From 628438e314c15b3117a77937c89fcf840ff14b3e Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: GitHub Actions Date: Mon, 29 Jan 2024 15:59:31 +0000 Subject: [PATCH] markdown source builds Auto-generated via {sandpaper} Source : f77a982913e8d8fcdb0000bad49550046f8e2744 Branch : main Author : Neil Shephard Time : 2024-01-29 15:58:27 +0000 Message : Merge pull request #11 from AFM-SPM/ns-rse/2-unix-shell-intro --- 01-command-line.md | 167 ++ 02-filedir.md | 818 ++++++++++ 03-create.md | 1764 ++++++++++++++++++++++ config.yaml | 5 +- fig/filesystem-challenge.odg | Bin 0 -> 9835 bytes fig/filesystem-challenge.svg | 763 ++++++++++ fig/filesystem.svg | 286 ++++ fig/find-file-tree.odg | Bin 0 -> 12197 bytes fig/find-file-tree.svg | 792 ++++++++++ fig/home-directories.svg | 518 +++++++ fig/homedir.odg | Bin 0 -> 11826 bytes fig/nano-screenshot.png | Bin 0 -> 42241 bytes fig/redirects-and-pipes.svg | 71 + fig/shell_command_syntax.svg | 47 + fig/shell_script_for_loop_flow_chart.svg | 913 +++++++++++ fig/standard-filesystem-hierarchy.svg | 1534 +++++++++++++++++++ introduction.md | 114 -- md5sum.txt | 8 +- reference.md | 69 +- 19 files changed, 7750 insertions(+), 119 deletions(-) create mode 100644 01-command-line.md create mode 100644 02-filedir.md create mode 100644 03-create.md create mode 100644 fig/filesystem-challenge.odg create mode 100644 fig/filesystem-challenge.svg create mode 100644 fig/filesystem.svg create mode 100644 fig/find-file-tree.odg create mode 100644 fig/find-file-tree.svg create mode 100644 fig/home-directories.svg create mode 100644 fig/homedir.odg create mode 100644 fig/nano-screenshot.png create mode 100644 fig/redirects-and-pipes.svg create mode 100644 fig/shell_command_syntax.svg create mode 100644 fig/shell_script_for_loop_flow_chart.svg create mode 100644 fig/standard-filesystem-hierarchy.svg delete mode 100644 introduction.md diff --git a/01-command-line.md b/01-command-line.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..64a7a8e --- /dev/null +++ b/01-command-line.md @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +--- +title: "Introducing the Command Line" +teaching: 20 +exercises: 3 +--- + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: questions + +- What is a command shell and why would I use one? + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: objectives + +- Explain when and why command-line interfaces should be used instead of graphical interfaces. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +### Background + +Humans and computers commonly interact in many different ways, such as through a keyboard and mouse, touch screen +interfaces, or using speech recognition systems. The most widely used way to interact with personal computers is called +a **graphical user interface** (GUI). With a GUI, we give instructions by clicking a mouse and using menu-driven +interactions. + +While the visual aid of a GUI makes it intuitive to learn, this way of delivering instructions to a computer scales very +poorly. Imagine the following task: for a literature search, you have to copy the third line of one thousand text files +in one thousand different directories and paste it into a single file. Using a GUI, you would not only be clicking at +your desk for several hours, but you could potentially also commit an error in the process of completing this repetitive +task. This is where we take advantage of the Unix shell. The Unix shell is both a **command-line interface** (CLI) and +a scripting language, allowing such repetitive tasks to be done automatically and fast. With the proper commands, the +shell can repeat tasks with or without some modification as many times as we want. Using the shell, the task in the +literature example can be accomplished in seconds. + +### The Shell + +The shell is a program where users can type commands. With the shell, it's possible to invoke complicated programs like +climate modeling software or simple commands that create an empty directory with only one line of code. The most popular +Unix shell is Bash (the Bourne Again SHell --- so-called because it's derived from a shell written by Stephen +Bourne). Bash is the default shell on most modern implementations of Unix and in most packages that provide Unix-like +tools for Windows. Note that 'Git Bash' is a piece of software that enables Windows users to use a Bash like interface +when interacting with Git. + +Using the shell will take some effort and some time to learn. While a GUI presents you with choices to select, CLI +choices are not automatically presented to you, so you must learn a few commands like new vocabulary in a language +you're studying. However, unlike a spoken language, a small number of "words" (i.e. commands) gets you a long way, and +we'll cover those essential few today. + +The grammar of a shell allows you to combine existing tools into powerful pipelines and handle large volumes of data +automatically. Sequences of commands can be written into a *script*, improving the reproducibility of workflows. + +In addition, the command line is often the easiest way to interact with remote machines and supercomputers. Familiarity +with the shell is near essential to run a variety of specialized tools and resources including high-performance +computing systems. As clusters and cloud computing systems become more popular for scientific data crunching, being able +to interact with the shell is becoming a necessary skill. We can build on the command-line skills covered here to tackle +a wide range of scientific questions and computational challenges. + +Let's get started. + +When the shell is first opened, you are presented with a **prompt**, indicating that the shell is waiting for input. + +```bash +$ +``` + +The shell typically uses `$ ` as the prompt, but may use a different symbol. In the examples for this lesson, we'll +show the prompt as `$ `. Most importantly, *do not type the prompt* when typing commands. Only type the command that +follows the prompt. This rule applies both in these lessons and in lessons from other sources. Also note that after +you type a command, you have to press the Enter key to execute it. + +The prompt is followed by a **text cursor**, a character that indicates the position where your typing will appear. The +cursor is usually a flashing or solid block, but it can also be an underscore or a pipe. You may have seen it in a text +editor program, for example. + +Note that your prompt might look a little different. In particular, most popular shell environments by default put your +user name and the host name before the `$`. Such a prompt might look like, e.g.: + +```bash +nelle@localhost $ +``` + +The prompt might even include more than this. Do not worry if your prompt is not just a short `$ `. This lesson does not +depend on this additional information and it should also not get in your way. The only important item to focus on is the +`$ ` character itself and we will see later why. + +So let's try our first command, `ls`, which is short for listing. This command will list the contents of the current +directory: + +```bash +$ ls +``` + +```output +Desktop Downloads Movies Pictures +Documents Library Music Public +``` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Command not found + +If the shell can't find a program whose name is the command you typed, it will print an error message such as: + +```bash +$ ks +``` + +```output +ks: command not found +``` + +This might happen if the command was mis-typed or if the program corresponding to that command is not installed. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +## Nelle's Pipeline: A Typical Problem + +Nelle Nemo, a marine biologist, has just returned from a six-month survey of the [North Pacific +Gyre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre), where she has been sampling gelatinous marine life in the +[Great Pacific Garbage Patch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch). She has 1520 samples that +she's run through an assay machine to measure the relative abundance of 300 proteins. She needs to run these 1520 files +through an imaginary program called `goostats.sh`. In addition to this huge task, she has to write up results by the +end of the month, so her paper can appear in a special issue of *Aquatic Goo Letters*. + +If Nelle chooses to run `goostats.sh` by hand using a GUI, she'll have to select and open a file 1520 times. If +`goostats.sh` takes 30 seconds to run each file, the whole process will take more than 12 hours of Nelle's attention. +With the shell, Nelle can instead assign her computer this mundane task while she focuses her attention on writing her +paper. + +The next few lessons will explore the ways Nelle can achieve this. More specifically, the lessons explain how she can +use a command shell to run the `goostats.sh` program, using loops to automate the repetitive steps of entering file +names, so that her computer can work while she writes her paper. + +As a bonus, once she has put a processing pipeline together, she will be able to use it again whenever she collects more +data. + +In order to achieve her task, Nelle needs to know how to: + +- navigate to a file/directory +- create a file/directory +- check the length of a file +- chain commands together +- retrieve a set of files +- iterate over files +- run a shell script containing her pipeline + + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: keypoints + +- A shell is a program whose primary purpose is to read commands and run other programs. +- This lesson uses Bash, the default shell in many implementations of Unix. +- Programs can be run in Bash by entering commands at the command-line prompt. +- The shell's main advantages are its high action-to-keystroke ratio, its support for automating repetitive tasks, and + its capacity to access networked machines. +- A significant challenge when using the shell can be knowing what commands need to be run and how to run them. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + + +This chapter is from "[Software Carpentry The Unix Shell][swcarpentry-unix]". It is licensed under the +[CC-BY-4.0][cc-by-4]. + + +[swcarpentry-unix]: https://swcarpentry.github.io/shell-novice/ +[cc-by-4]: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ diff --git a/02-filedir.md b/02-filedir.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..eeee737 --- /dev/null +++ b/02-filedir.md @@ -0,0 +1,818 @@ +--- +title: Navigating Files and Directories +teaching: 30 +exercises: 10 +--- + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: objectives + +- Explain the similarities and differences between a file and a directory. +- Translate an absolute path into a relative path and vice versa. +- Construct absolute and relative paths that identify specific files and directories. +- Use options and arguments to change the behaviour of a shell command. +- Demonstrate the use of tab completion and explain its advantages. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: questions + +- How can I move around on my computer? +- How can I see what files and directories I have? +- How can I specify the location of a file or directory on my computer? + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: instructor + +Introducing and navigating the filesystem in the shell (covered in [Navigating Files and Directories](02-filedir.md) +section) can be confusing. You may have both terminal and GUI file explorer open side by side so learners can see the +content and file structure while they're using terminal to navigate the system. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +The part of the operating system responsible for managing files and directories is called the **file system**. It +organizes our data into files, which hold information, and directories (also called 'folders'), which hold files or +other directories. + +Several commands are frequently used to create, inspect, rename, and delete files and directories. To start exploring +them, we'll go to our open shell window. + +First, let's find out where we are by running a command called `pwd` (which stands for 'print working +directory'). Directories are like *places* — at any time while we are using the shell, we are in exactly one place +called our **current working directory**. Commands mostly read and write files in the current working directory, +i.e. 'here', so knowing where you are before running a command is important. `pwd` shows you where you are: + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle +``` + +Here, the computer's response is `/Users/nelle`, which is Nelle's **home directory**: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Home Directory Variation + +The home directory path will look different on different operating systems. On Linux, it may look like `/home/nelle`, +and on Windows, it will be similar to `C:\Documents and Settings\nelle` or `C:\Users\nelle`. (Note that it may look +slightly different for different versions of Windows.) In future examples, we've used Mac output as the default - Linux +and Windows output may differ slightly but should be generally similar. + +We will also assume that your `pwd` command returns your user's home directory. If `pwd` returns something different, +you may need to navigate there using `cd` or some commands in this lesson will not work as written. See [Exploring +Other Directories](#exploring-other-directories) for more details on the `cd` command. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +To understand what a 'home directory' is, let's have a look at how the file system as a whole is organized. For the +sake of this example, we'll be illustrating the filesystem on our scientist Nelle's computer. After this illustration, +you'll be learning commands to explore your own filesystem, which will be constructed in a similar way, but not be +exactly identical. + +On Nelle's computer, the filesystem looks like this: + +![](fig/filesystem.svg){alt='The file system is made up of a root directory that contains sub-directories titled bin, +data, users, and tmp'} + +The filesystem looks like an upside down tree. The topmost directory is the **root directory** that holds everything +else. We refer to it using a slash character, `/`, on its own; this character is the leading slash in `/Users/nelle`. + +Inside that directory are several other directories: `bin` (which is where some built-in programs are stored), `data` +(for miscellaneous data files), `Users` (where users' personal directories are located), `tmp` (for temporary files that +don't need to be stored long-term), and so on. + +We know that our current working directory `/Users/nelle` is stored inside `/Users` because `/Users` is the first part +of its name. Similarly, we know that `/Users` is stored inside the root directory `/` because its name begins with `/`. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Slashes + +Notice that there are two meanings for the `/` character. When it appears at the front of a file or directory name, it +refers to the root directory. When it appears *inside* a path, it's just a separator. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +Underneath `/Users`, we find one directory for each user with an account on Nelle's machine, her colleagues *imhotep* +and *larry*. + +![](fig/home-directories.svg){alt='Like other directories, home directories are sub-directories underneath "/Users" like +"/Users/imhotep", "/Users/larry" or"/Users/nelle"'} + +The user *imhotep*'s files are stored in `/Users/imhotep`, user *larry*'s in `/Users/larry`, and Nelle's in +`/Users/nelle`. Nelle is the user in our examples here; therefore, we get `/Users/nelle` as our home directory. +Typically, when you open a new command prompt, you will be in your home directory to start. + +Now let's learn the command that will let us see the contents of our own filesystem. We can see what's in our home +directory by running `ls`: + +```bash +$ ls +``` + +```output +Applications Documents Library Music Public +Desktop Downloads Movies Pictures +``` + +(Again, your results may be slightly different depending on your operating system and how you have customized your +filesystem.) + +`ls` prints the names of the files and directories in the current directory. We can make its output more comprehensible +by using the `-F` **option** which tells `ls` to classify the output by adding a marker to file and directory names to +indicate what they are: + +- a trailing `/` indicates that this is a directory +- `@` indicates a link +- `*` indicates an executable + +Depending on your shell's default settings, the shell might also use colors to indicate whether each entry is a file or +directory. + +```bash +$ ls -F +``` + +```output +Applications/ Documents/ Library/ Music/ Public/ +Desktop/ Downloads/ Movies/ Pictures/ +``` + +Here, we can see that the home directory contains only **sub-directories**. Any names in the output that don't have a +classification symbol are **files** in the current working directory. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Clearing your terminal + +If your screen gets too cluttered, you can clear your terminal using the `clear` command. You can still access previous +commands using ↑ and ↓ to move line-by-line, or by scrolling in your terminal. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +### Getting help + +`ls` has lots of other **options**. There are two common ways to find out how to use a command and what options it +accepts --- **depending on your environment, you might find that only one of these ways works:** + +1. We can pass a `--help` option to any command (available on Linux and Git Bash), for example: + + ```bash + $ ls --help + ``` + +2. We can read its manual with `man` (available on Linux and macOS): + + ```bash + $ man ls + ``` + +We'll describe both ways next. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Help for built-in commands + +Some commands are built in to the Bash shell, rather than existing as separate programs on the filesystem. One example +is the `cd` (change directory) command. If you get a message like `No manual entry for cd`, try `help cd` instead. The +`help` command is how you get usage information for [Bash +built-ins](https://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/html_node/Bash-Builtins.html). + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +#### The `--help` option + +Most bash commands and programs that people have written to be run from within bash, support a `--help` option that +displays more information on how to use the command or program. + +```bash +$ ls --help +``` + +```output +Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]... +List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default). +Sort entries alphabetically if neither -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified. + +Mandatory arguments to long options are mandatory for short options, too. + -a, --all do not ignore entries starting with . + -A, --almost-all do not list implied . and .. + --author with -l, print the author of each file + -b, --escape print C-style escapes for nongraphic characters + --block-size=SIZE scale sizes by SIZE before printing them; e.g., + '--block-size=M' prints sizes in units of + 1,048,576 bytes; see SIZE format below + -B, --ignore-backups do not list implied entries ending with ~ + -c with -lt: sort by, and show, ctime (time of last + modification of file status information); + with -l: show ctime and sort by name; + otherwise: sort by ctime, newest first + -C list entries by columns + --color[=WHEN] colorize the output; WHEN can be 'always' (default + if omitted), 'auto', or 'never'; more info below + -d, --directory list directories themselves, not their contents + -D, --dired generate output designed for Emacs' dired mode + -f do not sort, enable -aU, disable -ls --color + -F, --classify append indicator (one of */=>@|) to entries +... ... ... +``` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Unsupported command-line options + +If you try to use an option that is not supported, `ls` and other commands will usually print an error message similar +to: + +```bash +$ ls -j +``` + +```error +ls: invalid option -- 'j' +Try 'ls --help' for more information. +``` + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +#### The `man` command + +The other way to learn about `ls` is to type + +```bash +$ man ls +``` + +This command will turn your terminal into a page with a description of the `ls` command and its options. + +To navigate through the `man` pages, you may use ↑ and ↓ to move line-by-line, or try B +and Spacebar to skip up and down by a full page. To search for a character or word in the `man` pages, use +/ followed by the character or word you are searching for. Sometimes a search will result in multiple hits. +If so, you can move between hits using N (for moving forward) and Shift\+N (for moving +backward). + +To **quit** the `man` pages, press Q. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Manual pages on the web + +Of course, there is a third way to access help for commands: searching the internet via your web browser. When using +internet search, including the phrase `unix man page` in your search query will help to find relevant results. + +GNU provides links to its [manuals](https://www.gnu.org/manual/manual.html) including the [core GNU +utilities](https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/manual/coreutils.html), which covers many commands introduced within +this lesson. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Exploring More `ls` Options + +You can also use two options at the same time. What does the command `ls` do when used with the `-l` option? What about +if you use both the `-l` and the `-h` option? + +Some of its output is about properties that we do not cover in this lesson (such as file permissions and ownership), but +the rest should be useful nevertheless. + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +The `-l` option makes `ls` use a **l**ong listing format, showing not only the file/directory names but also additional +information, such as the file size and the time of its last modification. If you use both the `-h` option and the `-l` +option, this makes the file size '**h**uman readable', i.e. displaying something like `5.3K` instead of `5369`. + + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Listing in Reverse Chronological Order + +By default, `ls` lists the contents of a directory in alphabetical order by name. The command `ls -t` lists items by +time of last change instead of alphabetically. The command `ls -r` lists the contents of a directory in reverse order. +Which file is displayed last when you combine the `-t` and `-r` options? Hint: You may need to use the `-l` option to +see the last changed dates. + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +The most recently changed file is listed last when using `-rt`. This can be very useful for finding your most recent +edits or checking to see if a new output file was written. + + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +### Exploring Other Directories + +Not only can we use `ls` on the current working directory, but we can use it to list the contents of a different +directory. Let's take a look at our `Desktop` directory by running `ls -F Desktop`, i.e., the command `ls` with the +`-F` **option** and the [**argument**][Arguments] `Desktop`. The argument `Desktop` tells `ls` that we want a listing +of something other than our current working directory: + +```bash +$ ls -F Desktop +``` + +```output +shell-lesson-data/ +``` + +Note that if a directory named `Desktop` does not exist in your current working directory, this command will return an +error. Typically, a `Desktop` directory exists in your home directory, which we assume is the current working directory +of your bash shell. + +Your output should be a list of all the files and sub-directories in your Desktop directory, including the +`shell-lesson-data` directory you downloaded at the [setup for this lesson](../learners/setup.md). (On most systems, the +contents of the `Desktop` directory in the shell will show up as icons in a graphical user interface behind all the open +windows. See if this is the case for you.) + +Organizing things hierarchically helps us keep track of our work. While it's possible to put hundreds of files in our +home directory just as it's possible to pile hundreds of printed papers on our desk, it's much easier to find things +when they've been organized into sensibly-named subdirectories. + +Now that we know the `shell-lesson-data` directory is located in our Desktop directory, we can do two things. + +First, using the same strategy as before, we can look at its contents by passing a directory name to `ls`: + +```bash +$ ls -F Desktop/shell-lesson-data +``` + +```output +exercise-data/ north-pacific-gyre/ +``` + +Second, we can actually change our location to a different directory, so we are no longer located in our home directory. + +The command to change locations is `cd` followed by a directory name to change our working directory. `cd` stands for +'change directory', which is a bit misleading. The command doesn't change the directory; it changes the shell's current +working directory. In other words it changes the shell's settings for what directory we are in. The `cd` command is +akin to double-clicking a folder in a graphical interface to get into that folder. + +Let's say we want to move into the `exercise-data` directory we saw above. We can use the following series of commands +to get there: + +```bash +$ cd Desktop +$ cd shell-lesson-data +$ cd exercise-data +``` + +These commands will move us from our home directory into our Desktop directory, then into the `shell-lesson-data` +directory, then into the `exercise-data` directory. You will notice that `cd` doesn't print anything. This is normal. +Many shell commands will not output anything to the screen when successfully executed. But if we run `pwd` after it, we +can see that we are now in `/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data`. + +If we run `ls -F` without arguments now, it lists the contents of +`/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data`, because that's where we now are: + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data +``` + +```bash +$ ls -F +``` + +```output +alkanes/ animal-counts/ creatures/ numbers.txt writing/ +``` + +We now know how to go down the directory tree (i.e. how to go into a subdirectory), but how do we go up (i.e. how do we +leave a directory and go into its parent directory)? We might try the following: + +```bash +$ cd shell-lesson-data +``` + +```error +-bash: cd: shell-lesson-data: No such file or directory +``` + +But we get an error! Why is this? + +With our methods so far, `cd` can only see sub-directories inside your current directory. There are different ways to +see directories above your current location; we'll start with the simplest. + +There is a shortcut in the shell to move up one directory level. It works as follows: + +```bash +$ cd .. +``` + +`..` is a special directory name meaning "the directory containing this one", or more succinctly, the **parent** of the +current directory. Sure enough, if we run `pwd` after running `cd ..`, we're back in +`/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data`: + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data +``` + +The special directory `..` doesn't usually show up when we run `ls`. If we want to display it, we can add the `-a` +option to `ls -F`: + +```bash +$ ls -F -a +``` + +```output +./ ../ exercise-data/ north-pacific-gyre/ +``` + +`-a` stands for 'show all' (including hidden files); it forces `ls` to show us file and directory names that begin with +`.`, such as `..` (which, if we're in `/Users/nelle`, refers to the `/Users` directory). As you can see, it also +displays another special directory that's just called `.`, which means 'the current working directory'. It may seem +redundant to have a name for it, but we'll see some uses for it soon. + +Note that in most command line tools, multiple options can be combined with a single `-` and no spaces between the +options; `ls -F -a` is equivalent to `ls -Fa`. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Other Hidden Files + +In addition to the hidden directories `..` and `.`, you may also see a file called `.bash_profile`. This file usually +contains shell configuration settings. You may also see other files and directories beginning with `.`. These are +usually files and directories that are used to configure different programs on your computer. The prefix `.` is used to +prevent these configuration files from cluttering the terminal when a standard `ls` command is used. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +These three commands are the basic commands for navigating the filesystem on your computer: `pwd`, `ls`, and `cd`. Let's +explore some variations on those commands. What happens if you type `cd` on its own, without giving a directory? + +```bash +$ cd +``` + +How can you check what happened? `pwd` gives us the answer! + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle +``` + +It turns out that `cd` without an argument will return you to your home directory, which is great if you've got lost in +your own filesystem. + +Let's try returning to the `exercise-data` directory from before. Last time, we used three commands, but we can actually +string together the list of directories to move to `exercise-data` in one step: + +```bash +$ cd Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data +``` + +Check that we've moved to the right place by running `pwd` and `ls -F`. + +If we want to move up one level from the data directory, we could use `cd ..`. But there is another way to move to any +directory, regardless of your current location. + +So far, when specifying directory names, or even a directory path (as above), we have been using **relative paths**. +When you use a relative path with a command like `ls` or `cd`, it tries to find that location from where we are, rather +than from the root of the file system. + +However, it is possible to specify the **absolute path** to a directory by including its entire path from the root +directory, which is indicated by a leading slash. The leading `/` tells the computer to follow the path from the root of +the file system, so it always refers to exactly one directory, no matter where we are when we run the command. + +This allows us to move to our `shell-lesson-data` directory from anywhere on the filesystem (including from inside +`exercise-data`). To find the absolute path we're looking for, we can use `pwd` and then extract the piece we need to +move to `shell-lesson-data`. + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data +``` + +```bash +$ cd /Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data +``` + +Run `pwd` and `ls -F` to ensure that we're in the directory we expect. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Two More Shortcuts + +The shell interprets a tilde (`~`) character at the start of a path to mean "the current user's home directory". For +example, if Nelle's home directory is `/Users/nelle`, then `~/data` is equivalent to `/Users/nelle/data`. This only +works if it is the first character in the path; `here/there/~/elsewhere` is *not* `here/there/Users/nelle/elsewhere`. + +Another shortcut is the `-` (dash) character. `cd` will translate `-` into *the previous directory I was in*, which is +faster than having to remember, then type, the full path. This is a *very* efficient way of moving *back and forth +between two directories* -- i.e. if you execute `cd -` twice, you end up back in the starting directory. + +The difference between `cd ..