,discharge areas/rest of the basin,2,Season and rainfall intensity with snow,the most intense rain storms and the most prolific melting days/other,2,N,N,N,N,N,Mentions hydrogeologically diverse watersheds,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snow-melt ,Snowmelt,groundwater discharge,Groundwater Flow,near-surface tension-saturated capillary fringe ,Capillary Rise,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Groundwater ,Groundwater Storage,groundwater ridging,Groundwater ridging,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 139,"Soulsby, C., Tetzlaff, D., Rodgers, P., Dunn, S. and Waldron, S., 2006. Runoff processes, stream water residence times and controlling landscape characteristics in a mesoscale catchment: An initial evaluation. Journal of Hydrology, 325(1-4), pp.197-221.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.10.024,"Feshie, Scotland",4.5,214,Conceptual model of catchment response,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Soil or Geology,responsive' soils/'recharge' soils,2,N,N,1,N,N,Multiple properties described,Describes various soil characteristics,N,N,Topography described,Discuss saptial heterogeneity in mountainous catchment,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snowmelt  , Snowmelt,slower vertical drainage to the soil/bedrock interface  ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,saturation overland flow  ,Saturation excess flow,shallow sub-surface storm flow ,Subsurface stormflow,deeper subsurface storm flow ,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,groundwater contributions  ,Groundwater Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water table ,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 140,"Soulsby, Chris, and Sarah M Dunn. “Towards Integrating Tracer Studies in Conceptual Rainfall-Runoff Models: Recent Insights from a Sub-Arctic Catchment in the Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland.” Hydrological Processes 17, no. 2 (2003): 403–16.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1132,"Allt a’ Mharcaidh catchment, Scotland",,404,STUDY AREA AND DATA SOURCES,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,down-slope area/valley bottom area,2,N,N,1,Wetland described,Describes Blanket Peats,Soil types described,Describes podzolic soils and their heterogeneity,Glacier described,Describes glacial and periglacial impacts,Slopes described,Describes steepness of hillslopes,N,N,N,N,N,,,,freely draining  ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,flows laterally down slope in the deeper subsurface  ,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,transient lateral flow paths (subsurface stormflow) in the more permeable organic surface horizon  ,Organic layer interflow,preferential flow  , Connectivity of lateral preferential flow pathways,"Overland flow from these, often saturated, areas  ",Saturation excess flow,return flow  ,Return Flow,deeper subsurface flow that contributes to groundwater recharge  ,Infiltration into bedrock,Groundwater discharges in the riparian zone  ,Riparian Groundwater Flow,springs,Springflow,seepage,Exfiltration,,,,,,,,,,,, organic surface horizon ,Organic Layer,"saturated, areas",Soil saturation,riparian zone,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -141,"Soulsby, Chris. “Hydrological Controls on Acid Runoff Generation in an Afforested Headwater Catchment at Llyn Brianne, Mid-Wales.” Journal of Hydrology 138, no. 3–4 (1992): 431–48.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(92)90129-J,"Ll1 control catchment, Llyn Brianne, Wales",,435,Catchment hydrology,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,hillslope/drainage ditch,2,Season,wet periods/winter period/summer storms,3,Wetland described,Describes existence of tree roots and peats,Soil types described,Describes stagnopodzol and podzol-peat,Geology described,Describes unconsolidated and highly permeable bedrock,Slopes described,Describes hillslopes,N,N,N,N,N,,,,macropores which facilitate vertical drainage ,Vertical macropore flow,"impermeable bedrock, where it is deflected downslope towards the drainage ditch ",Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,bedrock was unconsolidated and appeared to be highly permeable ,Infiltration into bedrock,deep throughflow  ,Subsurface stormflow,saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Transpiration losses  ,Transpiration,seepage of water under a suitable hydraulic gradient ,Exfiltration,percolation and deep seepage above the bedrock ,Vertical matrix flow,seepage into the bed of the ditch  ,Reinfiltration,overland flow to be routed rapidly and directly along plough furrows,Rill flow, permeable drift material which forms the base of drainage ditches,Losing stream,,,,,,,,,,saturated wedge  ,Perched water tables,saturation is transient and the saturated zone contracts rapidly after storm events ,Expansion of saturated areas,Peats in upland Wales saturate rapidly,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +141,"Soulsby, Chris. “Hydrological Controls on Acid Runoff Generation in an Afforested Headwater Catchment at Llyn Brianne, Mid-Wales.” Journal of Hydrology 138, no. 3–4 (1992): 431–48.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(92)90129-J,"Ll1 control catchment, Llyn Brianne, Wales",,435,Catchment hydrology,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,hillslope/drainage ditch,2,Season,wet periods/winter period/summer storms,3,Wetland described,Describes existence of tree roots and peats,Soil types described,Describes stagnopodzol and podzol-peat,Geological types described,Describes unconsolidated and highly permeable bedrock,Slopes described,Describes hillslopes,N,N,N,N,N,,,,macropores which facilitate vertical drainage ,Vertical macropore flow,"impermeable bedrock, where it is deflected downslope towards the drainage ditch ",Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,bedrock was unconsolidated and appeared to be highly permeable ,Infiltration into bedrock,deep throughflow  ,Subsurface stormflow,saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Transpiration losses  ,Transpiration,seepage of water under a suitable hydraulic gradient ,Exfiltration,percolation and deep seepage above the bedrock ,Vertical matrix flow,seepage into the bed of the ditch  ,Reinfiltration,overland flow to be routed rapidly and directly along plough furrows,Rill flow, permeable drift material which forms the base of drainage ditches,Losing stream,,,,,,,,,,saturated wedge  ,Perched water tables,saturation is transient and the saturated zone contracts rapidly after storm events ,Expansion of saturated areas,Peats in upland Wales saturate rapidly,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 142,"Soulsby, Christopher, C Birkel, J Geris, J Dick, C Tunaley, and D Tetzlaff. “Stream Water Age Distributions Controlled by Storage Dynamics and Nonlinear Hydrologic Connectivity: Modeling with High-Resolution Isotope Data.” Water Resources Research 51, no. 9 (2015): 7759–76.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR017888,"Bruntland Burn catchment, Scotland",2,7760,Study Site,CC-BY-4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"Previous work has shown that the hydrological response of the Bruntland Burn is strongly dependent on the connectivity between the steeper podzols and peats in the riparian wetland [Birkel et al., 2014]. The extent of saturation in the riparian wetland expands and contracts in response to antecedent wetness and event precipitation [similar to Dunne et al., 1975]. In wet periods, the saturation zone was observed to extend to 40% of the catchment area and the connectivity between the hillslopes and wetland is strong as a result of lateral flow [Ali et al., 2014]. This drives the main storm period response of the catchment, with runoff being generated by saturation overland flow from this expanding saturation zone which is fed by seepage from upslope [Tetzlaff et al., 2014]. In drier periods, the saturation zone can be as low as 2% of the catchment and the hillslopes can become disconnected. At these times, streamflow is sustained mainly from groundwater in the drift [Soulsby et al., 1998; Blumstock et al., 2015]. However, precipitation events following dry antecedent periods mainly generate runoff from the saturated area. At such times, precipitation on the drier hillslopes simply replenishes soil moisture deficits [Tetzlaff et al., 2014; Geris et al., 2015].",Hillslope position,riparian wetland/hillslopes,2,Wetness,wet periods/drier periods,2,N,N,Soil types described,Describes podzols and peats,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,connectivity between the hillslopes and wetland is strong as a result of lateral flow  ,Connectivity,saturation overland flow  ,Saturation excess flow,seepage from upslope  ,Exfiltration,groundwater in the drift  ,Groundwater Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,extent of saturation in the riparian wetland expands and contracts ,Expansion of saturated areas,replenishes soil moisture deficits  ,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -143,"Spence, C, SV Kokelj, SA Kokelj, M McCluskie, and N Hedstrom. “Evidence of a Change in Water Chemistry in Canada’s Subarctic Associated with Enhanced Winter Streamflow.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences 120, no. 1 (2015): 113–27.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JG002809,"Moss subwatershed, Baker Creek watershed, Yellowknife Northwest Territories",6,123,Conceptual Model of Chemistry During Winter,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,"Within this model, the three major subdivisions of land cover in this landscape are considered: exposed Precambrian bedrock, soil-filled areas covered with wetland or forest vegetation underlain by permafrost, and open water in ponds, lakes, and connecting streams. The spring freshet is a predominant feature of this hydrological regime (Figure 10a). During this time, contributing areas can be large with significant portions of the basin hydrologically connected to the outlet. This can be dampened when dry conditions during the previous freezeup leave large storage deficits relative to snowmelt inputs in soil-filled areas and lakes. Runoff from exposed bedrock carries solutes into downslope soil filled areas where it is augmented by local runoff generation and additional solute load. The frost table at this time of year is shallow, so runoff pathways tend to be in shallow soil depths where DOC can be transported downslope. Inorganic nitrogen sources are available because most vegetation is dormant until after the freshet when the soils thaw and the growing season begins. The remainder of the summer is typically characterized by evapotranspiration rates that exceed rainfall, such that the water table elevation drops in concert with the frost table, and large storage deficits develop in lakes and soil-filled components of the landscape (Figure 10b). Runoff from exposed bedrock carrying solutes is intercepted in the soil-filled areas and goes into storage. During the typically dry summer conditions, soil-filled areas are hydrologically disconnected from the stream and do not contribute runoff, suppressing chemical transport (e.g., late summer 2012/2013). There can be some subsurface transport of water, solids, and carbon, but inorganic nitrogen tends to be efficiently used by the vegetation with little left for transport downstream. Lake levels decline from the low headwater runoff, reducing streamflow. [...] However, when autumn rainfall is sufficient, lateral flows from bedrock can cause water tables to rise and overcome storage deficits in soil-filled areas. The interaction of subsurface flow with deeper mineral soils at the base of the thick active layer may increase solute loads. Saturation of soils also maintains the water table near the topographic surface so that the majority of water flux is through high hydraulic conductivity zones of organic-rich soils, which augments the carbon flux. Inorganic nitrogen loading begins to increase in the fall as vegetation goes into senescence. During a typical recession, the conditions illustrated in Figure 10b likely continue right into the period when freezeback begins. A comparison of Figures 10b–10d highlights the differences the model suggests exist in water, carbon, solute, and nitrogen fluxes that occur during a period of enhanced winter streamflow. By midwinter during the periods of enhanced winter streamflow, the freezeback of soils has been completed, isolating most terrestrial areas from the lake-stream network. High autumn rainfall-runoff results in a high level of storage in the lakes and an ample volume of water available to provide steady streamflow through the winter. ",Soil or Geology,bedrock/soil-filled areas/open water,3,Season,spring freshet/dry summer/freezeback ,3,Seasonal change discussed,Describes growing season of vegetation,N,N,Geology described,Mentions Precambrian bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,spring freshet  ,Snowmelt,basin hydrologically connected to the outlet ,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,intercepted in the soil-filled areas ,Reinfiltration,steady streamflow through the winter ,Channel flow,Runoff from exposed bedrock,IE flow from impermeable areas,runoff pathways tend to be in shallow soil depths ,Subsurface stormflow,majority of water flux is through high hydraulic conductivity zones of organic-rich soils,Organic layer interflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,frost table  ,Permafrost storage,Lake levels  ,Lake storage,Saturation of soils also maintains the water table near the topographic surface  ,Soil saturation,soils thaw,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,soil-filled areas and goes into storage,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,, -144,"Troch, Peter A, Marco Mancini, Claudio Paniconi, and Eric F Wood. “Evaluation of a Distributed Catchment Scale Water Balance Model.” Water Resources Research 29, no. 6 (1993): 1805–17.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR00398,"WE-38, Mahantango Creek Experimental Catchment, Pennsylvania",3.1,1809,Mahantango Creek Experimental Catchment,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Describes confining layer,Topography described,Describes correlation between groundwater profile and topography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,remain relatively moist because of this frequent rainfall and their proximity to the high water table ,Capillary Rise,actual evapotranspiration (ET)  ,Evapotranspiration,baseflow  ,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,keep the soils at or near field capacity ,Tension storage,fragipan soils,Soil stratification,water table ,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +143,"Spence, C, SV Kokelj, SA Kokelj, M McCluskie, and N Hedstrom. “Evidence of a Change in Water Chemistry in Canada’s Subarctic Associated with Enhanced Winter Streamflow.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences 120, no. 1 (2015): 113–27.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JG002809,"Moss subwatershed, Baker Creek watershed, Yellowknife Northwest Territories",6,123,Conceptual Model of Chemistry During Winter,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,"Within this model, the three major subdivisions of land cover in this landscape are considered: exposed Precambrian bedrock, soil-filled areas covered with wetland or forest vegetation underlain by permafrost, and open water in ponds, lakes, and connecting streams. The spring freshet is a predominant feature of this hydrological regime (Figure 10a). During this time, contributing areas can be large with significant portions of the basin hydrologically connected to the outlet. This can be dampened when dry conditions during the previous freezeup leave large storage deficits relative to snowmelt inputs in soil-filled areas and lakes. Runoff from exposed bedrock carries solutes into downslope soil filled areas where it is augmented by local runoff generation and additional solute load. The frost table at this time of year is shallow, so runoff pathways tend to be in shallow soil depths where DOC can be transported downslope. Inorganic nitrogen sources are available because most vegetation is dormant until after the freshet when the soils thaw and the growing season begins. The remainder of the summer is typically characterized by evapotranspiration rates that exceed rainfall, such that the water table elevation drops in concert with the frost table, and large storage deficits develop in lakes and soil-filled components of the landscape (Figure 10b). Runoff from exposed bedrock carrying solutes is intercepted in the soil-filled areas and goes into storage. During the typically dry summer conditions, soil-filled areas are hydrologically disconnected from the stream and do not contribute runoff, suppressing chemical transport (e.g., late summer 2012/2013). There can be some subsurface transport of water, solids, and carbon, but inorganic nitrogen tends to be efficiently used by the vegetation with little left for transport downstream. Lake levels decline from the low headwater runoff, reducing streamflow. [...] However, when autumn rainfall is sufficient, lateral flows from bedrock can cause water tables to rise and overcome storage deficits in soil-filled areas. The interaction of subsurface flow with deeper mineral soils at the base of the thick active layer may increase solute loads. Saturation of soils also maintains the water table near the topographic surface so that the majority of water flux is through high hydraulic conductivity zones of organic-rich soils, which augments the carbon flux. Inorganic nitrogen loading begins to increase in the fall as vegetation goes into senescence. During a typical recession, the conditions illustrated in Figure 10b likely continue right into the period when freezeback begins. A comparison of Figures 10b–10d highlights the differences the model suggests exist in water, carbon, solute, and nitrogen fluxes that occur during a period of enhanced winter streamflow. By midwinter during the periods of enhanced winter streamflow, the freezeback of soils has been completed, isolating most terrestrial areas from the lake-stream network. High autumn rainfall-runoff results in a high level of storage in the lakes and an ample volume of water available to provide steady streamflow through the winter. ",Soil or Geology,bedrock/soil-filled areas/open water,3,Season,spring freshet/dry summer/freezeback ,3,Seasonal change discussed,Describes growing season of vegetation,N,N,Geological types described,Mentions Precambrian bedrock,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,spring freshet  ,Snowmelt,basin hydrologically connected to the outlet ,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,intercepted in the soil-filled areas ,Reinfiltration,steady streamflow through the winter ,Channel flow,Runoff from exposed bedrock,IE flow from impermeable areas,runoff pathways tend to be in shallow soil depths ,Subsurface stormflow,majority of water flux is through high hydraulic conductivity zones of organic-rich soils,Organic layer interflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,frost table  ,Permafrost storage,Lake levels  ,Lake storage,Saturation of soils also maintains the water table near the topographic surface  ,Soil saturation,soils thaw,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,soil-filled areas and goes into storage,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,, +144,"Troch, Peter A, Marco Mancini, Claudio Paniconi, and Eric F Wood. “Evaluation of a Distributed Catchment Scale Water Balance Model.” Water Resources Research 29, no. 6 (1993): 1805–17.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR00398,"WE-38, Mahantango Creek Experimental Catchment, Pennsylvania",3.1,1809,Mahantango Creek Experimental Catchment,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Describes confining layer,Topography described,Describes correlation between groundwater profile and topography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,remain relatively moist because of this frequent rainfall and their proximity to the high water table ,Capillary Rise,actual evapotranspiration (ET)  ,Evapotranspiration,baseflow  ,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,keep the soils at or near field capacity ,Tension storage,fragipan soils,Soil stratification,water table ,Water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 145,"Uchida, Taro, Ken’ichirou Kosugi, and Takahisa Mizuyama. “Effects of Pipe Flow and Bedrock Groundwater on Runoff Generation in a Steep Headwater Catchment in Ashiu, Central Japan.” Water Resources Research 38, no. 7 (2002): 24–1.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1029/2001WR000261,"Toinotani watershed, Kyoto University Forest, Ashiu","2, 6",2,"Study Site, Summary and Conclusions",CC BY 4.0,http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"[9] Fresh bedrock is exposed at the lower end of the watershed (Figure 1). Water continuously flows from the soil layer just above the weir (Figures 1 and 2), and this point is referred to as the “spring.” The surface outlets of some natural soil pipes were seen along the longitudinal axis of the hollow (Figures 1 and 2). [...] [10] Previous hydrological studies of Toinotani zero-order valley have demonstrated the importance of pipe flow in runoff generation [Mizuyama, 1994; Uchida et al., 1999]. Mizuyama [1994] observed that during a heavy rain (total rainfall was 70 mm; peak rainfall intensity was 18 mm h−1), water flowed from the spring, pipe A, and pipe group B (Figure 2). Hortonian overland flow did not occur in Toinotani as a result of the high saturated hydraulic conductivity of the surface soil. Even in this heavy storm event, the groundwater table did not intersect the soil surface, and saturation overland flow was seldom observed [Mizuyama, 1994]. However, pipe flow discharge resulted in surface flow in between the outlet of pipe A and the spring (Figure 2). A recent study called the overland flow from soil pipes “pipe overland flow” [Putty and Prasad, 2000]. At Toinotani both subsurface storm flow and pipe overland flow have been shown to be dominant sources of storm runoff generation (Figure 2). [11] Measurements of 102 storms showed that the storm runoff could be classified into three stages. In the first stage, water discharge occurs only from the spring. As the rainfall intensity and the cumulative rainfall increase, water comes out of pipe A (Figure 2). Under the heaviest rainfall, additional discharge occurs from pipe group B (the third stage). A combination of the antecedent precipitation index and the peak rainfall intensity is useful to predict the presence of ephemeral flow from pipe A and pipe group B [Uchida et al., 1999]. [...] Lateral water movement could be classified into two categories based on the rainfall magnitude. When the total rainfall was less than ∼30 mm, the runoff process could be explained by Darcy's law using the saturated hydraulic conductivity obtained from soil cores. When the total rainfall amount was greater than ∼30 mm, streamflow immediately increased after the occurrence of pipe flow, even though the pore water pressure at the near-spring well was stable. Moreover, when pipe flow occurred, the estimated effective hydraulic conductivity was 1–2 orders of magnitude greater than the measured saturated hydraulic conductivity. Results of both the thermal response and recession hydrograph indicated that when pipe flow was >0.008 mm h−1 (0.013 L s−1), the source of streamflow was the same as pipe flow. In other words, the transient groundwater was delivered from the area upslope of the soil pipe outlet to the stream via soil pipes, shortcutting the normal mixing with the groundwater near the spring. [45] When the antecedent condition was relatively dry (API10 was <7 mm), the transient groundwater was dominated by preevent soil water. In contrast, after a storm with >70 mm of rainfall and wet antecedent condition, water emerging from the bedrock contributed to the formation of transient saturated groundwater. Furthermore, despite the dry antecedent condition, after a heavy rainfall with >190 mm the bedrock groundwater was an important contributor to the transient groundwater in the upslope area. When water emerging from the bedrock contributed to the formation of the transient groundwater, the bedrock groundwater was delivered to the stream via soil pipes, shortcutting the normal mixing process through the soil matrix. Consequently, after a heavy downpour the contribution of bedrock groundwater to the falling limb of both streamflow and pipe flow were considerable.",N,N,1,Event,Event stages,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,pipe flow  ,Lateral macropore flow,saturation overland flow  ,Saturation excess flow,“pipe overland flow”  ,Return flow,runoff process could be explained by Darcy's law using the saturated hydraulic conductivity obtained from soil cores ,Lateral matrix flow,normal mixing with the groundwater near the spring ,Mixing,spring,Springflow,contribution of bedrock groundwater to the falling limb of both streamflow,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water emerging from the bedrock  contributed to the formation of transient saturated groundwater,Perched water tables,bedrock groundwater,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 146,"Uhlenbrook, S, and Ch Leibundgut. “Development and Validation of a Process Oriented Catchment Model Based on Dominating Runoff Generation Processes.” Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Part B: Hydrology, Oceans and Atmosphere 25, no. 7–8 (2000): 653–57.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/S1464-1909(00)00080-0,"Brugga experimental basin, Black Forest Mountains",2,653,Study site and runoff generation,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Soil or Geology,steep highly permeable slopes/fractured hard rock aquifer/(peri-)glacial deposits of the slopes,3,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Glacier described,Describes glacial and periglacial impacts,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Fast runoff components (direct runoff)  are generated on sealed or saturated areas,Overland flow,Slow base flow components (deep groundwater)  originate from the fractured hard rock aquifer,Groundwater Flow,intermediate flow system,Subsurface stormflow,macropore flow  ,Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched groundwater tables  ,Perched water tables,less conductive layers,Soil stratification,fractured hard rock aquifer,Bedrock fracture storage,Soil water,Soil water storage,saturated areas,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,, -147,"Uhlenbrook, S, and Ch Leibundgut. “Process-Oriented Catchment Modelling and Multiple-Response Validation.” Hydrological Processes 16, no. 2 (2002): 423–40.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.330,"Brugga experimental basin, Black Forest Mountains",,425,Summary of the results of the experimental investigations in the study site,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,flat areas (<10°)/hilly uplands with minor slope (<15°)/Steeper hillslopes (>10° at the base and >15° at the hilltop; average: 21Ð8°)/steeper units (average: 30°),4,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Mentions fractured hard rock aquifer,N,N,N,N,Uncertainty described,Discusses uncertainty in isotopic measurements,N,,,,saturation overland flow  ,Saturation excess flow,Sealed areas generate Horton overland flow ,IE flow from impermeable areas,fast macropore flow ,Unsaturated macropore flow,percolates  ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,delayed matrix flow ,Vertical matrix flow,soil water displacement effects (piston flow)  ,Pistonflow,transmissivity feedback mechanism  ,Lateral matrix flow,baseflow,Gaining stream,springs,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched aquifers ,Perched water tables,deep groundwater,Groundwater Storage,antecedent moisture content,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -148,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Dornbirnerach,,305,GEOLOGICAL FIELD-MAPPING OFRUNOFF-GENERATION MECHANISMS,CC BY-NC-ND,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,"The catchment is part of the Helvetic zone including limestone, sandstone and marl with a small part of flysch in the northern area. A few areas consist of carbonates that have a tendency to karstify, but no fast runoff reaction related to these processes has been observed. The hillslopes are very steep resulting in a high relief energy. The hydrogeologic runoff process map of the catchment is shown in Figure 2a. Large parts of the catchment are characterised by shallow interflow processes. These areas, especially in the upper part of the hillslopes, may get saturated and form surface runoff. The scree areas in the lower parts of the hillslopes have rather large depth and are dominated by deeper interflow processes which may buffer some of the fast surface runoff generated in the upper parts.",Hillslope position,upper part/lower parts,2,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Geology described,Slopes described,Describes that hillslopes are very steep,N,N,N,N,N,,,,shallow interflow processes ,Subsurface stormflow,saturated and form surface runoff ,Saturation excess flow,buffer some of the fast surface runoff generated in the upper parts ,Reinfiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -149,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",2.0,https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Gail,,305,GEOLOGICAL FIELD-MAPPING OFRUNOFF-GENERATION MECHANISMS,CC BY-NC-ND,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,"Large areas of the catchment are characterised by surface runoff. There is, however, a potential for runoff retention during strong precipitation events on areas dominated by deep groundwater flow and interflow of different origins. Both in the Karnic Alps as well as in the Gail crystalline deep creeping areas occur (dark green areas) that are characterised by deep groundwater flow (Figure 3a). Scree areas in the lower parts of the hillslopes and valley deposits in the shallower valleys of the Karnic Alps are dominated by deeper interflow. The dolomites in the Lienzer dolomites are strongly weathered forming additional scree areas with deep interflow in the valley bottoms. Runoff retention of the tributaries from the southern and northern valleys may also occur on the large alluvial cone in the valley bottom. During very wet conditions, the alluvial cone may however get saturated so that tributaries can bypass it.",Hillslope position,Scree areas in the lower parts of the hillslopes/valley bottoms/alluvial cone in the valley bottom,3,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Geology described,Topography described,Discusses scree and alluvial cone,N,N,N,N,N,,,,surface runoff ,Overland flow,deep groundwater flow  ,Regional groundwater flow,interflow,Subsurface stormflow,Runoff retention,Reinfiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Saturated,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +147,"Uhlenbrook, S, and Ch Leibundgut. “Process-Oriented Catchment Modelling and Multiple-Response Validation.” Hydrological Processes 16, no. 2 (2002): 423–40.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.330,"Brugga experimental basin, Black Forest Mountains",,425,Summary of the results of the experimental investigations in the study site,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,flat areas (<10°)/hilly uplands with minor slope (<15°)/Steeper hillslopes (>10° at the base and >15° at the hilltop; average: 21Ð8°)/steeper units (average: 30°),4,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Mentions fractured hard rock aquifer,N,N,N,N,Uncertainty described,Discusses uncertainty in isotopic measurements,N,,,,saturation overland flow  ,Saturation excess flow,Sealed areas generate Horton overland flow ,IE flow from impermeable areas,fast macropore flow ,Unsaturated macropore flow,percolates  ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,delayed matrix flow ,Vertical matrix flow,soil water displacement effects (piston flow)  ,Pistonflow,transmissivity feedback mechanism  ,Lateral matrix flow,baseflow,Gaining stream,springs,Springflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched aquifers ,Perched water tables,deep groundwater,Groundwater Storage,antecedent moisture content,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +148,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Dornbirnerach,,305,GEOLOGICAL FIELD-MAPPING OFRUNOFF-GENERATION MECHANISMS,CC BY-NC-ND,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,"The catchment is part of the Helvetic zone including limestone, sandstone and marl with a small part of flysch in the northern area. A few areas consist of carbonates that have a tendency to karstify, but no fast runoff reaction related to these processes has been observed. The hillslopes are very steep resulting in a high relief energy. The hydrogeologic runoff process map of the catchment is shown in Figure 2a. Large parts of the catchment are characterised by shallow interflow processes. These areas, especially in the upper part of the hillslopes, may get saturated and form surface runoff. The scree areas in the lower parts of the hillslopes have rather large depth and are dominated by deeper interflow processes which may buffer some of the fast surface runoff generated in the upper parts.",Hillslope position,upper part/lower parts,2,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Geological types described,Slopes described,Describes that hillslopes are very steep,N,N,N,N,N,,,,shallow interflow processes ,Subsurface stormflow,saturated and form surface runoff ,Saturation excess flow,buffer some of the fast surface runoff generated in the upper parts ,Reinfiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +149,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",2.0,https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Gail,,305,GEOLOGICAL FIELD-MAPPING OFRUNOFF-GENERATION MECHANISMS,CC BY-NC-ND,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,"Large areas of the catchment are characterised by surface runoff. There is, however, a potential for runoff retention during strong precipitation events on areas dominated by deep groundwater flow and interflow of different origins. Both in the Karnic Alps as well as in the Gail crystalline deep creeping areas occur (dark green areas) that are characterised by deep groundwater flow (Figure 3a). Scree areas in the lower parts of the hillslopes and valley deposits in the shallower valleys of the Karnic Alps are dominated by deeper interflow. The dolomites in the Lienzer dolomites are strongly weathered forming additional scree areas with deep interflow in the valley bottoms. Runoff retention of the tributaries from the southern and northern valleys may also occur on the large alluvial cone in the valley bottom. During very wet conditions, the alluvial cone may however get saturated so that tributaries can bypass it.",Hillslope position,Scree areas in the lower parts of the hillslopes/valley bottoms/alluvial cone in the valley bottom,3,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Geological types described,Topography described,Discusses scree and alluvial cone,N,N,N,N,N,,,,surface runoff ,Overland flow,deep groundwater flow  ,Regional groundwater flow,interflow,Subsurface stormflow,Runoff retention,Reinfiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Saturated,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 150,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",3.0,https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Wimitzbach,,305,GEOLOGICAL FIELD-MAPPING OFRUNOFF-GENERATION MECHANISMS,CC BY-NC-ND,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,"The hillslopes have a similar structure all over the catchment and are rather plane in the upper parts and steep in the lower parts. The Wimitzbach was not glaciated during the last ice age resulting in a strong weathering of the upper parts and tops of the hillslopes. The hydrogeologic runoff process map is shwon in Figure 2c. Due to the strong weather- ing processes the upper parts an crests of the hillslopes are dominated by deep interflow. The steeper lower parts of the hillslopes on the other hand are characterised by shallow interflow or surface runoff on rocks. The valley bottoms are filled with fine sediments and not very permeable.",Hillslope position,plane in the upper parts/lower parts,2,N,N,1,N,N,Horizons described,Discusses strong weathering in upper parts,N,N,Slopes described,Discusses flat top parts and steeper lower parts,N,N,N,N,N,,,,deep interflow ,Subsurface stormflow,surface runoff on rocks ,IE flow from impermeable areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 151,"Viglione, Alberto, Magdalena Rogger, Herbert Pirkl, Juraj Parajka, and Günter Blöschl. “Conceptual Model Building Inspired by Field-Mapped Runoff Generation Mechanisms.” Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 66, no. 3 (2018): 303–15.",4.0,https://doi.org/10.2478/johh-2018-0010,Perschling,,305,GEOLOGICAL FIELD-MAPPING OFRUNOFF-GENERATION MECHANISMS,CC BY-NC-ND,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,"The whole catchment is characterised by interflow processes in the weathering zone that has a depth from 2 to 5 m. The valley bottom is filled with sandy gravel and influenced by -groundwater. A cross section of the runoff processes on a typical hillslope in the flysch zone is shown in Figure 3b. On the upper parts of the hillslopes water infiltrates into the shallow subsurface while at the slope toes some saturation and surface runoff may occur.",Hillslope position,valley bottom/upper parts of the hillslopes,2,N,N,1,N,N,Horizons described,Discusses sandy gravel in valley bottom,Geology described,Discusses flysch zone in hillslopes,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,interflow ,Subsurface stormflow,infiltrates  ,Infiltration,saturation and surface runoff may occur ,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater ,Groundwater Storage,Saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +groundwater. A cross section of the runoff processes on a typical hillslope in the flysch zone is shown in Figure 3b. On the upper parts of the hillslopes water infiltrates into the shallow subsurface while at the slope toes some saturation and surface runoff may occur.",Hillslope position,valley bottom/upper parts of the hillslopes,2,N,N,1,N,N,Horizons described,Discusses sandy gravel in valley bottom,Geological types described,Discusses flysch zone in hillslopes,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,interflow ,Subsurface stormflow,infiltrates  ,Infiltration,saturation and surface runoff may occur ,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater ,Groundwater Storage,Saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 152,"Viville, D., G. Drogue, A. Probst, B. Ladouche, S. Idir, J.-L. Probst, and T. Bariac (2010), Hydrological Behaviour of the Granitic Strengbach Catchment (Vosges Massif, Eastern France) During a Flood Event in Status and Perspectives of Hydrology in Small Basins, edited by A. Herrmann and S. Schumann, vol. 336, pp. 77–83, IAHS Publ., doi:10.1016/j/gexplo.2009.10.001.",,https://www.researchgate.net/profile/D-Viville/publication/50514589_Conceptual_rainfall-runoff_models_versus_field_observations_during_flood_events_on_the_small_Strengbach_granitic_catchment_Vosges_Massif_North-Eastern_France/links/55fc064608aeba1d9f3a4948/Conceptual-rainfall-runoff-models-versus-field-observations-during-flood-events-on-the-small-Strengbach-granitic-catchment-Vosges-Massif-North-Eastern-France.pdf,"Strengbach catchment, Vosges",,81,Results Field Measurements (last paragraph),Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Event,before the reainfall event/peak flows/recession limb,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,pre-event water draining the deep layers  ,Groundwater Flow,rapid infiltration of an important part of rain via preferential pathways (e.g. macropores)  ,Vertical macropore flow,groundwater exfiltration ,Exfiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,sharp rising of the water table ,Water table rise,groundwater ridging,Groundwater ridging,increasing extent of the saturated area  ,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 153,"Vivoni, Enrique R, Robert S Bowman, Robert L Wyckoff, Ryan T Jakubowski, and Kate E Richards. “Analysis of a Monsoon Flood Event in an Ephemeral Tributary and Its Downstream Hydrologic Effects.” Water Resources Research 42, no. 3 (2006).",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR004036,"Río Puerco, New Mexico",5,9,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,floodplain/reaches,2,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,ephemeral watersheds ,Ephemeral streamflow,channel losses  ,Losing stream,propagating flood wave  ,Attenuation,kinematic propagation occurs in the saturated aquifer ,Displacement of groundwater,recharge of the underlying aquifer,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water table level are highly transient  ,Water table rise,shallow aquifer, Groundwater storage,high antecedent wetness,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 154,"Wan, Chengwei, Kai Li, Huili Zhang, Zhongbo Yu, Peng Yi, and Chenghao Chen. “Integrating Isotope Mass Balance and Water Residence Time Dating: Insights of Runoff Generation in Small Permafrost Watersheds from Stable and Radioactive Isotopes.” Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 326, no. 1 (2020): 241–54.",,https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-020-07315-1,"SAYR, Yellow River",,251,Hydrological evolution of surface and subsurface flows,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface runoff  ,Subsurface stormflow,recharge ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,discharge,Groundwater flow,"improvement of subsurface hydraulic connectivity, reactivating and alteration of subsurface runoff pathways ",Connectivity of lateral preferential flow pathways,shallow groundwater contributed limited portion in discharges,Gaining stream,groundwater storage reservoirs became the most important supply source to maintain regional runoff  ,Regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,thawing  of permafrost ,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,permafrost,Permafrost Storage,groundwater storage,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -155,"Wang, Sheng, Zhiyong Fu, Hongsong Chen, Yunpeng Nie, and Qinxue Xu. “Mechanisms of Surface and Subsurface Runoff Generation in Subtropical Soil-Epikarst Systems: Implications of Rainfall Simulation Experiments on Karst Slope.” Journal of Hydrology 580 (2020): 124370.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124370,"Mulian watershed, Huanjiang county, Guangxi",4.5,11,Slope scale conceptual hydrological models for the soil-epikarst system,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Rainfall intensity,Rain intensity,5,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Mentions unweathered bedrock and epikarst,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltrates,Infiltration,Fill-and-spill  ,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,SR,Saturation excess flow,percolates into epikarst fissures or conduits ,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,SSR, Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,depression area has water holding capacity ,Bedrock hollows,fissures,Bedrock fracture storage,water tables reach the soil surface,Water table rise,Soil layer saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,, +155,"Wang, Sheng, Zhiyong Fu, Hongsong Chen, Yunpeng Nie, and Qinxue Xu. “Mechanisms of Surface and Subsurface Runoff Generation in Subtropical Soil-Epikarst Systems: Implications of Rainfall Simulation Experiments on Karst Slope.” Journal of Hydrology 580 (2020): 124370.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124370,"Mulian watershed, Huanjiang county, Guangxi",4.5,11,Slope scale conceptual hydrological models for the soil-epikarst system,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Rainfall intensity,Rain intensity,5,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Mentions unweathered bedrock and epikarst,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltrates,Infiltration,Fill-and-spill  ,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,SR,Saturation excess flow,percolates into epikarst fissures or conduits ,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,SSR, Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,depression area has water holding capacity ,Bedrock hollows,fissures,Bedrock fracture storage,water tables reach the soil surface,Water table rise,Soil layer saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,, 156,"Webb, R.W., Musselman, K.N., Ciafone, S., Hale, K.E. and Molotch, N.P., 2022. Extending the vadose zone: Characterizing the role of snow for liquid water storage and transmission in streamflow generation. Hydrological Processes, 36(3), p.e14541.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14541,"Saddle Catchment, Niwot Ridge LTER, Boulder, Colorado",4,11,DISCUSSION,CC-BY-NC,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/,"A previous study in the SDL catchment using hydrogeochemical end member mixing analysis concluded that ~60% of the annual streamflow is a result of overland or lateral within-snow flow paths and ~10% interflow (Hill, 2017). This has been explained by a combination of frozen ground that inhibits infiltration in the winter and spring (Rey et al., 2021; Williams et al., 2015) and saturation excess overland flow as the deep snow produces snowmelt volumes above the storage capacity of the relatively shallow soils (Hill, 2017). Our observations confirm that high θw interpreted to mean ponding at the snow–soil interface is occurring within the snowpack that is likely producing overland/intra-snowpack flow. Importantly, our observations bring new insight to the catchment-scale distribution of these processes. Rather than elevated θw occurring across a widespread area, our results suggest that regions of very high θw values (i.e. >0.2) are highly localized at the base of a hillslope and shallow snow adjacent to deeper snowdrifts (Figure 6) yet may contribute disproportionately to catchment response (Figure 7). ",Hillslope position,Hillslope position,2,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,overland or lateral within-snow flow paths  ,IE flow from frozen ground,intra-snowpack flow ,Basal flow,saturation excess overland flow  ,Saturation excess flow,snowmelt  ,Snowmelt,snowdrifts  ,Snow drifting,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,ponding at the snow–soil interface   ,Depression storage,frozen ground that inhibits infiltration in the winter and spring,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,deep snow, Snow storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 157,"Wenninger, Jochen, Stefan Uhlenbrook, Nils Tilch, and Christian Leibundgut. “Experimental Evidence of Fast Groundwater Responses in a Hillslope/Floodplain Area in the Black Forest Mountains, Germany.” Hydrological Processes 18, no. 17 (2004): 3305–22.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5686,"Brugga experimental basin, Black Forest Mountains",,3319,Conceptual model of groundwater and surface water flow,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,boulder field/hillslope,2,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Multiple interpretations demonstrated,Discusses two different hypotheses,N,,,,infiltrates  ,Infiltration,moves rapidly down  ,Vertical macropore flow,high hydraulic pressure induces a transient groundwater flow ,Displacement of groundwater,discharge at the saturated area and into the stream  ,Exfiltration,topographic convergence  ,Topographic convergence,altered groundwater flow lines and a significant increase of the groundwater catchment of the saturated area  ,Connectivity,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,perched aquifers  ,Perched water tables,saturated area,Soil saturation,aquifer,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 158,"Wenninger, Jochen, Stefan Uhlenbrook, Simon Lorentz, and Christian Leibundgut. “Identification of Runoff Generation Processes Using Combined Hydrometric, Tracer and Geophysical Methods in a Headwater Catchment in South Africa/Identification Des Processus de Formation Du Débit En Combinat La Méthodes Hydrométrique, Traceur et Géophysiques Dans Un Bassin Versant Sud-Africain.” Hydrological Sciences Journal 53, no. 1 (2008): 65–80.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1623/hysj.53.1.65,Weatherley catchment,,78,Refined conceptual model of runoff generation processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,upper section/lower part/near stream areas,3,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,rapid lateral flow due to macropore conductance ,Lateral macropore flow at soil horizons,seeps out and discharges over the bedrock outcrop ,Exfiltration,slow percolation  ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,slow percolation occurs through the fractured bedrock  ,Pistonflow,groundwater/surface water hydraulic control  ,Connectivity,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,near surface perched water table  ,Perched water tables,marsh groundwater  ,Riparian aquifer storage,regional groundwater system  ,Regional Groundwater storage,hollows,Bedrock hollows,,,,,,,,,,,, @@ -207,7 +207,7 @@ Soil Water to Streams",Public Domain,,"Ground water in the Neversink watershed t 179,"Penna, D., van Meerveld, H.J., Oliviero, O., Zuecco, G., Assendelft, R.S., Dalla Fontana, G. and Borga, M.A.R.C.O., 2015. Seasonal changes in runoff generation in a small forested mountain catchment. Hydrological Processes, 29(8), pp.2027-2042.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10347,"Ressi catchment, Posina River",,2040,Summary,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,Summer/fall/spring,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,5.0,Quick streamflow,Quickflow,Groundwater recessions,Gaining stream,Hillslope-stream connectivity,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,Direct channel precipitation,Channel interception,Saturation overland flow in the riparian zone,SE flow from riparian zone,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,3.0,Soil water,Soil water storage,Riparian,Riparian aquifer storage,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 180,"Han, S., Yang, Y., Fan, T., Xiao, D. and Moiwo, J.P., 2012. Precipitation‐runoff processes in Shimen hillslope micro‐catchment of Taihang Mountain, north China. Hydrological Processes, 26(9), pp.1332-1341.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.8233,"Hilly Ecosystem Research Station, Taihang",,1339,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,6.0,Infiltration loss,Infiltration into bedrock,Groundwater recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Overland runoff,Overland flow,Infiltration,Infiltration,Vertical infiltration,Vertical matrix flow,shallow lateral flow (at even soil/bedrock interface),Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,Soil mantle,Soil water storage,weathered granite gneiss bedrock storage,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 181,"Jordan, J.P., 1994. Spatial and temporal variability of stormflow generation processes on a Swiss catchment. Journal of hydrology, 153(1-4), pp.357-382.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(94)90199-6,Haute-Mentue catchment,2.3,361,Streamflow generation processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Wetness,Low flows/small storms/larger storms,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,4.0,Infiltration excess flow on bare soils,IE flow from impermeable areas,Interflow,Subsurface stormflow,Saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Contributing areas vary significantly,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,0.0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -182,"Martínez‐Mena, M., Albaladejo, J. and Castillo, V.M., 1998. Factors influencing surface runoff generation in a Mediterranean semi‐arid environment: Chicamo watershed, SE Spain. Hydrological processes, 12(5), pp.741-754.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(19980430)12:5%3C741::AID-HYP622%3E3.0.CO;2-F,Chicamo watershed,,753,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Soil or Geology,Soil texture,2,N,N,1,N,N,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil properties,Geology described,Geological properties,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,3.0,Infiltration excess runoff generation,Infiltration excess flow,Saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Infiltrability,Infiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,Soils,Soil water storage,Top soil saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +182,"Martínez‐Mena, M., Albaladejo, J. and Castillo, V.M., 1998. Factors influencing surface runoff generation in a Mediterranean semi‐arid environment: Chicamo watershed, SE Spain. Hydrological processes, 12(5), pp.741-754.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(19980430)12:5%3C741::AID-HYP622%3E3.0.CO;2-F,Chicamo watershed,,753,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Soil or Geology,Soil texture,2,N,N,1,N,N,Soil hydraulic properties described,Soil properties,Geological types described,Geological properties,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,3.0,Infiltration excess runoff generation,Infiltration excess flow,Saturation excess overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Infiltrability,Infiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,2.0,Soils,Soil water storage,Top soil saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 183,"Stewart, M.K., Mehlhorn, J. and Elliott, S., 2007. Hydrometric and natural tracer (oxygen‐18, silica, tritium and sulphur hexafluoride) evidence for a dominant groundwater contribution to Pukemanga Stream, New Zealand. Hydrological Processes: An International Journal, 21(24), pp.3340-3356.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6557,Pukemanga Stream,,3355,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Event,inter-storm/rainfall,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,8.0,Deep groundwater discharge,Gaining stream,Groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,Seepage,Exfiltration,Spring,Springflow,Ephemeral flows,Ephemeral streamflow,ET,Evapotranspiration,Fast stormflow response,Subsurface stormflow,Surface/near-surface flows,Overland flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Wetland,Soil saturation,Deep subsurface water stores,Groundwater storage,Soil water,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 184,"Sandstrom, K., 1996. Hydrochemical deciphering of streamflow generation in semi‐arid East Africa. Hydrological Processes, 10(5), pp.703-720.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(199605)10:5<703::AID-HYP313>3.0.CO;2-%23,"Harra catchment, Babati",,716,Streamflow generation in forested Harra catchment ,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,10.0,Groundwater,Gaining stream,Recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Piston,Vertical matrix flow,Macropore flow,Vertical macropore flow,Hortonian overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,Saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,runon,Reinfiltration,Groundwater ridging,Groundwater ridging,Pre-event water,Displacement of groundwater,Macropores,Lateral macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,1.0,mbuga,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 185,"McCartney, M.P., Neal, C. and Neal, M., 1998. Use of deuterium to understand runoff generation in a headwater catchment containing a dambo. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 2(1), pp.65-76.",,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2-65-1998,"Grasslands Research Station, Marondera",,74,DAMBO RAINFALL-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS,CC-BY-NC-SA,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/,"Hortonian overland flow is very rare in the Grasslands Research Catchment in Zimbabwe. Instead, it is hypothesised, supported by field observation, that satu­ration overland flow, generated solely within the area of the dambo, is the major mechanism of storm runoff production in the catchment. […] On 26/01/96 and 09/02/96, antecedent conditions within the catchment were similar and the watertable was either at or very close to the ground surface over much of the dambo on both days […] The relationship between storm characteristics and 'new' water contributions to stormflow suggests that the response across the dambo varies over short time periods. Within the dambo, where the soil profile is not completely saturated, the closeness of the perched watertable to the ground surface probably ensures that the capillary fringe (i.e. the region above the watertable which is under ten­sion but remains close to saturation) will extend to the sur­face. Under such circumstances, application of only a small amount of water can result in a large and rapid rise of the watertable (Jayatilika and Gillham, 1996), and the extent of expansion of the saturated region will be very sensitive to the amount and, to a lesser extent, to the intensity of rainfall.",N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,2.0,Saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Capillary fringe,Capillary rise,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,6.0,dambo,Soil saturation,Water table,Water table,Soil profile,Soil water storage,Perched water table,Perched water tables,Rise of the water table,Water table rise,Expansion of the saturated region,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,, @@ -216,12 +216,12 @@ Soil Water to Streams",Public Domain,,"Ground water in the Neversink watershed t 188,"George, R.J. and Conacher, A.J. (1993), Mechanisms responsible for streamflow generation on a small, salt-affected and deeply weathered hillslope. Earth Surf. Process. Landforms, 18: 291-309. ",,https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290180402,"Narrogin, Murray River",,305,Towards a runofl model,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season and event,Winter/summer/event,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,13.0,Deep aquifer discharge,Gaining stream,Spring zone discharge,Springflow,Infiltration,Infiltration,Capillary fringe,Capillary rise,Saturation overland flow,Saturation excess flow,Stormflow,Quickflow,Throughflow,Subsurface stormflow,Return flow,Return flow,Evaporation,Evaporation,Seep,Exfiltration,Infiltration excess overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,Unsaturated vertical flow processes,Vertical matrix flow,No-flow condition,Intermittent streamflow,No-flow condition,Intermittent streamflow,,,8.0,Groundwater ridging,Groundwater ridging,Saturated variable source area,Expansion of saturated areas,Perched aquifer,Perched water tables,Water levels drop,Water table fall,Surface compaction caused by stock,Compaction,Hydrophobic soil conditions,Hydrophobicity,Antecedent moisture,Soil water storage,Ponding,Depression storage,,,, 189,"Kuraś, P.K., Weiler, M. and Alila, Y., 2008. The spatiotemporal variability of runoff generation and groundwater dynamics in a snow-dominated catchment. Journal of Hydrology, 352(1-2), pp.50-66.