` and `cd -` is that the former brings you *up*, while the latter brings you *back*. + +*** + +Try it! First navigate to `~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data` (you should already be there). + +```bash +$ cd ~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data +``` + +Then `cd` into the `exercise-data/creatures` directory + +```bash +$ cd exercise-data/creatures +``` + +Now if you run + +```bash +$ cd - +``` + +you'll see you're back in `~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data`. Run `cd -` again and you're back in +`~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/creatures` + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Absolute vs Relative Paths + +Starting from `/Users/nelle/data`, which of the following commands could Nelle use to navigate to her home directory, +which is `/Users/nelle`? + +1. `cd .` +2. `cd /` +3. `cd /home/nelle` +4. `cd ../..` +5. `cd ~` +6. `cd home` +7. `cd ~/data/..` +8. `cd` +9. `cd ..` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +1. No: `.` stands for the current directory. +2. No: `/` stands for the root directory. +3. No: Nelle's home directory is `/Users/nelle`. +4. No: this command goes up two levels, i.e. ends in `/Users`. +5. Yes: `~` stands for the user's home directory, in this case `/Users/nelle`. +6. No: this command would navigate into a directory `home` in the current directory if it exists. +7. Yes: unnecessarily complicated, but correct. +8. Yes: shortcut to go back to the user's home directory. +9. Yes: goes up one level. + + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Relative Path Resolution + +Using the filesystem diagram below, if `pwd` displays `/Users/thing`, what will `ls -F ../backup` display? + +1. `../backup: No such file or directory` +2. `2012-12-01 2013-01-08 2013-01-27` +3. `2012-12-01/ 2013-01-08/ 2013-01-27/` +4. `original/ pnas_final/ pnas_sub/` + +![](fig/filesystem-challenge.svg){alt='A directory tree below the Users directory where "/Users" contains the +directories "backup" and "thing"; "/Users/backup" contains "original","pnas\_final" and "pnas\_sub"; "/Users/thing" +contains "backup"; and"/Users/thing/backup" contains "2012-12-01", "2013-01-08" and"2013-01-27"'} + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +1. No: there *is* a directory `backup` in `/Users`. +2. No: this is the content of `Users/thing/backup`, but with `..`, we asked for one level further up. +3. No: see previous explanation. +4. Yes: `../backup/` refers to `/Users/backup/`. + + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## `ls` Reading Comprehension + +Using the filesystem diagram below, if `pwd` displays `/Users/backup`, and `-r` tells `ls` to display things in reverse +order, what command(s) will result in the following output: + +```output +pnas_sub/ pnas_final/ original/ +``` + +![](fig/filesystem-challenge.svg){alt='A directory tree below the Users directory where "/Users" contains the +directories "backup" and "thing"; "/Users/backup" contains "original","pnas\_final" and "pnas\_sub"; "/Users/thing" +contains "backup"; and"/Users/thing/backup" contains "2012-12-01", "2013-01-08" and"2013-01-27"'} + +1. `ls pwd` +2. `ls -r -F` +3. `ls -r -F /Users/backup` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +1. No: `pwd` is not the name of a directory. +2. Yes: `ls` without directory argument lists files and directories in the current directory. +3. Yes: uses the absolute path explicitly. + + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +## General Syntax of a Shell Command + +We have now encountered commands, options, and arguments, but it is perhaps useful to formalise some terminology. + +Consider the command below as a general example of a command, which we will dissect into its component parts: + +```bash +$ ls -F / +``` + +![](fig/shell_command_syntax.svg){alt='General syntax of a shell command'} + +`ls` is the **command**, with an **option** `-F` and an **argument** `/`. We've already encountered options which +either start with a single dash (`-`), known as **short options**, or two dashes (`--`), known as **long options**. +[Options] change the behavior of a command and [Arguments] tell the command what to operate on (e.g. files and +directories). Sometimes options and arguments are referred to as **parameters**. A command can be called with more +than one option and more than one argument, but a command doesn't always require an argument or an option. + +You might sometimes see options being referred to as **switches** or **flags**, especially for options that take no +argument. In this lesson we will stick with using the term *option*. + +Each part is separated by spaces. If you omit the space between `ls` and `-F` the shell will look for a command called +`ls-F`, which doesn't exist. Also, capitalization can be important. For example, `ls -s` will display the size of files +and directories alongside the names, while `ls -S` will sort the files and directories by size, as shown below: + +```bash +$ cd ~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data +$ ls -s exercise-data +``` + +```output +total 28 + 4 animal-counts 4 creatures 12 numbers.txt 4 alkanes 4 writing +``` + +Note that the sizes returned by `ls -s` are in *blocks*. As these are defined differently for different operating +systems, you may not obtain the same figures as in the example. + +```bash +$ ls -S exercise-data +``` + +```output +animal-counts creatures alkanes writing numbers.txt +``` + +Putting all that together, our command `ls -F /` above gives us a listing of files and directories in the root directory +`/`. An example of the output you might get from the above command is given below: + +```bash +$ ls -F / +``` + +```output +Applications/ System/ +Library/ Users/ +Network/ Volumes/ +``` + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout +### When to use short or long options +When options exist as both short and long options: + +- Use the short option when typing commands directly into the shell to minimize keystrokes and get your task done + faster. +- Use the long option in scripts to provide clarity. It will be read many times and typed once. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +### Nelle's Pipeline: Organizing Files + +Knowing this much about files and directories, Nelle is ready to organize the files that the protein assay machine will +create. + +She creates a directory called `north-pacific-gyre` (to remind herself where the data came from), which will contain the +data files from the assay machine and her data processing scripts. + +Each of her physical samples is labelled according to her lab's convention with a unique ten-character ID, such as +'NENE01729A'. This ID is what she used in her collection log to record the location, time, depth, and other +characteristics of the sample, so she decides to use it within the filename of each data file. Since the output of the +assay machine is plain text, she will call her files `NENE01729A.txt`, `NENE01812A.txt`, and so on. All 1520 files will +go into the same directory. + +Now in her current directory `shell-lesson-data`, Nelle can see what files she has using the command: + +```bash +$ ls north-pacific-gyre/ +``` + +This command is a lot to type, but she can let the shell do most of the work through what is called **tab completion**. +If she types: + +```bash +$ ls nor +``` + +and then presses Tab (the tab key on her keyboard), the shell automatically completes the directory name for +her: + +```bash +$ ls north-pacific-gyre/ +``` + +Pressing Tab again does nothing, since there are multiple possibilities; pressing Tab twice brings +up a list of all the files. + +If Nelle then presses G and then presses Tab again, the shell will append 'goo' since all files +that