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.12.021,"Upper Penticton Creek Watershed Experiment, British Columbia",,64,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,Summer storm/melt event,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Surface runoff,Overland flow,Near-surface throughflow,Subsurface stormflow,groundwater recharge,vertical drainage to groundwater,melt events,snowmelt,transmissitivity feedback mechanism,Lateral matrix flow,Coupling,Connectivity,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,Stream,Channel storage,groundwater levels progressively rose,Water table rise,riparian areas,Riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 190,"Hatley, C.M., Armijo, B., Andrews, K., Anhold, C., Nippert, J.B. and Kirk, M.F., 2023. Intermittent streamflow generation in a merokarst headwater catchment. Environmental Science: Advances.",,https://doi.org/10.1039/D2VA00191H,"Watershed N04D, Konza Prairie LTER, Kansas",4.6,128,Implications,CC-BY,http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"We interpret that groundwater discharge dominates headwater streamflow generation in the merokarst of N04D, during both high and low flow conditions (Fig. 8). Contributions from surface runoff are only important during some storms, and contributions from soil water are volumetrically insignificant across the entire wet season. These behaviors are in contrast to the widespread shallow-and-deep hypothesis of streamflow generation, which states that contributions to streamflow from shallow units (i.e. surface runoff and soil water) become increasingly more important relative to deep units (i.e. groundwater) under wet conditions. While studies conducted at non-karstic catchments of similar size to N04D generally support the shallow-and-deep hypothesis, we hold that the karstic properties of N04D prevent the development of such a regime. Thin soils place an upper limit on the significance of shallow flow paths, while soil macropores and bedrock fractures rapidly route water to limestone aquifers ensuring that deep flow paths remain dominant even during very wet conditions. Given that groundwater flow paths are critical in sustaining streamflow, our finding that there are groundwater storage thresholds which govern subsurface connections to the stream then implies that these thresholds are major controllers on stream intermittency. Significant, sustained streamflow can only occur when enough precipitation has fallen in a short enough amount of time to surpass the groundwater storage thresholds. -The thinly bedded nature of the limestones at N04D means that its hydrological behavior also deviates from what is typically seen in massive karst systems. Confining mudstone layers largely restrict vertical movement of water between limestones and the unique depositional history of each individual limestone bed means that each one might possess unique hydrogeological properties. Whether caused by differences in hydraulic conductivity or simple stratigraphic position, our results show that each of our studied limestone aquifers, which are vertically separated by only a couple of meters from one another, respond to recharge and interact with the stream in different ways (Fig. 4). This heterogeneity expands the capacity of the subsurface to act as a hydrological buffer, in that each limestone unit releases recharge into the stream at a different rate to effectively extend the amount of time that the stream can flow. Consistent with this observation, streams across the Flint Hills region of Kansas have greater proportions of baseflow in total streamflow than streams in adjacent, non-merokarstic regions,62 suggesting that the merokarst bedrock does improve hydrological buffering.",N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,groundwater discharge,Gaining stream,surface runoff,Overland flow,Soil macropores,Vertical macropore flow,Bedrock fractures,Pistonflow,groundwater flowpaths,Groundwater flow,Subsurface connections,Connectivity,Stream intermittancy,Intermittent streamflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Limestone aquifers,Groundwater storage,Each of our studied limestone aquifers,Multiple storage reservoirs producing discharge,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +The thinly bedded nature of the limestones at N04D means that its hydrological behavior also deviates from what is typically seen in massive karst systems. Confining mudstone layers largely restrict vertical movement of water between limestones and the unique depositional history of each individual limestone bed means that each one might possess unique hydrogeological properties. Whether caused by differences in hydraulic conductivity or simple stratigraphic position, our results show that each of our studied limestone aquifers, which are vertically separated by only a couple of meters from one another, respond to recharge and interact with the stream in different ways (Fig. 4). This heterogeneity expands the capacity of the subsurface to act as a hydrological buffer, in that each limestone unit releases recharge into the stream at a different rate to effectively extend the amount of time that the stream can flow. Consistent with this observation, streams across the Flint Hills region of Kansas have greater proportions of baseflow in total streamflow than streams in adjacent, non-merokarstic regions,62 suggesting that the merokarst bedrock does improve hydrological buffering.",N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,groundwater discharge,Gaining stream,surface runoff,Overland flow,Soil macropores,Vertical macropore flow,Bedrock fractures,Pistonflow,groundwater flowpaths,Groundwater flow,Subsurface connections,Connectivity,Stream intermittancy,Intermittent streamflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Limestone aquifers,Groundwater storage,Each of our studied limestone aquifers,Multiple storage reservoirs producing discharge,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 191,"Lana-Renault, N., Latron, J. and Regüés, D., 2007. Streamflow response and water-table dynamics in a sub-Mediterranean research catchment (Central Pyrenees). Journal of Hydrology, 347(3-4), pp.497-507.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.09.037,Arnás catchment,,503,Analysis of the streamflow and groundwater response at the event scale,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,"Dry summer, wetting-up, wet season",3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration excess runoff,Infiltration excess flow,infiltration excess runoff upon impervious,IE flow from impermeable areas,saturation excess runoff,Saturation excess flow,connected to the stream,Connectivity,Subsurface flow within the soil matrix,Lateral matrix flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,rise in the water table,water table rise,surface saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 192,"Masiyandima, M.C., van de Giesen, N., Diatta, S., Windmeijer, P.N. and Steenhuis, T.S., 2003. The hydrology of inland valleys in the sub‐humid zone of West Africa: rainfall‐runoff processes in the M'bé experimental watershed. Hydrological Processes, 17(6), pp.1213-1225.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1191,M’b ́e experimental watershed,,1224,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Wetness,Groundwater levels high/low,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Streanflow,Channel flow,Subsurface flow,Groundwater flow,saturation excess ,Saturation excess flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,saturated valley bottom areas,Soil saturation,soil moisture,soil water storage,hydromorphic fringe zone,groundwater ridging,,,,,,,,,,,, 193,"López-Moreno, J.I., Granados, I., Ceballos-Barbancho, A., Morán-Tejeda, E., Revuelto, J., Alonso-González, E., Gascoin, S., Herrero, J., Deschamps-Berger, C. and Latron, J., 2023. The signal of snowmelt in streamflow and stable water isotopes in a high mountain catchment in Central Spain. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 46, p.101356.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2023.101356,Peñalara catchment,5,8,Discussion,CC-BY-NC-ND,https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/,"The increase in δ18O over the late melt seasons and following months in each of the two study years was not strongly influenced by rainfall inputs into the snowpack, and the slope of the increase did not change significantly when snowmelt finished and the basin was free of snow. This pattern, and the very small sub-daily fluctuations in the isotopic signal during the accumulation, melt, and post-melt phases suggest a long transit time in the catchment for water inputs from snowmelt and precipitation. This is somewhat surprising, given the small size of the catchment and its impermeable granitic lithology and large areas of rocky outcrops. It is likely that Peñalara Lake, which drains 34 % of the catchment surface area and has a mean turnover time of 9 days (Toro et al., 2006), plays a role in mixing water inputs over several days, and so buffers some of the potential daily and sub-daily variability in water inputs (Leach and Laudon, 2019). However, this is not a sufficient explanation of the steady evolution of isotope enrichment and the absence of sub-daily fluctuations. The most plausible explanation is groundwater storage in coarse sediments (e.g., talus and moraines) that act as alpine aquifers (Hayashi, 2020, Tague and Grant, 2009). These types of deposits are abundant in the catchment and have an important role in the underground hydrology (Yélamos et al., 2019). The importance of the groundwater storage must explain that single isotope inputs are not quickly transferred to stream response. -Although the runoff has a relatively direct response to water inputs (showing sub-daily cycles), in particular during snowmelt period in snow dominated catchments (Krogh et al., 2022), the absence of variability in the isotope composition suggests that alpine aquifers acted as an intermediate reservoir. The Peñalara Massif has greater subsurface drainage than the surrounding mountains, where most of the streams are dry or have very low baseflow during the warmest and driest period, suggesting the importance of groundwater contributions (Yélamos et al., 2019). Thus, as has been hypothesized for river basins of Svalbard (Blaen et al., 2014), we assume that daily melt water or rainfall infiltrates into alpine aquifers and displaces the previously stored water (piston flow), rather than following a direct meltwater or rainfall runoff scheme (Yang et al., 2012). A similar process has been observed in other alpine areas dominated by snowmelt (Balestra et al., 2022, Woelber et al., 2018).",N,N,1,Season,"Snowmelt period, warm period",2,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,rainfall inputs into the snowpack,Infiltration into snowpack,snowmelt,Snowmelt,sub-daily cycles,Diurnal cycles in snowmelt,streams are dry,intermittent streamflow,baseflow,Gaining stream,infiltrates into alpine aquifer,vertical drainage to groundwater,piston flow,pistonflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snowpack,snow storage,lake,lake storage,groundwater storage,groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -194,"Pesántez, J., Birkel, C., Mosquera, G.M., Célleri, R., Contreras, P., Cárdenas, I. and Crespo, P., 2023. Bridging the gap from hydrological to biogeochemical processes using tracer-aided hydrological models in a tropical montane ecosystem. Journal of Hydrology, p.129328.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.129328,Subcatchment of Zhurucay Ecohydrological Observatory,2,2,Study site and current understanding of hydrological processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,"Hillslopes, valley-bottom wetlands",2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation type,Soil types described,Soil type,Geology described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,connectivity between hillslopes and wetlands,Connectivity,vertical soil water movement,Vertical matrix flow,infiltration,infiltration,flow laterally through the shallow organic soil,Organic layer interflow,springs,Springflow,groundwater contributions to streams,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,wetlands,Soil saturation,organic soil horizon,organic layer,shallow groundwater,groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +Although the runoff has a relatively direct response to water inputs (showing sub-daily cycles), in particular during snowmelt period in snow dominated catchments (Krogh et al., 2022), the absence of variability in the isotope composition suggests that alpine aquifers acted as an intermediate reservoir. The Peñalara Massif has greater subsurface drainage than the surrounding mountains, where most of the streams are dry or have very low baseflow during the warmest and driest period, suggesting the importance of groundwater contributions (Yélamos et al., 2019). Thus, as has been hypothesized for river basins of Svalbard (Blaen et al., 2014), we assume that daily melt water or rainfall infiltrates into alpine aquifers and displaces the previously stored water (piston flow), rather than following a direct meltwater or rainfall runoff scheme (Yang et al., 2012). A similar process has been observed in other alpine areas dominated by snowmelt (Balestra et al., 2022, Woelber et al., 2018).",N,N,1,Season,"Snowmelt period, warm period",2,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,rainfall inputs into the snowpack,Infiltration into snowpack,snowmelt,Snowmelt,sub-daily cycles,Diurnal cycles in snowmelt,streams are dry,intermittent streamflow,baseflow,Gaining stream,infiltrates into alpine aquifer,vertical drainage to groundwater,piston flow,pistonflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snowpack,snow storage,lake,lake storage,groundwater storage,groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +194,"Pesántez, J., Birkel, C., Mosquera, G.M., Célleri, R., Contreras, P., Cárdenas, I. and Crespo, P., 2023. Bridging the gap from hydrological to biogeochemical processes using tracer-aided hydrological models in a tropical montane ecosystem. Journal of Hydrology, p.129328.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.129328,Subcatchment of Zhurucay Ecohydrological Observatory,2,2,Study site and current understanding of hydrological processes,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,"Hillslopes, valley-bottom wetlands",2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation type,Soil types described,Soil type,Geological types described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,connectivity between hillslopes and wetlands,Connectivity,vertical soil water movement,Vertical matrix flow,infiltration,infiltration,flow laterally through the shallow organic soil,Organic layer interflow,springs,Springflow,groundwater contributions to streams,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,wetlands,Soil saturation,organic soil horizon,organic layer,shallow groundwater,groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 195,"Mérot, P., Durand, P. and Morisson, C., 1995. Four-component hydrograph separation using isotopic and chemical determinations in an agricultural catchment in Western France. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 20(3-4), pp.415-425.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-1946(95)00055-0,"Coet Dan, Brittany",,423,Further Comments,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltrates,infiltration,mixing,mixing,seepage,exfiltration,macropore flow, lateral macropore flow,ditch network,channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Groundwater,Groundwater storage,hillslope subsurface water ,soil water storage,riparian zone water,Riparian aquifer storage,saturated zone,soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,, 196,"Lambert, T., Pierson-Wickmann, A.C., Gruau, G., Thibault, J.N. and Jaffrezic, A., 2011. Carbon isotopes as tracers of dissolved organic carbon sources and water pathways in headwater catchments. Journal of Hydrology, 402(3-4), pp.228-238.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.014,"Kervidy-Naizin catchment, Brittany",2.1,229,Site Description,,,"The bedrock of the Kervidy-Naizin catchment is made up of fissured and fractured upper Brioverian schists. The catchment elevation ranges between 93 and 135 m above sea level and the steepest slopes do not exceed 10%. The climate is humid temperate: the mean annual rainfall recorded over the last 22 years is 713 mm, while the mean annual temperature and mean annual runoff recorded over the same period are 11 °C and 305 mm, respectively (Morel et al., 2009). Rainfall events rarely exceed 20 mm per day, and 80% of precipitations have intensity less than 4 mm per hour. Most of the storm events occur between November and March. Due to the small volume of water stored in the schist bedrock, the stream usually dries up from the end of August to the beginning of November. Ninety percent of the catchment area is dedicated to intensive agriculture, being composed mainly of pastures, maize and cereals for dairy production and pig breeding. Note that the intensive agriculture carried out on the Kervidy-Naizin catchment has led to heavy nitrate pollution with a mean nitrate concentration in the stream of around 70 mg L−1 (Molénat et al., 2008). @@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ Soils in the catchment have developed into a loamy material derived from bedrock Soil organic carbon (SOC) contents show two well marked gradients (Morel et al., 2009): (i) a rapid and strong decrease with depth: e.g. from 4.4% at 0–10 cm depth to 0.1% at 80–100 cm depth in wetland areas close to the stream network, and (ii) a progressive decline with increasing distance to the stream network: e.g. from 4.4% at 0–10 cm close to the stream down to 0.9% at 0–10 cm, 400 m away from the stream. -Previous studies focusing on water pathways and solute sources in the Kervidy-Naizin catchment showed that the uppermost soils of the wetland areas (between 0 and 30 cm depth) are the main sources of DOC and waters during storm events, accounting for 60–85% and 35% of the DOC and water fluxes, respectively (Mérot et al., 1995, Durand and Torres, 1996, Gascuel-Odoux et al., 1998, Molénat et al., 1999, Morel et al., 2009). More specifically, four water reservoirs have been identified as contributing to the stream flow in this catchment: (i) rainfall; (ii) deep (>3 m) groundwater; (iii) wetland soil water (including wetland runoff); and (iv) shallow (between 1 and 3 m deep), hillslope groundwater (Mérot et al., 1995, Durand and Torres, 1996, Morel et al., 2009). Of these four end-members, only the last two contribute significantly to the stream DOC, while the contribution of the deep groundwater and rainfall end-members always remains very low (<3%; see Morel et al., 2009).",Hillslope position,"Hillslope, wetland",2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation type,Soil types described,Soil type,Geology described,Bedrock types,Slopes described,Slope information,N,N,N,N,N,,,,stream usually dries up,intermittent streamflow,vertical water pathways,vertical matrix flow,deep grounwater contribution,gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water stored in the schist bedrock,Groundwater storage,seasonal waterlogging,Soil saturation,water table,Water table ,extent of this wetland domain is highly variable,Expansion of saturated areas,uppermost soils,soil water storage,,,,,,,,,, +Previous studies focusing on water pathways and solute sources in the Kervidy-Naizin catchment showed that the uppermost soils of the wetland areas (between 0 and 30 cm depth) are the main sources of DOC and waters during storm events, accounting for 60–85% and 35% of the DOC and water fluxes, respectively (Mérot et al., 1995, Durand and Torres, 1996, Gascuel-Odoux et al., 1998, Molénat et al., 1999, Morel et al., 2009). More specifically, four water reservoirs have been identified as contributing to the stream flow in this catchment: (i) rainfall; (ii) deep (>3 m) groundwater; (iii) wetland soil water (including wetland runoff); and (iv) shallow (between 1 and 3 m deep), hillslope groundwater (Mérot et al., 1995, Durand and Torres, 1996, Morel et al., 2009). Of these four end-members, only the last two contribute significantly to the stream DOC, while the contribution of the deep groundwater and rainfall end-members always remains very low (<3%; see Morel et al., 2009).",Hillslope position,"Hillslope, wetland",2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation type,Soil types described,Soil type,Geological types described,Bedrock types,Slopes described,Slope information,N,N,N,N,N,,,,stream usually dries up,intermittent streamflow,vertical water pathways,vertical matrix flow,deep grounwater contribution,gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water stored in the schist bedrock,Groundwater storage,seasonal waterlogging,Soil saturation,water table,Water table ,extent of this wetland domain is highly variable,Expansion of saturated areas,uppermost soils,soil water storage,,,,,,,,,, 197,"Nanda, A., Sen, S. and McNamara, J.P., 2019. How spatiotemporal variation of soil moisture can explain hydrological connectivity of infiltration-excess dominated hillslope: Observations from lesser Himalayan landscape. Journal of Hydrology, 579, p.124146.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124146,Aglar watershed,,1,Abstract,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Land cover,grassed/agro-forestry,2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation type,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration excess ,Infiltration excess flow,re-infiltrated,Reinfiltration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 198,"Basant, S., Wilcox, B.P., Leite, P.M. and Morgan, C.L., 2020. When savannas recover from overgrazing, ecohydrological connectivity collapses. Environmental Research Letters, 15(5), p.054001.",,https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab71a1,"La Copita Research Area, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station",,8,The combination of rangeland recovery and WPE alters ecohydrological connectivity,CC-BY,http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"Almost 40 years after the suspension of grazing, we find no evidence that water from the uplands is being routed to drainage areas at LCRA. These findings are contrary to the prevailing hypothesis that drainage areas continue to receive water subsidies and are more mesic than the uplands (Archer 1995, Wu and Archer 2005, Parker et al 2010). During the 20 months of our study, overland flow was nonexistent despite some relatively large rainfall events. Our soil moisture measurements also provide strong evidence that there is little if any redistribution of water from the uplands to the lower-lying drainage-woodlands. If such redistribution were occurring, there would be dramatic differences in soil moisture between the two landforms. For example, in banded vegetation drylands of Australia, soil moisture levels were 5 times higher in downslope tree groves than in adjacent upland intercanopy areas (Ludwig et al 2005). In contrast, our measurements showed insignificant differences in soil moisture. Further, our comparison of soil infiltrability and field saturated hydraulic conductivity between our ungrazed study site and the nearby grazed site demonstrates that even moderate grazing pressure dramatically diminished soil infiltrability and likely led to much higher surface runoff. Weltz and Blackburn (1995) monitored runoff from large (5 m × 7 m) plots over a 20-month period at our study site and found that runoff was still being generated from the upland areas 40 years ago (soon after the removal of livestock). They found that for rainfall events larger than 100 mm, runoff could be as high as 8% of rainfall. It is quite likely that 150 years ago, when the site was subjected to severe overgrazing, runoff from the uplands into the drainage areas was much higher. @@ -237,7 +237,7 @@ The prevailing evidence suggests that relaxation of grazing along with an increa 199,"Aubry-Wake, C., Pradhananga, D., & Pomeroy, J. W. (2022). Hydrological process controls on streamflow variability in a glacierized headwater basin. Hydrological Processes, 36(10), e14731. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14731",,https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/hyp.14731,Peyto Glacier Research Basin,5,18,Conclusions,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,ice melt,Glacier icemelt,firnmelt,Firnmelt,snowmelt,Snowmelt,streamflow,Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snowpack,snow storage,albedo,Change in albedo,glacier ice,Glacier storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 200,"Rothwell, R., Hillman, G., and Pomeroy, J. W.: Marmot Creek Experimental Watershed Study, Forest. Chron., 92, 32–36, https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc2016-010, 2016. ",,https://pubs.cif-ifc.org/doi/pdf/10.5558/tfc2016-010,Marmot Creek Experimental Watershed,,34,Research Studies 2004–2013,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snow interception,Canopy snow interception ,sublimation in spruce canopies,Canopy sublimation,snowmelt,Snowmelt,blowing snow,Snow drifting,sublimation on slopes,Sublimation,sublimated from blowing snow,Sublimation during blowing snow events,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snowfall,snow storage,snowpack cold content,Ripening,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 201,"Van der Kamp, G., Hayashi, M. and Gallen, D., 2003. Comparing the hydrology of grassed and cultivated catchments in the semi‐arid Canadian prairies. Hydrological Processes, 17(3), pp.559-575.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1157,St. Denis National Wildlife Area,,574,Conclusions,Crown copyright Canada (allows reproduction),,"Converting cultivated fields to permanent, undisturbed grasslands reduced the wind-driven snow transport and snowmelt runoff, leading to drying out of the wetlands in the converted grass areas. Two factors operating together led to this hydrological effect: (1) tall permanent grass cover is effective in trapping snow, so that the wind-driven transport of snow into wetlands is reduced in grassed catchments; (2) the undisturbed grasscover leads to the development of a macropore network in the topsoil, which increases soil infiltrability, especially during the snowmelt period when the soil is frozen. The macropore network takes several years to develop after introduction of the grass, as indicated by the delayed hydrological response of the wetlands to the cultivated-to-grass conversion. Increased dryness of the soil beneath the grass is also a contributing factor, but its contribution is relatively minor. The net effect of the permanent cover of undisturbed tall grass is to trap snow effectively and infiltrate snowmelt water and summertime rain into the soil, where most of itis used to supply transpiration by the deep-rooted grass.",Land use / Land cover,cultivated fields/grasslands,2,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation type,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,wind-driven snow transport,Snow drifting,snowmelt,Snowmelt,macropore network of the topsoil,Vertical macropore flow,infiltrate,infiltration,transpiration,Transpiration,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,wetlands,Soil saturation,soil is frozen,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,dryness of the soil,soil water storage,trapping snow,snow storage,,,,,,,,,,,, -202,"Mair, A., Fares, A. Time series analysis of daily rainfall and streamflow in a volcanic dike-intruded aquifer system, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i, USA. Hydrogeol J 19, 929–944 (2011).",,https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-011-0740-3,"Mākaha valley, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i",,931,Conceptual model of groundwater occurrence and discharge to the stream,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltrating,infiltration,perennial,Perennial flow,groundwater discharge to the stream,gaining stream,recharge to downgradient aquifers,Losing stream,recharge resulting from irrigation,vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,aquifers,Groundwater storage,water level in upper valley well,water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +202,"Mair, A., Fares, A. Time series analysis of daily rainfall and streamflow in a volcanic dike-intruded aquifer system, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i, USA. Hydrogeol J 19, 929–944 (2011).",,https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-011-0740-3,"Mākaha valley, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i",,931,Conceptual model of groundwater occurrence and discharge to the stream,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltrating,infiltration,perennial,Perennial flow,groundwater discharge to the stream,gaining stream,recharge to downgradient aquifers,Losing stream,recharge resulting from irrigation,vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,aquifers,Groundwater storage,water level in upper valley well,water table,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 203,"Steiner, J.F., Gurung, T.R., Joshi, S.P., Koch, I., Saloranta, T., Shea, J., Shrestha, A.B., Stigter, E. and Immerzeel, W.W., 2021. Multi‐year observations of the high mountain water cycle in the Langtang catchment, Central Himalaya. Hydrological Processes, 35(5), p.e14189.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14189,"Langtang catchment, Himalaya",4,4,Research insights,CC-BY,http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"Discharge measured at the main gauging station varies between below 5 m3 s−1 (winter) and 20 m3 s−1 (monsoon, Figure 2). A steep increase in discharge occurs in May, when snow melt at high altitudes coincides with the first monsoon rains in lower regions, soil thaws and becomes saturated (Figure 2). Variability in soil moisture after saturation is driven by precipitation events that result in high altitude snow fall and almost immediate melt shortly thereafter. By early June, the soil is near-saturated due to the snow melt, monsoon precipitation begins, and high elevation snow and ice melt is occurring. As a result the discharge rises rapidly, and has marked diurnal peaks. From then onwards, precipitation events measured at 5000 m a.s.l. are clearly and immediately visible in both soil moisture and discharge in the valley (Figure 2). The streamflow decreases steeply in September as the monsoon withdraws. A distinct diurnal cycle is observed throughout the year, with low/high flows in the late morning/early afternoon in January and early afternoon/midnight in May, respectively. @@ -247,7 +247,7 @@ The availability of multiple measured variables at different elevations, provide Previous research in the catchment shows a strong elevational gradient of precipitation, which peaks above 1500 mm annually around 3000 m a.s.l. (Collier & Immerzeel, 2015) and rapidly decreases up- and down-valley, with station data showing a drop from 1819 mm at 2370 m a.s.l. to just 867 mm at 3857 m a.s.l. (Immerzeel et al., 2014). At higher elevations the valley floors are generally drier than the southern and northern slopes that receive more orographic precipitation (Collier & Immerzeel, 2015). Temperatures decrease from average 15°C around 1500 m a.s.l. to 0°C at 5000 m a.s.l. Heterogeneous precipitation and temperature patterns drive variability in snow cover (Girona-Mata et al., 2019) and snow depth (Stigter et al., 2017). Areal snow melt is highly complex due to the extreme relief in the valley, patchy snow cover, and delayed melt output caused by refreezing of melt water within the snow pack (Saloranta et al., 2019). Melt contributions from glacier ice are additionally impacted by a thick layer of debris on the main glacier tongues, which inhibits melt and delays the melt peak.",N,N,1,Season,May/Jun/September,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snowmelt,Snowmelt,ice melt,Glacier icemelt,diurnal peaks,Diurnal cycles in snowmelt,refreezing of melt water,Refreezing,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil thaws,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,saturated ,Soil saturation,soil moisture,soil water storage,snow cover,snow storage,glacier ice,Glacier storage,,,,,,,,,, 204,"Helbig, M., Boike, J., Langer, M., Schreiber, P., Runkle, B.R. and Kutzbach, L., 2013. Spatial and seasonal variability of polygonal tundra water balance: Lena River Delta, northern Siberia (Russia). Hydrogeol. J, 21(1), pp.133-147.",,https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-012-0933-4,"Samoylov Island, Lena River Delta, Siberia",,145,Conclusion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,Vegetation described,Vegetation type,N,N,N,N,Slopes described,Slope information,N,N,N,N,N,,,,evapotranspiration,evapotranspiration,snow melt,Snowmelt,fast pathways for shallow subsurface drainage,organic layer interflow,fill-and-spill,Groundwater flooding,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snow cover,snow storage,thaw depth increases,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,organic soil layers,organic layer,storage water,soil water storage,depression storages,Depression storage,,,,,,,,,, 205,"McHale, M.R., McDonnell, J.J., Mitchell, M.J. and Cirmo, C.P., 2002. A field‐based study of soil water and groundwater nitrate release in an Adirondack forested watershed. Water Resources Research, 38(4), pp.2-1.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2000WR000102,"Archer Creek watershed, New York",5.2,13,Conceptualization of NO3− Release,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,hillslope hollows,Topographic convergence,mixing,mixing,flow along the soil-till interface between rocks,Lateral macropore flow at soil-bedrock interface,infiltrating,infiltration,springs,Springflow,rivulets,Rill flow,across the wetland surface,saturation excess flow,draining soil water,vertical matrix flow,baseflow,gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil water,Soil water storage,deeper till groundwater,groundwater storage,rising water table,water table rise,wetland stream channels,channel storage,wetland,soil saturation,near-stream wetland groundwater,riparian aquifer storage,,,,,,,, -206,"Munk, L.A., Boutt, D.F., Moran, B.J., McKnight, S.V. and Jenckes, J., 2021. Hydrogeologic and Geochemical Distinctions in Freshwater‐Brine Systems of an Andean Salar. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 22(3), p.e2020GC009345.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GC009345,Salar de Atacama,5,13,Flow Path Evolution,Not open-access,N,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,long flow paths,groundwater flow,evaporation,evaporation,springs,springflow,seeps,Exfiltration,regional flow paths,regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,small lagoons,lake storage,regional groundwater,regional groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +206,"Munk, L.A., Boutt, D.F., Moran, B.J., McKnight, S.V. and Jenckes, J., 2021. Hydrogeologic and Geochemical Distinctions in Freshwater‐Brine Systems of an Andean Salar. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 22(3), p.e2020GC009345.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GC009345,Salar de Atacama,5,13,Flow Path Evolution,Not open-access,N,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,long flow paths,groundwater flow,evaporation,evaporation,springs,springflow,seeps,Exfiltration,regional flow paths,regional groundwater flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,small lagoons,lake storage,regional groundwater,regional groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 207,"Lyon, S.W., Troch, P.A., Broxton, P.D., Molotch, N.P. and Brooks, P.D., 2008. Monitoring the timing of snowmelt and the initiation of streamflow using a distributed network of temperature/light sensors. Ecohydrology: Ecosystems, Land and Water Process Interactions, Ecohydrogeomorphology, 1(3), pp.215-224.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.18,"Valles Caldera, Jemez, New Mexico",,221,Mound-of-water conceptual model,Not open-access,N,Not open-access,N,N,1,Season,End of monsoon/winter/snowmelt/after snowmelt,4,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Uncertainty described,Mentions stream that behaves differently and speculates on reason,N,,,,snowmelt,snowmelt,presence and absence of streamflow,intermittent streamflow,infiltrates,infiltration,evapotranspiration,evapotranspiration,recharge ,vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water table,water table ,mound of water fluctuating,water table rise,snow accummulation ,snow storage,draw down the water table,water table fall,soil moisture,soil water storage,,,,,,,,,, 208,"De Figueiredo, J.V., de Araújo, J.C., Medeiros, P.H.A. and Costa, A.C., 2016. Runoff initiation in a preserved semiarid Caatinga small watershed, Northeastern Brazil. Hydrological Processes, 30(13), pp.2390-2400.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10801,Aiuaba Experimental Basin,,2393,Results and Discussion,,,"Study site During the period of monitoring, only negligible base-flow has been observed. This feature leads the river discharges to cease few hours after the rainfall event is over. In fact, neither geophysical surveys nor on-site trenches (up to 3 m deep) were able to reach the water-table level in the meta-sedimentary region of AEB, leading to the assumption of hydraulic disconnection between surface and groundwater flow (Costa et al., 2013). @@ -255,7 +255,7 @@ Rainfall and runoff at the AEB The increasing runoff coefficient on the downstream direction (i) follows an increase on the average annual rainfall (490, 570 and 650 mm from 2005 to 2014 in the AEB, Malhada and Iguatu catchments, respectively); (ii) follows an increase on the vegetation degradation; and (iii) may also indicate that the water infiltrated on the headwaters return as surface flow. […] Among the main reasons for the low runoff coefficient at AEB, there are high potential evapotranspiration rates (fivefold the precipitation annually), high infiltration rates associated with deep water table and vegetation interception. In fact, Medeiros et al. (2009), studying the Caatinga in the AEB in the period 2004–2008, concluded that 12% of the rainfall (26 times the runoff) consisted of forest interception losses, caused mainly by the high evaporation rate, despite the vegetation low canopy-trunk storage capacity (0.58 mm). For the events with precipitation above 10 mm, interception losses account for 11% on average, with coefficient of variation of 0.7. During the wet period, monthly interception losses range from 2 to 20 mm in May and February, respectively, whereas in the dry season total rainfall is negligible. Runoff under different geological constraints -The results have shown different hydrological responses for sub-catchments under distinct geological constraints. For the prevailing sedimentary sub-catchment (SSC, 9 km2, with gauging station EF1 in its outlet, Figure 1), infiltration is a key variable because of the existing deep permeable alluvium. For the prevailing crystalline sub-catchment (CSC, 2 km2, whose outlet is controlled by gauging station EF2, Figure 1), soils have a lateritic impediment layer at the depth of 1 m – 2 m. ",N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,river discharges to cease,ephemeral streamflow,groundwater flow,groundwater flow,infiltrated,infiltration,returns as surface flow,exfiltration,evapotranspiration,evapotranspiration,forest interception,canopy interception,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,deep water table,water table,soils have a lateritic impediment layer,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +The results have shown different hydrological responses for sub-catchments under distinct geological constraints. For the prevailing sedimentary sub-catchment (SSC, 9 km2, with gauging station EF1 in its outlet, Figure 1), infiltration is a key variable because of the existing deep permeable alluvium. For the prevailing crystalline sub-catchment (CSC, 2 km2, whose outlet is controlled by gauging station EF2, Figure 1), soils have a lateritic impediment layer at the depth of 1 m – 2 m. ",N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Bedrock types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,river discharges to cease,ephemeral streamflow,groundwater flow,groundwater flow,infiltrated,infiltration,returns as surface flow,exfiltration,evapotranspiration,evapotranspiration,forest interception,canopy interception,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,deep water table,water table,soils have a lateritic impediment layer,Soil stratification,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 209,"Penny, G., Srinivasan, V., Apoorva, R., Jeremiah, K., Peschel, J., Young, S. and Thompson, S., 2020. A process‐based approach to attribution of historical streamflow decline in a data‐scarce and human‐dominated watershed. Hydrological Processes, 34(8), pp.1981-1995.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13707,TG Halli watershed,4.1,1989,Contemporary streamflow generation,Not open-access,N,Not open-access,N,N,1,N,N,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,infiltration excess overland flow,Infiltration excess flow,flowlines,Rill flow,downward propagation of wetting front,vertical matrix flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Soil moisture,Soil water storage,soil saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 210,"Saffarpour, S., Western, A.W., Adams, R. and McDonnell, J.J., 2016. Multiple runoff processes and multiple thresholds control agricultural runoff generation. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 20(11), pp.4525-4545.",,https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-20-4525-2016,"RBF subcatchment, Lang Lang River catchment",5,4542,Conclusion,CC-BY,http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/,"This study has examined the role of intensity and wetness thresholds in determining runoff responses for an agricultural catchment in the Lang Lang River catchment, Victoria, Australia. Both intensity dependent and wetness dependent thresholds were identified in the runoff response. During wet conditions, hydrological connectivity has a strong influence on water delivery to the riparian area. Saturation excess runoff from the riparian zone was also important. The results of this study demonstrated the following. 1. Runoff generation in most events is dependent on the catchment connectivity and soil moisture conditions. When the sum of the antecedent soil water storage and event rainfall exceeded 250 mm, runoff was typically produced by a mix of saturation excess and subsurface storm flow. Under these conditions, a water table forms in the soil and a saturated area develops in the riparian zone. When the water level rises to within about 1 m of the surface at mid-slope sites, rapid subsurface flow pathways are activated which connected the mid-slope and riparian area, contributing event flow to the flume at the catchment outlet. 2. When the catchment became very wet, high water levels persisted at the mid-slope sites, which remained hydrologically connected to the riparian area, and baseflow became persistent between events. 3. High rainfall intensity events produced runoff even when the antecedent soil water storage (ASI) plus event rainfall depth was below the 250 mm threshold. This could be due to either Hortonian overland flow or fast subsurface preferential flow paths being activated",N,N,1,Wetness,more/less than 250mm storage+rainfall,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,Multiple interpretations demonstrated,Two hypotheses for fast flow under high intensity rainfall,N,,,,connectivity ,Connectivity,saturation excess flow from the riparian zone,SE flow from riparian zone,subsurface storm flow,subsurface stormflow,baseflow,gaining stream,hortonian overland flow,infiltration excess flow,fast subsurface preferential flow paths,Lateral macropore flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,riparian area,riparian aquifer storage,soil moisture,soil water storage,water table,water table,saturated area,soil saturation,water level rises,water table rise,,,,,,,,,, 211,"Sánchez‐Murillo, R., Romero‐Esquivel, L.G., Jiménez‐Antillón, J., Salas‐Navarro, J., Corrales‐Salazar, L., Álvarez‐Carvajal, J., Álvarez‐McInerney, S., Bonilla‐Barrantes, D., Gutiérrez‐Sibaja, N., Martínez‐Arroyo, M. and Ortiz‐Apuy, E., 2019. DOC transport and export in a dynamic tropical catchment. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 124(6), pp.1665-1679.",,https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JG004897,"Cerro Dantas, Quebrada Grande",,,Key Drivers Controlling Tropical DOC Transport and Export,,,"This study demonstrated that large daily rainfall up to 250 mm (a typical rainfall amount during tropical storm passages; Zhang et al., 2017) and sustained saturation within riparian areas (Figures 2a and 5) led to rapid allochthonous DOC transport to the stream network (Figure 4b). Quebrada Grande, as other humid tropical headwater catchments, was characterized by a fast runoff response (also known as wave celerity; McDonnell & Beven, 2014), which turns in, prompt solute transport (~1.25 hr; Figure 2d), reaching a DOC maximum near 8 mg C/L (Figure 4c). @@ -318,20 +318,20 @@ The influence of the antecedent soil moisture on runoff generation was quantifie 247,"Meißl, G, Formayer, H, Klebinder, K, et al. Climate change effects on hydrological system conditions influencing generation of storm runoff in small Alpine catchments. Hydrological Processes. 2017; 31: 1314–1330.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.11104,Ruggbach,4.3,1326,Comparison of the three catchments,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,,,1,Vegetation types described,Vegetation types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,fast runoff reaction,Quickflow,fast subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,slopes with a short connection to the receiving stream,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 248,"Meißl, G, Formayer, H, Klebinder, K, et al. Climate change effects on hydrological system conditions influencing generation of storm runoff in small Alpine catchments. Hydrological Processes. 2017; 31: 1314–1330.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.11104,Brixenbach,4.3,1326,Comparison of the three catchments,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Wetness,High/low soil moisture conditions,2,Vegetation types described,Vegetation types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,surface runoff,Overland flow,shallow subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,hydrophobic effects,Hydrophobicity,soil moisture,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 249,"Meißl, G, Formayer, H, Klebinder, K, et al. Climate change effects on hydrological system conditions influencing generation of storm runoff in small Alpine catchments. Hydrological Processes. 2017; 31: 1314–1330.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.11104,Längentalbach,4.3,1326,Comparison of the three catchments,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,,,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,rock outcrops producing […] Hortonian overland flow,IE flow from impermeable areas,infiltrates […] in the scree slopes,Reinfiltration,runoff,Channel flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -250,"Kleine, L, Tetzlaff, D, Smith, A, Goldhammer, T, Soulsby, C. Using isotopes to understand landscape-scale connectivity in a groundwater-dominated, lowland catchment under drought conditions. Hydrological Processes. 2021; 35:e14197. ",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14197,Demnitzer Millcreek catchment,2,,Study Site,CC-BY 4.0,,"The catchment is characterized by complex hydrogeology formed during the last glaciation about 10–15 k years BP (Gelbrecht et al., 2005). The southern part is in a glacial meltwater valley with glacio-fluvial sediments prevalent extending from Warsaw to Berlin (Figure 1b), where the catchment outlet discharges water into Lake Dehmsee and subsequently into the River Spree. The more elevated northern part of the catchment is dominated by freely draining unconsolidated ground moraines, with glacio-fluvial sands and gravels prevalent in the South. Soils are freely draining and have a high fraction of sand (Table 1), though the northerly soils associated with the ground moraine have a higher silt content and retain more water (Figure 1c). Near the stream and in depressions, peat deposits are extensive and remain close to saturation throughout the year. Kettle holes are abundant as depressions in the landscape and are strongly influenced by groundwater (Nitzsche et al., 2017). These small water bodies provide important habitats and ecosystem services (Biggs et al., 2017). The finer soils in the northern and eastern parts of the catchment are used for agricultural production (Table 1, Figure 1d). Multiple peatlands and fens exist along the stream network that are partly used as meadows. Land use gradually changes to forestry towards the southern region of the catchment (Figure 1d). Large parts of the catchment's forest cover are dominated by stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) which were intensively managed in the past. More recent management aims to enhance mixed and broadleaved forests (Lasch et al., 2002). The catchment has been historically drained, and fields in wetter areas are widely underlain with tile drainages. There is no irrigation being applied for agriculture. The anthropogenically influenced stream network (Nützmann et al., 2011) is highly drought-sensitive (Kleine et al., 2020) with flows being intermittent during dry periods (Smith, Tetzlaff, Gelbrecht, et al., 2020). Drainage and the connection of glacial hollows which formerly had no surface outflow expanded the channel network from 20 km (1790) to 88 km (Nützmann et al., 2011). This results in a transformed hydrology, channel morphology, aquatic habitats, and nutrient cycling (Blann et al., 2009). Overall, streamflow generation in the catchment is dominated by groundwater; the catchment has a strong seasonal flow regime, with highest flows generally in winter. Runoff coefficients during storm events are <5% indicating limited contributions from restricted areas of saturated or compacted soils, as well as sealed (urban/road) surfaces (Smith, Tetzlaff, Gelbrecht, et al., 2020).",N,N,1,,,1,Vegetation types described,Vegetation types,Soil described,Describes soils,Geology described,Describes geology,Topography described,Describes topography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,intermittent,Intermittent streamflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,depressions,Depression storage,close to saturation,Soil saturation,groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +250,"Kleine, L, Tetzlaff, D, Smith, A, Goldhammer, T, Soulsby, C. Using isotopes to understand landscape-scale connectivity in a groundwater-dominated, lowland catchment under drought conditions. Hydrological Processes. 2021; 35:e14197. ",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14197,Demnitzer Millcreek catchment,2,,Study Site,CC-BY 4.0,,"The catchment is characterized by complex hydrogeology formed during the last glaciation about 10–15 k years BP (Gelbrecht et al., 2005). The southern part is in a glacial meltwater valley with glacio-fluvial sediments prevalent extending from Warsaw to Berlin (Figure 1b), where the catchment outlet discharges water into Lake Dehmsee and subsequently into the River Spree. The more elevated northern part of the catchment is dominated by freely draining unconsolidated ground moraines, with glacio-fluvial sands and gravels prevalent in the South. Soils are freely draining and have a high fraction of sand (Table 1), though the northerly soils associated with the ground moraine have a higher silt content and retain more water (Figure 1c). Near the stream and in depressions, peat deposits are extensive and remain close to saturation throughout the year. Kettle holes are abundant as depressions in the landscape and are strongly influenced by groundwater (Nitzsche et al., 2017). These small water bodies provide important habitats and ecosystem services (Biggs et al., 2017). The finer soils in the northern and eastern parts of the catchment are used for agricultural production (Table 1, Figure 1d). Multiple peatlands and fens exist along the stream network that are partly used as meadows. Land use gradually changes to forestry towards the southern region of the catchment (Figure 1d). Large parts of the catchment's forest cover are dominated by stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) which were intensively managed in the past. More recent management aims to enhance mixed and broadleaved forests (Lasch et al., 2002). The catchment has been historically drained, and fields in wetter areas are widely underlain with tile drainages. There is no irrigation being applied for agriculture. The anthropogenically influenced stream network (Nützmann et al., 2011) is highly drought-sensitive (Kleine et al., 2020) with flows being intermittent during dry periods (Smith, Tetzlaff, Gelbrecht, et al., 2020). Drainage and the connection of glacial hollows which formerly had no surface outflow expanded the channel network from 20 km (1790) to 88 km (Nützmann et al., 2011). This results in a transformed hydrology, channel morphology, aquatic habitats, and nutrient cycling (Blann et al., 2009). Overall, streamflow generation in the catchment is dominated by groundwater; the catchment has a strong seasonal flow regime, with highest flows generally in winter. Runoff coefficients during storm events are <5% indicating limited contributions from restricted areas of saturated or compacted soils, as well as sealed (urban/road) surfaces (Smith, Tetzlaff, Gelbrecht, et al., 2020).",N,N,1,,,1,Vegetation types described,Vegetation types,Soil described,Describes soils,Geological types described,Describes geology,Topography described,Describes topography,N,N,N,N,N,,,,intermittent,Intermittent streamflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,depressions,Depression storage,close to saturation,Soil saturation,groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 251,"Burt, TP, Worrall, F, Howden, NJK, Jarvie, HP, Pratt, A, Hutchinson, TH. A 50-year record of nitrate concentrations in the Slapton Ley Catchment, Devon, United Kingdom. Hydrological Processes. 2021; 35:e13955.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13955,"Slapton Wood catchment, Slapton Ley",2.1,4,Hydrology and nitrate leaching,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,,,1,Vegetation types described,Vegetation types,Soil hydraulic properties described,Describes soil depth and permeability,Bedrock described,Describes bedrock,Slopes described,Describes slopes,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface stormflow,Subsurface stormflow,second 'delayed' peak,Gaining stream,stream discharge,Channel flow,quickflow,Quickflow,link with saturated zones on the plateau,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,overland flow from roads and paths,IE flow from impermeable areas,infiltration through the soil profile,Vertical matrix flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,saturated wedge,Perched water tables,soil saturation,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -252,"Neilson, B. T., Tennant, H., Strong, P. A., & Horsburgh, J. S. (2021). Detailed streamflow data for understanding hydrologic responses in the Logan River Observatory. Hydrological Processes, 35(8), e14268. ",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14268,"Logan River watershed, Utah",2,1,LOGAN RIVER WATERSHED DESCRIPTION,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Topography,Upper/lower catchment,2,,,1,Vegetation types described,Vegetation types,N,N,Geology described,Describes geology,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snowmelt,Snowmelt,streamflow,Channel flow,fractures that feed underground drainage systems,Pistonflow,springs,Springflow,perennial tributaries,Perennial flow,Intermittent tributaries,Intermittent streamflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snow,Snow storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +252,"Neilson, B. T., Tennant, H., Strong, P. A., & Horsburgh, J. S. (2021). Detailed streamflow data for understanding hydrologic responses in the Logan River Observatory. Hydrological Processes, 35(8), e14268. ",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14268,"Logan River watershed, Utah",2,1,LOGAN RIVER WATERSHED DESCRIPTION,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Topography,Upper/lower catchment,2,,,1,Vegetation types described,Vegetation types,N,N,Geological types described,Describes geology,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snowmelt,Snowmelt,streamflow,Channel flow,fractures that feed underground drainage systems,Pistonflow,springs,Springflow,perennial tributaries,Perennial flow,Intermittent tributaries,Intermittent streamflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snow,Snow storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 253,"Bottomley, D.J., Craig, D. and Johnston, L.M., 1986. Oxygen-18 studies of snowmelt runoff in a small Precambrian shield watershed: Implications for streamwater acidification in acid-sensitive terrain. Journal of Hydrology, 88(3-4), pp.213-234.",,https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(86)90092-2,"Turkey Lakes watershed, Ontario",,228,Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Tributary,Stream B1 and B2,2,,,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snowmelt,Snowmelt,groundwater component,Gaining stream,flow,Channel flow,meltwater to infiltrate,Infiltration,recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,Diurnal cycles in snowmelt,Groundwater flow,mixing,Mixing,capillary fringe,Capillary Rise,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snowpack,Snow storage,unsaturated zone,Soils ,"""concrete"" frost",Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,groundwater,Groundwater storage,water-level fluctuation,Water table rise,,,,,,,,,, 254,"Lawrence, G.B. and Siemion, J., 2021. The Buck Creek‐Boreas River Adirondack watershed monitoring program. Hydrological Processes, 35(5), p.e14178.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14178,"Buck Creek, New York",3,4,SITE DESCRIPTIONS,CC BY-NC-ND 4.0,,"The Buck Creek and Boreas River watersheds and WASS and ECASS streams lie within the Adirondack Ecological Region (McNab & Avers, 1994), which roughly corresponds to the boundary of the 24 243 km2 Adirondack State Park (Figure 1). The Adirondack region is almost entirely forested and is the largest state park in the United States. Repeated glaciations that last receded 10 000 years ago have left rugged terrain. Bedrock geology is a complex mixture of granitic and gneissic rocks with a variety of less common metasedimentary formations scattered throughout the region (Roy et al., 1997). Surficial deposits reflect this complexity and include highly weatherable calcareous minerals in some areas (Roy et al., 1997). Mean annual precipitation ranges from approximately 800 to over 1600 mm across the region (Ito, Mitchell, & Driscoll, 2002). Below-freezing temperatures occur through most of the winter, and with the onset of spring in late March or early April accumulated snow melts over several weeks causing high sustained streamflows. In North Buck (area 27 ha), organic-rich soils directly overlie bedrock in all but the lowest area of the watershed where some thin till deposition has occurred. As a result, the stream is prone to becoming dry during periods in the late growing season (August–September). A wetland with a floating vegetation mat, 0.75 ha in area, occurs near the top of the watershed, adjacent to a forested area with moss-covered perennially wet soils covering an area of 0.25 ha. The forest is a mixture of hardwood and conifer species. The most abundant canopy tree is red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.), followed by red maple (Acer rubrum L.), beech, (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.) and hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.). Coniferous litter contributes to a thick forest floor that averages greater than 21 cm (Oe plus Oa horizons). Soils and stream water are dominated by organic acidity that results in stream pH values that rarely exceed 4.5 (Lawrence, Scanga, & Sabo, 2020). -In South Buck (area 52 ha), till deposits play a larger hydrologic role, maintaining continuous flow even during extreme dry periods and providing acid neutralization that is well expressed during base flow. Beech is the most abundant overstory tree species, but sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis Britt.), and a few red spruce are also present in the canopy. Soils are less influenced by organic matter than North Buck but are also extremely acidic. The average forest floor thickness is less than 10 cm, which reflects hardwood litter that decomposes more readily than conifer litter. The acidic soils overlying acid-neutralizing till result in stream pH values ranging widely from 4.5 to over 6.5 with variations in streamflow (Lawrence, Scanga, & Sabo, 2020).",Multiple catchments,North Buck and South Buck,2,,,1,Vegetation species described,Vegetation species,Soil described,Describes soils,Geology described,Describes geology,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snow melts,Snowmelt,stream is prone to becoming dry,Intermittent streamflow,continuous flow,Perennial flow,base flow,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,accumulated snow,Snow storage,wetland,Soil saturation,perenially wet soils,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +In South Buck (area 52 ha), till deposits play a larger hydrologic role, maintaining continuous flow even during extreme dry periods and providing acid neutralization that is well expressed during base flow. Beech is the most abundant overstory tree species, but sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis Britt.), and a few red spruce are also present in the canopy. Soils are less influenced by organic matter than North Buck but are also extremely acidic. The average forest floor thickness is less than 10 cm, which reflects hardwood litter that decomposes more readily than conifer litter. The acidic soils overlying acid-neutralizing till result in stream pH values ranging widely from 4.5 to over 6.5 with variations in streamflow (Lawrence, Scanga, & Sabo, 2020).",Multiple catchments,North Buck and South Buck,2,,,1,Vegetation species described,Vegetation species,Soil described,Describes soils,Geological types described,Describes geology,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snow melts,Snowmelt,stream is prone to becoming dry,Intermittent streamflow,continuous flow,Perennial flow,base flow,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,accumulated snow,Snow storage,wetland,Soil saturation,perenially wet soils,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 255,"Coltharp, G. & Springer, Everett. (1980). Hydrologic Characteristics of an Undisturbed Hardwood Watershed in Eastern Kentucky. Conference: Central hardwoods Conference III September 16-17, 1980",,https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ch/ch03/CHvolume03page010.pdf,"Falling Rock, Robinson Forest, Kentucky",,13,Results and Discussion,Public Domain,,"The period November - April, the dormant vegetation season, produces 82 percent of the annual streamflow. A similar relationship was found on the Fernow Experimental Forest in West Virginia (Reinhart et al. 1963). The relatively shallow soils do not have a large water storage capacity, and recharge occurs quickly. This lack of soil water storage space produces ""flashy"" or rapid streamflow response on these watersheds. This minimal soil water storage dictates that baseflow cannot be sustained during prolonged dry periods and the streams cease flow for brief periods during the year. Low flows occur primarily in July and August, periods of low precipitation and high evapotranspiration demand. The longest period without flow was an 11 day span in late August and early September, 1975. A flow duration curve (figure 3), representing the 1972 - 1976 period, indicates the distribution of flows and further substantiates the flashy nature of streamflow from the area. Morisawa (1968) indicates that flow duration curves allow characterization of runoff from watersheds. Those watersheds with deep permeable soils and large water storage capacity will exhibit flat flow duration curves, whereas watersheds with little or no storage have steeply sloped curves. The curve from Falling Rock watershed has a relatively steep slope, further evidence of lack of moisture storage within the soils of Robin­son Forest.. Stormflows Stormflow or direct runoff from relatively undisturbed forested water­sheds consists primarily of subsurface flow, with little or no surface runoff in evidence. […] July is the only month when quickflow was less than 30 percent of the mean monthly flow. During the study, quickflow averaged 44 percent of the mean annual runoff. If we assume that our streamflow measurements represent total water yield from the watershed, this 44 percent response is very high! Hewlett: and Hibhett. {1967), surveying forested watersheds in the eastern and southeastern U ;S., found very few watersheds with quickflow responses as high as Falling Rock",N,N,1,,,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,streamflow,Channel flow,recharge ,Vertical drainage to groundwater,rapid streamflow response,Quickflow,baseflow,Gaining stream,streams cease flow for brief periods,Intermittent streamflow,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,stormflow […] consists primarily of subsurface flow,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil water storage,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -256,"Denning, A.S., Baron, J., Mast, M.A. and Arthur, M., 1991. Hydrologic pathways and chemical composition of runoff during snowmelt in Loch Vale watershed, Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 59, pp.107-123.",,https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00283175,"Loch Vale watershed, Colorado","2.1, 3.2, 4.2",108,"Study area, Surface waters, Snow meltwater contribution",Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,,,1,Vegetation species described,Vegetation species,Soil described,Describes soils,Geology described,Describes geology,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,melt,Snowmelt,runoff,Channel flow,baseflow,Gaining stream,groundwater seepage,Exfiltration,wind redistribution of the snow,Snow drifting,snowpack ripened,Ripening,infiltration ,Infiltration,piston flow,Pistonflow,soil drainage,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snowfields,Snow storage,glacier,Glacier storage,stream channels,Channel storage,depth hoar' zone,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,lake,Lake storage,,,,,,,,,, +256,"Denning, A.S., Baron, J., Mast, M.A. and Arthur, M., 1991. Hydrologic pathways and chemical composition of runoff during snowmelt in Loch Vale watershed, Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 59, pp.107-123.",,https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00283175,"Loch Vale watershed, Colorado","2.1, 3.2, 4.2",108,"Study area, Surface waters, Snow meltwater contribution",Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,,,1,Vegetation species described,Vegetation species,Soil described,Describes soils,Geological types described,Describes geology,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,melt,Snowmelt,runoff,Channel flow,baseflow,Gaining stream,groundwater seepage,Exfiltration,wind redistribution of the snow,Snow drifting,snowpack ripened,Ripening,infiltration ,Infiltration,piston flow,Pistonflow,soil drainage,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,snowfields,Snow storage,glacier,Glacier storage,stream channels,Channel storage,depth hoar' zone,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,lake,Lake storage,,,,,,,,,, 257,"Shanley, J. B., Chalmers, A. T., Denner, J. C., Clark, S. F., Sebestyen, S. D., Matt, S., & Smith, T. E. (2022). Hydrology and biogeochemistry datasets from Sleepers River Research Watershed, Danville, Vermont, USA. Hydrological Processes, 36(2), e14495.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14495,"Sleepers River, Vermont",2,1,Introduction,Public Domain,,"Sleepers River was the site of Tom Dunne's seminal research on the partial area concept for streamflow generation (Dunne & Black, 1970a, 1970b, 1971), and was the site where Eric Anderson of the National Weather Service (NWS) developed the energy balance snowmelt model still in use today for flood forecasting (Anderson, 1968, 1973). Early U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) research at SRRW in the 1990s extended the hydrologic legacy, applying newer isotopic and chemical approaches, and introducing biogeochemical research. Shanley et al. (1995) used water isotopes and solute chemistry to show that ice layers within snowpacks temporarily impeded meltwater infiltration. The isotopic approach combined with frozen ground measurements demonstrated that deep frost shunts meltwater directly to the stream locally (Shanley et al., 2015), but over larger scales the effect of ground frost is minimal (Shanley & Chalmers, 1999). Kendall et al. (1999) used solute chemistry of hillslope groundwater to show that hillslopes are not always well-connected to the stream, and Hjerdt (2002) extended this work to show that hillslope contributions were focused in convergent hollows. The extensive subsurface chemical database combined with stream event sampling have supported findings that subsurface, chemically evolved ‘old’ water dominates the high-flow hydrograph (Porter et al., this issue; Kendall et al., 1999; McGlynn et al., 1999; Saiers et al., 2021; Sebestyen et al., 2008; Stewart et al., 2021). Shanley et al. (2002) used water isotopes to show that this old water dominated even in the headwater realm, and did not increase with basin scale as hypothesized.",N,N,1,,,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snowmelt,Snowmelt,meltwater infiltration,Infiltration ,hillslopes are not always well-connected to the stream,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,convergent hollows,Topographic convergence,old' water dominates,Displacement of groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,partial area concept,Expansion of saturated areas,ice layers within snowpacks,Formation of layers/lenses,frozen ground,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,groundwater,Groundwater storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 258,"Dunne, T., and Black, R. D. (1970), Partial Area Contributions to Storm Runoff in a Small New England Watershed, Water Resour. Res., 6(5), 1296–1311",,https://doi.org/10.1029/WR006i005p01296,"Sleepers River, Vermont",,1310,Conclusion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,,,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,overland flow on small saturated areas close to streams,SE flow from riparian zone,base flow,Gaining stream,water escaping from the ground surface,Exfiltration,concave area,Topographic convergence,attentuated,Attenuation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,wet areas that produce storm flow,Soil saturation,area contributing overland flow is dynamic,Expansion of saturated areas,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 259,"Holko, L, Danko, M, Sleziak, P. Snowmelt characteristics in a pristine mountain catchment of the Jalovecký Creek, Slovakia, over the last three decades. Hydrological Processes. 2021; 35:e14128. ",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14128,Jalovecký Creek catchment,,1,Introduction,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,,,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,pre-event water contribution ,Displacement of groundwater,peakflow,Quickflow,snowmelt,Snowmelt,infiltrate,Infiltration,macropore flow,Vertical macropore flow,overland flow,Overland flow,shallow subsurface lateral flow,Subsurface stormflow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Snow-rich winter,Snow storage,soil water,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, @@ -347,8 +347,11 @@ In our sites, riparian soil moisture averages 40 to 50% at Font del Regàs, wher 263,"Solomon, D.K., Toran, L.E., Dreier, R.B., Moore, G.K. and McMaster, W.M., 1992. Status report: A hydrologic framework for the Oak Ridge Reservation (No. ORNL/TM--12026). Oak Ridge National Lab..",,https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/24/010/24010337.pdf,"Oak Ridge Reservation, Tennessee",2,2-1,Overview of the conceptual model,Public Domain,,"2.1 STORMFLOW ZONE Detailed water budgets indicate that -90% of active subsurface flow occurs through the 1- to 2-m-deep stormflow zone. Natural areas of the ORR are heavily vegetated, and the stormflow zone approximately corresponds to the root zone. Infiltration tests indicate that this zone is as much as 1000 times more permeable than the underlying vadose zone. During rain events, the stormflow zone partially or completely saturates then transmits water laterally to the surface-water system. When the stormflow zone becomes completely saturated, overland flow occurs. Where such excavations as waste trenches penetrate the stormflow zone, a commonly observed condition known as bathtubbing can occur in which the excavation fills with water. Between rain events, as the stormflow zone drains, flow rates decrease dramatically and flow becomes nearly vertical toward the underlying vadose zone. The transmissive capability of the stormflow zone is created primarily by root channels, worm holes, clay aggregation, fractures, etc., collectively referred to as large pores. Although highly transmissive, large pores comprise only --0.2%of the total void volume of the stormflow zone. Because most of the water mass resides within less transmissive small pores, advective-diffusive exchange between large and small pores substantially reduces contaminant migration rates relative to fluid velocities in large pores. 2.2 VADOSE ZONE A vadose zone exists throughout the ORR except where the water table is at land surface, such as along perennial stream channels. The thickness of the vadose zone is greatest beneath ridges, and thins towards valley floors. Beneath ridges underlain by the Knox aquifer(Copper Ridge, Chestnut Ridge, McKinney Ridge, and Black Ridge), the vadose zone commonly is as much as 50 m thick, whereas beneath ridges underlain by the Rome Formation(Haw Ridge and Pine Ridge) the vadose zone is typically <20 m thick. In lowland areas near streams, a permanent vadose zone does not exist because the stormflow zone intersects the water table. The vadose zone consists of regolith composed mostly of clay and silt, most of which is derived from the weathering of bedrock materials, and which has significant water storage capacity. Most recharge through the vadose zone is episodic and occurs 'along discrete permeable features that may become saturated during rain events, even though surrounding micropores remain unsaturated and contain trapped air. During recharge events, flow paths in the vadose zone are complex, controlled by the orientation of structures of the materials, such as relict fractures. Between recharge events, flow rates decrease dramatically, and flow paths are toward the groundwater zone. 2.3 GROUNDWATER ZONE A convergence of evidence indicates that most water in the groundwater zone of the aquitards is transmitted through a layer, -1-5 m thick, of closely spaced, connected fractures near the water table, zt, shown below. Many open fractures, which extend only a short distance into the rock, can be seen on outcrops, and the near correspondence of the water table with the top of weathered bedrock in the ORR is probably not coincidental. Regolith above this level has been formed by a large water flux, and the presence of unweathered bedrock at deeper levels apparently indicates a smaller water flux. Cyclic variations in water table elevation change the saturated thickness of the permeable layer. The resulting changes in transmissivity explain ... an order-of-magnitude fluctuation in groundwater discharge rates even though (1) contours of annual high and low water table elevations show little change in hydraulic gradient and ' (2) seasonal changes of water level in most wells are small compared with height of the water level above stream level. Opposite changes in hydraulic gradient and saturated thickness occur from one topographic location to another. The product of transmissivity and hydraulic gradient is constant (or increases with recharge) along each flow path. The range of seasonal fluctuations in depth to the water table and in rates of groundwater flow vary significantly across the reservation. In the areas of the Knox aquifer, seasonal fluctuations in water levels average 5 m and the specific discharge through the active groundwater zone is typically 9 m/year. In the aquitards of Bear Creek Valley, Melton Valley, East Fork Valley, and Bethel Valley, seasonal fluctuations in water levels average 1.5 m, and typical specific discharge is 5 m/year. .m As in the stormflow zone, the bulk of water mass in the water table interval resides within porous matrix blocks between fractures, and diffusive exchange between matrix and fractures reduces contaminant migration rates relative to fracture fluid velocities. For example, the leading edge of a geochemically nonreactive contaminant plume migrates along fractures at a typical rate of 1 m/d; however, the center of mass of a contaminant plume typically migrates at only 0.05 m/d. Below the water table interval, fracture control becomes dominant in flow path direction. The base of the water table interval corresponds to the zone of transition from regolith to bedrock. In the intermediate interval of the groundwater zone, groundwater movement occurs primarily in permeable fractures that are poorly connected in three dimensions. In the Knox aquifer a few hydrologically dominant cavity systems control groundwater movement in this zone, but in the aquitards the bulk of flow is through fractures, along which permeability may be increased by weathering. One fracture set is parallel to and along bedding planes and thus parallel to strike. The dip of this fracture set varies with bedding plane dip, generally ranging between 10 and 50°. A second set is also parallel to strike but perpendicular to bedding planes. The dip of this set also varies with bedding plane dip and thus is a function of depth, inclined near the surface where bedding planes dip more steeply, then vertical at depth where bedding plane dip flattens. A third set is perpendicular to strike. Fracture orientations and converging groundwater flow paths in and near valley floors give rise to preferential groundwater movement along strike, toward cross-cutting tributary drainage ways. Bedding-plane and strike-parallel fractures and their intersections are more permeable than the dip-parallel fractures, and flow paths are along-valley toward crosscutting tributary streams. The chemical characteristics of groundwater change from a mixed-cation-HCO3 water type to an Na-HCO3 type in the ORR aquitards at depths ranging from 30 to 50 m. Although the geochemical mechanism responsible for this change in water types is not entirely quantified, it probably is related to water residence time. The transition from Ca-HCO3 to Na-HCO3 serves as a useful marker and is used in this report to distinguish the intermediate groundwater interval from the deep interval, a transition which is not marked by a distinct change in rock properties. Below the intermediate interval, small quantities of water are transmitted through discrete fractures in the deep interval. The hydrologically active fractures in tile deep interval are significantly fewer in number and shorter in length than in the other intervals, and the spacing is greater, partly because of less dissolution of fracture fillings. Fracture orientations are similar to those described earlier for the water table interval. Wells finished in the deep interval of the ORR aquitards typically yield <0.1 L/min and thus have no potential for water supply. The specific storage of the bedrock aquitard is small, as a result some hydraulic heads in the deep interval respond to precipitation events, even though the associated water flux is small. The chemical characteristics of groundwater in the deep interval are different from those of the water table interval and probably reflect longer water residence times. Although diffusive transfer between fractures and matrix blocks is an important process in the deep interval, the total matrix porosity is less than that of the water table interval, the vadose zone, or the stormflow zone, thereby reducing the retarding effect on contaminant migration rates relative to more shallow zones. -",N,N,1,,,1,N,N,N,N,Geology described,Describes geology,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow ,Subsurface stormflow,infiltration ,Infiltration,"saturated, overland flow",Saturation excess flow,flow becomes nearly vertical,Vertical macropore flow,advective-diffusive exchange between large and small pores,Mixing,perennial stream channels,Perennial flow,recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,transmitted through […] fractures,Pistonflow,groundwater discharge rates,Groundwater flow,converging groundwater flow paths,Topographic convergence,transfer between fractures and matrix blocks,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,,,,,,,,,,vadose zone,Soils,saturates,Soil saturation,aquifer,Groundwater storage,water table,Water table,variations in water table elevation,Water table rise,fractures,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,, +",N,N,1,,,1,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Describes geology,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,subsurface flow ,Subsurface stormflow,infiltration ,Infiltration,"saturated, overland flow",Saturation excess flow,flow becomes nearly vertical,Vertical macropore flow,advective-diffusive exchange between large and small pores,Mixing,perennial stream channels,Perennial flow,recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,transmitted through […] fractures,Pistonflow,groundwater discharge rates,Groundwater flow,converging groundwater flow paths,Topographic convergence,transfer between fractures and matrix blocks,Infiltration into bedrock via preferential flow paths,,,,,,,,,,vadose zone,Soils,saturates,Soil saturation,aquifer,Groundwater storage,water table,Water table,variations in water table elevation,Water table rise,fractures,Bedrock fracture storage,,,,,,,, 264,"Shogren, A.J., Zarnetske, J.P., Abbott, B.W., Iannucci, F. and Bowden, W.B., 2020. We cannot shrug off the shoulder seasons: Addressing knowledge and data gaps in an Arctic headwater. Environmental Research Letters, 15(10), p.104027.",,https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab9d3c,"Upper Kuparuk River, Alaska",1.1,2,What we know: seasonality of biogeochemical budgets in the Kuparuk headwaters,CC-BY 4.0,,"In the Kuparuk, as snow melts in the spring, frozen ground limits soil water storage and enhances water runoff to the river network (figure 2(B)). With the snowmelt comes large pulses of water that is rich in dissolved and particulate organic matter (DOM and POM, respectively) and associated nutrients, which are in turn exported downstream [49], resulting in increased aquatic productivity [28] (figures 2(C), (F)). The relatively short snowmelt occurs over several days to weeks and represents ∼35% of export in the Kuparuk River [68]. The significance of the spring snowmelt period has been shown in other Arctic rivers, representing between 20%–70% of annual carbon exports [50, 69, 70]. The spring snowmelt typically generates highly bioavailable DOM in the river network, which reflects the recent origin of the DOM from fresh litter and surficial soil horizons leaching with little previous decomposition [65] or photo-processing on the landscape or in the river [71–73]. Simultaneously, frozen soil restricts the flow of water to organic horizons during snowmelt, introducing dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) into adjacent river networks [74–76]. A portion of the DON may remain on site or be transformed into inorganic forms that can increase nutrient availability for terrestrial plants and soil microorganisms while some of the DON is exported downstream before mineralization to dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) [77] (figure 2(C)). As thaw progresses in the Kuparuk, biological activity and deepening water flow paths increasingly control the amount of DOM and nitrogen as DON or DIN reaching the river network and leaving it via downstream export [46] (figure 2(C)). The seasonal thickening of the active layer facilitates the movement of water through deeper mineral soil profiles where it interacts with solute-rich permafrost [16, 74, 78] (figure 2(E)). These deeper flowpaths either promote DOM leaching from detritus and above-ground plant biomass as water builds up at the soil-permafrost interface, or increase rates of decomposition and increase sorption to mineral particles [24, 79]. Newly released DOM and DIN are then exported laterally by surface or subsurface flow paths [53], potentially decreasing soil nutrient availability and altering the chemical composition of waters draining permafrost landscapes [65, 74] (figure 2(C)). As inorganic nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) become increasingly limiting as a result of biotic demand, mobilized DOM continues to fuel instream respiration [29, 80, 81]. While low temperatures experienced in the early flow season may limit carbon processing by bacterial respiration, once DOM enters into the stream channel and is moved along the aquatic continuum, it can still experience high rates of processing via photo-mineralization and some partial photo-oxidation as it is transported downstream [71, 72] (figure 2(D)). Photo-oxidation requires sunlight to reach the water column, so its influence on DOM peaks in June and decreases later in the flow season, while hillslope connectivity is still increasing via active layer thickening until late flow season [79] (figure 2(E)). Concurrently, in the late flow season, DON may be sorbed to sediment particles or mineralized to DIN, resulting in increasing lateral flux of inorganic forms of nitrogen, such as NO3− [16, 75, 77]. While late-season DOM often exhibits low bioavailability [82], the decline of photo-processing and influx in DIN may result in a brief increase of late-season heterotrophic response [77] (figure 2(G)).",N,N,1,Season,early/middle/late thaw season,3,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,snow melts,Snowmelt,restricts the flow of water to organic horizons,Organic layer interflow,movement of water through deeper mineral soil profiles,Lateral matrix flow,surface […] flow paths,Overland flow,subsurface flow paths,Subsurface stormflow,hillslope connectivity,Connectivity between hillslopes and channel,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,frozen ground,Seasonal soil freeze/thaw,permafrost,Permafrost storage,water builds up at the soil-permafrost interface,Perched water tables,stream channel,Channel storage,,,,,,,,,,,, 265,"Maréchal, J.-C., Braun, J.-J., Riotte, J., Bedimo, J.-P.B. and Boeglin, J.-L. (2011), Hydrological processes of a rainforest headwater swamp from natural chemical tracing in Nsimi watershed, Cameroon. Hydrol. Process., 25: 2246-2260.",,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7989,Nsimi watershed,,2259,Conclusion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,,,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,flow,Channel flow,seepage,Exfiltration,springs,Springflow,overland flow on the swamp surface,Saturation excess flow,groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,overland flow increases with rainfall intensity,Infiltration excess flow,throughfall,Throughfall,recharge occurs from the stream to the swamp,Losing stream,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,,,,,,,,,,,,aquifer,Groundwater storage,swamp,Soil saturation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 266,"Maréchal, J. C., Riotte, J., Ruiz, L., Sekhar, M., & Braun, J. J. (2016). Impact of the forest on the hydrological cycle and chemical balance in a tropical humid watershed (Mule Hole, India) impact de la forêt sur le cycle hydrologique et le bilan de matière dans un bassin versant tropical humide (Mule Hole, Inde). In Lachassagne & Lafforgue (Ed.), Forest and the water cycle: Quantity, quality, management (pp. 72–100). Cambridge Scholars Editing.",,https://brgm.hal.science/hal-02272551v1/file/2%202_Marechal_Final_JCM.pdf,Mule Hole experimental watershed,,99,Conclusion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,,,1,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,groundwater flow,Groundwater flow,recharge,Vertical drainage to groundwater,evapotranspiration,Evapotranspiration,runoff,Channel flow,transpiration,Transpiration,water table is disconnected from the surface stream,Connectivity,ephemeral,Ephemeral streamflow,the stream infiltrates,Losing stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,water table fluctuations,Water table rise,groundwater,Groundwater storage,water table,Water table,unsaturated zone,Soils,,,,,,,,,,,, +267,"Grandjouan, O., Branger, F., Masson, M., Cournoyer, B. and Coquery, M., 2023. Identification and estimation of hydrological contributions in a mixed land‐use catchment based on a simple biogeochemical and hydro‐meteorological dataset. Hydrological Processes, 37(12), p.e15035.",1.0,https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.15035,"Ratier catchment, Yzeron Basin",2.3.1,5,Assumptions on the main runoff-generating sources: Perceptual model,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Land use / Geology,Forest/Agricultural/Urban/Colluvium/Gneiss,5,Wetness,Wet/Dry,2,N,N,N,N,Geological types described,Describes geological types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Intercepted by vegetation,Interception,surface runoff from the road,IE flow from impermeable areas,infiltrates through the saprolite layer,Vertical drainage to groundwater,infiltrated further down to fill the upper part of the gneiss formation,Infiltration into bedrock,[fractured gneiss groundwater] water to flow downhill,Pistonflow,groundwater is ... the main contribution to the stream,Gaining stream,saprolite water flow,Lateral matrix flow at soil-bedrock interface,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,saprolite layer becomes saturated,Soil saturation,fracture gneiss groundwater,Bedrock fracture storage,saprolite water,Soil water storage,colluvium aquifer,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,,,, +268,"Jones, J.A.A. (1987), The effects of soil piping on contributing areas and erosion patterns. Earth Surf. Process. Landforms, 12: 229-248",,https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290120303,"Maesnant Experimental Catchment, Wales",,229,THE IMPACT OF PIPING ON STREAM DISCHARGE AND CONTRIBUTION AREA,Not open-access,,Not open-access,Hillslope position,non-contributing area/pipeflow contributing area/riparian seepage area,3,Event,baseflow/storm/late storm,3,N,N,Soil described,Describes soil types,Geological types described,Describes geological types,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,Piping,Lateral macropore flow,storm runoff,Subsurface stormflow,seepage,Exfiltration,overland flow,Overland Flow,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,groundwater ,Groundwater Storage,surface water bogs,Depression storage,soil moisture storage,Soil water storage,,,,,,,,,,,,,, +269,"Myrabø, S., 1986. Runoff Studies in a Small Catchment: Paper presented at the Nordic Hydrological Conference (Reykjavik, Iceland, August–1986). Hydrology Research, 17(4-5), pp.335-346.",,https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.1986.0025,Asker River,,338,Results and Discussion,Not open-access,,Not open-access,N,N,1,Event,Flood conditions; recession,2,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,N,,,,discharge,Channel flow,saturated overland flow,Saturation excess flow,throughflow,Subsurface stormflow,return flow,Return Flow,pipeflow,Lateral macropore flow,upstream part of the stream disappears,Losing stream,runoff due to groundwater,Gaining stream,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,soil moisture,Soil water storage,completely saturated,Soil saturation,saturated area also varied strongly with time,Expansion of saturated areas,surface water on the saturated area,Depression storage,groundwater,Groundwater Storage,,,,,,,,,, diff --git a/src/0-debug_excelsheets.ipynb b/src/0-debug_excelsheets.ipynb index fa14bc5..fe64572 100644 --- a/src/0-debug_excelsheets.ipynb +++ b/src/0-debug_excelsheets.ipynb @@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 30, + "execution_count": 50, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ @@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 44, + "execution_count": 51, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 45, + "execution_count": 52, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ @@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 46, + "execution_count": 53, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ @@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 47, + "execution_count": 54, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { @@ -214,7 +214,7 @@ "Index: []" ] }, - "execution_count": 47, + "execution_count": 54, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -249,7 +249,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 48, + "execution_count": 55, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { @@ -286,32 +286,17 @@ " \n", " \n", " \n", - " \n", - " 130\n", - " 131\n", - " NaN\n", - " NaN\n", - " NaN\n", - " NaN\n", - " NaN\n", - " NaN\n", - " NaN\n", - " NaN\n", - " NaN\n", - " \n", " \n", "\n", "" ], "text/plain": [ - " id_x citation watershed_name name country lat lon area_km2 id_y \\\n", - "130 131 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN \n", - "\n", - " huc_watershed_id \n", - "130 NaN " + "Empty DataFrame\n", + "Columns: [id_x, citation, watershed_name, name, country, lat, lon, area_km2, id_y, huc_watershed_id]\n", + "Index: []" ] }, - "execution_count": 48, + "execution_count": 55, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -335,7 +320,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 49, + "execution_count": 56, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { @@ -343,11 +328,10 @@ "text/plain": [ "array(['N', 'Cropland described', 'Vegetation described',\n", " 'Forest described', 'Seasonal change discussed',\n", - " 'Vegetation icons', 'Vegetation types described', nan],\n", - " dtype=object)" + " 'Vegetation icons', 'Vegetation types described'], dtype=object)" ] }, - "execution_count": 49, + "execution_count": 56, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -358,19 +342,16 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 37, + "execution_count": 57, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "array(['N', 'Soil described', 'Soil types described',\n", - " 'Soil texture described', 'Soil hydraulic properties described',\n", - " 'Multiple properties described', 'Horizons described'],\n", - " dtype=object)" + "array(['N', 'Horizons described', 'Soil types described'], dtype=object)" ] }, - "execution_count": 37, + "execution_count": 57, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -381,17 +362,17 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 38, + "execution_count": 58, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "array(['N', 'Geology described', 'Glacier described', 'Karst described',\n", - " 'Bedrock described'], dtype=object)" + "array(['N', 'Geology described', 'Glacier described', 'Bedrock described'],\n", + " dtype=object)" ] }, - "execution_count": 38, + "execution_count": 58, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -402,16 +383,17 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 39, + "execution_count": 59, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "array(['N', 'Slopes described', 'Topography described'], dtype=object)" + "array(['Slopes described', 'N', 'Topography described', 'Scale bar shown'],\n", + " dtype=object)" ] }, - "execution_count": 39, + "execution_count": 59, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -422,18 +404,17 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 40, + "execution_count": 60, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "array(['N', 'Multiple interpretations demonstrated',\n", - " 'Limitations discussed', 'Uncertainty described',\n", - " 'Unknown items identified'], dtype=object)" + "array(['N', 'Unknown items identified', 'Uncertainty described'],\n", + " dtype=object)" ] }, - "execution_count": 40, + "execution_count": 60, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -444,17 +425,63 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 41, + "execution_count": 61, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "array(['N', 'Impact of root activity described', 'salinity study'],\n", - " dtype=object)" + "array(['Soil properties (surface sealing, cracking)',\n", + " 'This is a longitudinal profile, average transit time given, scale given',\n", + " 'Riparian area only',\n", + " 'Show cross-section of water table slopes/depths for wet and dry seasons',\n", + " 'Reaction fronts shown', nan,\n", + " 'Joints/faults show, approximate scale given in caption',\n", + " 'Soil clay content in caption, % streamflow contribution in legend, open boundary noted, extra notes shown on figures',\n", + " 'The sources (=stores) and flow paths are shown as separate pictures. The diffuse groundwater flows are shown as being from shallow and deep aquifers, but are described as being \"flows through the soil matrix and macropores\"',\n", + " 'Inconsistencies betweeen picture and legend, wiggly arrows meaning unknown, many unlabelled arrows',\n", + " 'Arrows show water table rise/fall; indicates which storages have variable storage',\n", + " 'Describes water sources as event water, shallow gw, deep gw',\n", + " 'Focused on karst systems',\n", + " 'Complex flow paths and changes in saturated zone shape/layers shown in diagrams, ',\n", + " 'Just shown as soil sections',\n", + " 'Focused on isotope enrichment processes',\n", + " 'Arrows show direction of groundwater e.g. towards zones of higher conductivity',\n", + " 'Pictures of suface rocks shown, unsure of significance',\n", + " 'Also shows translation into model structure',\n", + " 'Shows vertical scale, shows isolines of chloride for salinity',\n", + " 'Bedrock bedding planes shown',\n", + " 'Shows locations of new and old water',\n", + " 'Soil property (organic/mineral)',\n", + " '?Should precipitation, evaporation count as fluxes?',\n", + " 'Lots of information in text but very hard to match to unlabelled arrows in diagram',\n", + " 'Shading used to show saturation level of soil, location of infiltration/recharge under depression shown by location of arrows',\n", + " 'Shows different rainfall rates over time',\n", + " 'Water ages were shown from 3 weeks - 6 months',\n", + " 'Mostly focused on nitrates',\n", + " 'Depth of surface layer marked on hillslope and close to channel',\n", + " 'Also shows fluxes of DOC, TDS, and inorganic nitrogen',\n", + " 'Soil property (free-draining)',\n", + " 'Shows lateral and vertical scale, shows zones of different N-4 in soil',\n", + " 'Shows scale in vertical and horizontal, figure shows longitudinal profile',\n", + " 'Runoff components grouped as near surface runoff, shallow groundwater, deep groundwater',\n", + " 'Unusual - plan view where location of different dominant processes is mapped, scale shown',\n", + " 'Areas of slopes/wetlands given',\n", + " 'All stores are shown separately where they are dry or filled with water',\n", + " 'Caption describes the measurement types used to infer each process',\n", + " 'Shows speed of process by arrow length, shows which process knowledge gained by which catchment investigation/data type',\n", + " 'Also groups water bodies by their stable isotope composition',\n", + " 'Flux property: temporary/permanent; cross-sectional slope of water table shown; vegetation leaf on/off shown; flows shown as mediated by storage or soil structure',\n", + " 'Shows event/pre-event water fractions',\n", + " 'Shows bedrock fractures, shows thickness of sediment',\n", + " 'Bedding planes and fractures shown', 'N',\n", + " 'Size of arrows determines the importance of flowpaths',\n", + " 'Saturated hydraulic conductivity estimates shown',\n", + " 'Arrow width represents flow path importance', 'Sediment transfer',\n", + " 'Scale bar', 'Scale bar ', 'Salinity study'], dtype=object)" ] }, - "execution_count": 41, + "execution_count": 61, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -465,20 +492,18 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 42, + "execution_count": 62, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "array(['Hillslope position', 'N', 'Land use / Land cover',\n", - " 'Soil or Geology', 'Catchment spatial scale', 'Process',\n", - " 'Hillslope position/Catchment spatial scale', 'Topography',\n", - " 'Multiple catchments', 'Tributary',\n", - " 'Land cover / Hillslope position'], dtype=object)" + "array(['N', 'Hillslope position', 'Catchment spatial scale', 'Topography',\n", + " 'Aspects', 'Soil or Geology', 'Process', 'Land use / Land cover'],\n", + " dtype=object)" ] }, - "execution_count": 42, + "execution_count": 62, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -489,20 +514,17 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 43, + "execution_count": 63, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "array(['N', 'Wetness and event', 'Season', 'Event', 'Season and event',\n", - " 'Rainfall intensity', 'Season and rainfall intensity', 'Wetness',\n", - " 'Season with snow', 'Interannual', 'Event and rainfall intensity',\n", - " 'Season and rainfall intensity with snow', 'Season and wetness',\n", - " nan], dtype=object)" + "array(['Season', 'N', 'Rainfall intensity', 'Season with snow', 'Wetness',\n", + " 'Event', 'Season and wetness', 'Interannual'], dtype=object)" ] }, - "execution_count": 43, + "execution_count": 63, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -510,6 +532,13 @@ "source": [ "df_model['temporal_property'].unique()" ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [] } ], "metadata": {