start with 'g' share the first three characters 'goo'. + +```bash +$ ls north-pacific-gyre/goo +``` + +To see all of those files, she can press Tab twice more. + +```bash +ls north-pacific-gyre/goo +goodiff.sh goostats.sh +``` + +This is called **tab completion**, and we will see it in many other tools as we go on. + + + +[Arguments]: https://swcarpentry.github.io/shell-novice/reference.html#argument + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: keypoints + +- The file system is responsible for managing information on the disk. +- Information is stored in files, which are stored in directories (folders). +- Directories can also store other directories, which then form a directory tree. +- `pwd` prints the user's current working directory. +- `ls [path]` prints a listing of a specific file or directory; `ls` on its own lists the current working directory. +- `cd [path]` changes the current working directory. +- Most commands take options that begin with a single `-`. +- Directory names in a path are separated with `/` on Unix, but `\` on Windows. +- `/` on its own is the root directory of the whole file system. +- An absolute path specifies a location from the root of the file system. +- A relative path specifies a location starting from the current location. +- `.` on its own means 'the current directory'; `..` means 'the directory above the current one'. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + + + +This chapter is from "[Software Carpentry The Unix Shell][swcarpentry-unix]". It is licensed under the +[CC-BY-4.0][cc-by-4]. + + +[swcarpentry-unix]: https://swcarpentry.github.io/shell-novice/ +[cc-by-4]: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ diff --git a/03-create.md b/03-create.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..081eb10 --- /dev/null +++ b/03-create.md @@ -0,0 +1,1764 @@ +--- +title: Working With Files and Directories +teaching: 30 +exercises: 20 +--- + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: objectives + +- Create a directory hierarchy that matches a given diagram. +- Create files in that hierarchy using an editor or by copying and renaming existing files. +- Delete, copy and move specified files and/or directories. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: questions + +- How can I create, copy, and delete files and directories? +- How can I edit files? + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + + +## Creating directories + +We now know how to explore files and directories, but how do we create them in the first place? + +In this episode we will learn about creating and moving files and directories, using the `exercise-data/writing` +directory as an example. + +### Step one: see where we are and what we already have + +We should still be in the `shell-lesson-data` directory on the Desktop, which we can check using: + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data +``` + +Next we'll move to the `exercise-data/writing` directory and see what it contains: + +```bash +$ cd exercise-data/writing/ +$ ls -F +``` + +```output +haiku.txt LittleWomen.txt +``` + +### Create a directory + +Let's create a new directory called `thesis` using the command `mkdir thesis` (which has no output): + +```bash +$ mkdir thesis +``` + +As you might guess from its name, `mkdir` means 'make directory'. Since `thesis` is a relative path (i.e., does not +have a leading slash, like `/what/ever/thesis`), the new directory is created in the current working directory: + +```bash +$ ls -F +``` + +```output +haiku.txt LittleWomen.txt thesis/ +``` + +Since we've just created the `thesis` directory, there's nothing in it yet: + +```bash +$ ls -F thesis +``` + +Note that `mkdir` is not limited to creating single directories one at a time. The `-p` option allows `mkdir` to create +a directory with nested subdirectories in a single operation: + +```bash +$ mkdir -p ../project/data ../project/results +``` + +The `-R` option to the `ls` command will list all nested subdirectories within a directory. Let's use `ls -FR` to +recursively list the new directory hierarchy we just created in the `project` directory: + +```bash +$ ls -FR ../project +``` + +```output +../project/: +data/ results/ + +../project/data: + +../project/results: +``` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Two ways of doing the same thing + +Using the shell to create a directory is no different than using a file explorer. If you open the current directory +using your operating system's graphical file explorer, the `thesis` directory will appear there too. While the shell +and the file explorer are two different ways of interacting with the files, the files and directories themselves are the +same. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Good names for files and directories + +Complicated names of files and directories can make your life painful when working on the command line. Here we provide +a few useful tips for the names of your files and directories. + +1. Don't use spaces. + +Spaces can make a name more meaningful, but since spaces are used to separate arguments on the command line it is better +to avoid them in names of files and directories. You can use `-` or `_` instead (e.g. `north-pacific-gyre/` rather than +`north pacific gyre/`). To test this out, try typing `mkdir north pacific gyre` and see what directory (or +directories!) are made when you check with `ls -F`. + +2. Don't begin the name with `-` (dash). + +Commands treat names starting with `-` as options. + +3. Stick with letters, numbers, `.` (period or 'full stop'), `-` (dash) and `_` (underscore). + +Many other characters have special meanings on the command line. We will learn about some of these during this lesson. +There are special characters that can cause your command to not work as expected and can even result in data loss. + +If you need to refer to names of files or directories that have spaces or other special characters, you should surround +the name in quotes (`""`). + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: instructor + +Learners can sometimes get trapped within command-line text editors such as Vim, Emacs, or Nano. Closing the terminal +emulator and opening a new one can be frustrating as learners will have to navigate to the correct folder again. Our +recommendation to mitigate this problem is that instructors should use the same text editor as the learners during +workshops (in most cases Nano). + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +### Create a text file + +Let's change our working directory to `thesis` using `cd`, then run a text editor called Nano to create a file called +`draft.txt`: + +```bash +$ cd thesis +$ nano draft.txt +``` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Which Editor? + +When we say, '`nano` is a text editor' we really do mean 'text'. It can only work with plain character data, not tables, +images, or any other human-friendly media. We use it in examples because it is one of the least complex text +editors. However, because of this trait, it may not be powerful enough or flexible enough for the work you need to do +after this workshop. On Unix systems (such as Linux and macOS), many programmers use +[Emacs](https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/) or [Vim](https://www.vim.org/) (both of which require more time to learn), +or a graphical editor such as [Gedit](https://projects.gnome.org/gedit/) or [VScode](https://code.visualstudio.com/). On +Windows, you may wish to use [Notepad++](https://notepad-plus-plus.org/). Windows also has a built-in editor called +`notepad` that can be run from the command line in the same way as `nano` for the purposes of this lesson. + +No matter what editor you use, you will need to know where it searches for and saves files. If you start it from the +shell, it will (probably) use your current working directory as its default location. If you use your computer's start +menu, it may want to save files in your Desktop or Documents directory instead. You can change this by navigating to +another directory the first time you 'Save As...' + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +Let's type in a few lines of text. + +![](fig/nano-screenshot.png){alt="screenshot of nano text editor in action with the text It's not publish or perish any +more, it's share and thrive"} + +Once we're happy with our text, we can press Ctrl\+O (press the Ctrl or +Control key and, while holding it down, press the O key) to write our data to disk. We will be +asked to provide a name for the file that will contain our text. Press Return to accept the suggested default +of `draft.txt`. + +Once our file is saved, we can use Ctrl\+X to quit the editor and return to the shell. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Control, Ctrl, or ^ Key + +The Control key is also called the 'Ctrl' key. There are various ways in which using the Control key may be +described. For example, you may see an instruction to press the Control key and, while holding it down, press +the X key, described as any of: + +- `Control-X` +- `Control+X` +- `Ctrl-X` +- `Ctrl+X` +- `^X` +- `C-x` + +In nano, along the bottom of the screen you'll see `^G Get Help ^O WriteOut`. This means that you can use `Control-G` +to get help and `Control-O` to save your file. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +`nano` doesn't leave any output on the screen after it exits, but `ls` now shows that we have created a file called +`draft.txt`: + +```bash +$ ls +``` + +```output +draft.txt +``` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Creating Files a Different Way + +We have seen how to create text files using the `nano` editor. Now, try the following command: + +```bash +$ touch my_file.txt +``` + +1. What did the `touch` command do? When you look at your current directory using the GUI file explorer, does the file + show up? + +2. Use `ls -l` to inspect the files. How large is `my_file.txt`? + +3. When might you want to create a file this way? + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +1. The `touch` command generates a new file called `my_file.txt` in your current directory. You can observe this newly + generated file by typing `ls` at the command line prompt. `my_file.txt` can also be viewed in your GUI file explorer. + +2. When you inspect the file with `ls -l`, note that the size of `my_file.txt` is 0 bytes. In other words, it contains + no data. If you open `my_file.txt` using your text editor it is blank. + +3. Some programs do not generate output files themselves, but instead require that empty files have already been + generated. When the program is run, it searches for an existing file to populate with its output. The touch command + allows you to efficiently generate a blank text file to be used by such programs. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +To avoid confusion later on, we suggest removing the file you've just created before proceeding with the rest of the +episode, otherwise future outputs may vary from those given in the lesson. To do this, use the following command: + +```bash +$ rm my_file.txt +``` + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## What's In A Name? + +You may have noticed that all of Nelle's files are named 'something dot something', and in this part of the lesson, we +always used the extension `.txt`. This is just a convention; we can call a file `mythesis` or almost anything else we +want. However, most people use two-part names most of the time to help them (and their programs) tell different kinds of +files apart. The second part of such a name is called the **filename extension** and indicates what type of data the +file holds: `.txt` signals a plain text file, `.pdf` indicates a PDF document, `.cfg` is a configuration file full of +parameters for some program or other, `.png` is a PNG image, and so on. + +This is just a convention, albeit an important one. Files merely contain bytes; it's up to us and our programs to +interpret those bytes according to the rules for plain text files, PDF documents, configuration files, images, and so +on. + +Naming a PNG image of a whale as `whale.mp3` doesn't somehow magically turn it into a recording of whale song, though it +*might* cause the operating system to associate the file with a music player program. In this case, if someone +double-clicked `whale.mp3` in a file explorer program,the music player will automatically (and erroneously) attempt to +open the `whale.mp3` file. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +## Moving files and directories + +Returning to the `shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/writing` directory, + +```bash +$ cd ~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/writing +``` + +In our `thesis` directory we have a file `draft.txt` which isn't a particularly informative name, so let's change the +file's name using `mv`, which is short for 'move': + +```bash +$ mv thesis/draft.txt thesis/quotes.txt +``` + +The first argument tells `mv` what we're 'moving', while the second is where it's to go. In this case, we're moving +`thesis/draft.txt` to `thesis/quotes.txt`, which has the same effect as renaming the file. Sure enough, `ls` shows us +that `thesis` now contains one file called `quotes.txt`: + +```bash +$ ls thesis +``` + +```output +quotes.txt +``` + +One must be careful when specifying the target file name, since `mv` will silently overwrite any existing file with the +same name, which could lead to data loss. By default, `mv` will not ask for confirmation before overwriting files. +However, an additional option, `mv -i` (or `mv --interactive`), will cause `mv` to request such confirmation. + +Note that `mv` also works on directories. + +Let's move `quotes.txt` into the current working directory. We use `mv` once again, but this time we'll use just the +name of a directory as the second argument to tell `mv` that we want to keep the filename but put the file somewhere +new. (This is why the command is called 'move'.) In this case, the directory name we use is the special directory name +`.` that we mentioned earlier. + +```bash +$ mv thesis/quotes.txt . +``` + +The effect is to move the file from the directory it was in to the current working directory. `ls` now shows us that +`thesis` is empty: + +```bash +$ ls thesis +``` + +```output +$ +``` + +Alternatively, we can confirm the file `quotes.txt` is no longer present in the `thesis` directory by explicitly trying +to list it: + +```bash +$ ls thesis/quotes.txt +``` + +```error +ls: cannot access 'thesis/quotes.txt': No such file or directory +``` + +`ls` with a filename or directory as an argument only lists the requested file or directory. If the file given as the +argument doesn't exist, the shell returns an error as we saw above. We can use this to see that `quotes.txt` is now +present in our current directory: + +```bash +$ ls quotes.txt +``` + +```output +quotes.txt +``` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Moving Files to a new folder + +After running the following commands, Jamie realizes that she put the files `sucrose.dat` and `maltose.dat` into the +wrong folder. The files should have been placed in the `raw` folder. + +```bash +$ ls -F + analyzed/ raw/ +$ ls -F analyzed +fructose.dat glucose.dat maltose.dat sucrose.dat +$ cd analyzed +``` + +Fill in the blanks to move these files to the `raw/` folder (i.e. the one she forgot to put them in) + +```bash +$ mv sucrose.dat maltose.dat ____/____ +``` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +```bash +$ mv sucrose.dat maltose.dat ../raw +``` + +Recall that `..` refers to the parent directory (i.e. one above the current directory) and that `.` refers to the +current directory. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +## Copying files and directories + +The `cp` command works very much like `mv`, except it copies a file instead of moving it. We can check that it did the +right thing using `ls` with two paths as arguments --- like most Unix commands, `ls` can be given multiple paths at +once: + +```bash +$ cp quotes.txt thesis/quotations.txt +$ ls quotes.txt thesis/quotations.txt +``` + +```output +quotes.txt thesis/quotations.txt +``` + +We can also copy a directory and all its contents by using the [recursive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion) +option `-r`, e.g. to back up a directory: + +```bash +$ cp -r thesis thesis_backup +``` + +We can check the result by listing the contents of both the `thesis` and `thesis_backup` directory: + +```bash +$ ls thesis thesis_backup +``` + +```output +thesis: +quotations.txt + +thesis_backup: +quotations.txt +``` + +It is important to include the `-r` flag. If you want to copy a directory and you omit this option you will see a +message that the directory has been omitted because `-r not specified`. + +``` bash +$ cp thesis thesis_backup +cp: -r not specified; omitting directory 'thesis' +``` + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Renaming Files + +Suppose that you created a plain-text file in your current directory to contain a list of the statistical tests you will +need to do to analyze your data, and named it `statstics.txt` + +After creating and saving this file you realize you misspelled the filename! You want to correct the mistake, which of +the following commands could you use to do so? + +1. `cp statstics.txt statistics.txt` +2. `mv statstics.txt statistics.txt` +3. `mv statstics.txt .` +4. `cp statstics.txt .` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +1. No. While this would create a file with the correct name, the incorrectly named file still exists in the directory + and would need to be deleted. +2. Yes, this would work to rename the file. +3. No, the period(.) indicates where to move the file, but does not provide a new file name; identical file names cannot + be created. +4. No, the period(.) indicates where to copy the file, but does not provide a new file name; identical file names cannot + be created. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Moving and Copying + +What is the output of the closing `ls` command in the sequence shown below? + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/jamie/data +``` + +```bash +$ ls +``` + +```output +proteins.dat +``` + +```bash +$ mkdir recombined +$ mv proteins.dat recombined/ +$ cp recombined/proteins.dat ../proteins-saved.dat +$ ls +``` + +1. `proteins-saved.dat recombined` +2. `recombined` +3. `proteins.dat recombined` +4. `proteins-saved.dat` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +We start in the `/Users/jamie/data` directory, and create a new folder called `recombined`. The second line moves +(`mv`) the file `proteins.dat` to the new folder (`recombined`). The third line makes a copy of the file we just moved. +The tricky part here is where the file was copied to. Recall that `..` means 'go up a level', so the copied file is now +in `/Users/jamie`. Notice that `..` is interpreted with respect to the current working directory, **not** with respect +to the location of the file being copied. So, the only thing that will show using ls (in `/Users/jamie/data`) is the +recombined folder. + +1. No, see explanation above. `proteins-saved.dat` is located at `/Users/jamie` +2. Yes +3. No, see explanation above. `proteins.dat` is located at `/Users/jamie/data/recombined` +4. No, see explanation above. `proteins-saved.dat` is located at `/Users/jamie` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +## Removing files and directories + +Returning to the `shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/writing` directory, let's tidy up this directory by removing the +`quotes.txt` file we created. The Unix command we'll use for this is `rm` (short for 'remove'): + +```bash +$ rm quotes.txt +``` + +We can confirm the file has gone using `ls`: + +```bash +$ ls quotes.txt +``` + +```error +ls: cannot access 'quotes.txt': No such file or directory +``` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Deleting Is Forever + +The Unix shell doesn't have a trash bin that we can recover deleted files from (though most graphical interfaces to Unix +do). Instead, when we delete files, they are unlinked from the file system so that their storage space on disk can be +recycled. Tools for finding and recovering deleted files do exist, but there's no guarantee they'll work in any +particular situation, since the computer may recycle the file's disk space right away. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Using `rm` Safely + +What happens when we execute `rm -i thesis_backup/quotations.txt`? Why would we want this protection when using `rm`? + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +```output +rm: remove regular file 'thesis_backup/quotations.txt'? y +``` + +The `-i` option will prompt before (every) removal (use Y to confirm deletion or N to keep the +file). The Unix shell doesn't have a trash bin, so all the files removed will disappear forever. By using the `-i` +option, we have the chance to check that we are deleting only the files that we want to remove. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +If we try to remove the `thesis` directory using `rm thesis`, we get an error message: + +```bash +$ rm thesis +``` + +```error +rm: cannot remove 'thesis': Is a directory +``` + +This happens because `rm` by default only works on files, not directories. + +`rm` can remove a directory *and all its contents* if we use the recursive option `-r`, and it will do so *without any +confirmation prompts*: + +```bash +$ rm -r thesis +``` + +Given that there is no way to retrieve files deleted using the shell, `rm -r` *should be used with great caution* (you +might consider adding the interactive option `rm -r -i`). + +## Operations with multiple files and directories + +Oftentimes one needs to copy or move several files at once. This can be done by providing a list of individual +filenames, or specifying a naming pattern using wildcards. Wildcards are special characters that can be used to +represent unknown characters or sets of characters when navigating the Unix file system. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Copy with Multiple Filenames + +For this exercise, you can test the commands in the `shell-lesson-data/exercise-data` directory. + +In the example below, what does `cp` do when given several filenames and a directory name? + +```bash +$ mkdir backup +$ cp creatures/minotaur.dat creatures/unicorn.dat backup/ +``` + +In the example below, what does `cp` do when given three or more file names? + +```bash +$ cd creatures +$ ls -F +``` + +```output +basilisk.dat minotaur.dat unicorn.dat +``` + +```bash +$ cp minotaur.dat unicorn.dat basilisk.dat +``` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +If given more than one file name followed by a directory name (i.e. the destination directory must be the last +argument), `cp` copies the files to the named directory. + +If given three file names, `cp` throws an error such as the one below, because it is expecting a directory name as the +last argument. + +```error +cp: target 'basilisk.dat' is not a directory +``` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +### Using wildcards for accessing multiple files at once + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Wildcards + +`*` is a **wildcard**, which represents zero or more other characters. Let's consider the +`shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/alkanes` directory: `*.pdb` represents `ethane.pdb`, `propane.pdb`, and every file that +ends with '.pdb'. On the other hand, `p*.pdb` only represents `pentane.pdb` and `propane.pdb`, because the 'p' at the +front can only represent filenames that begin with the letter 'p'. + +`?` is also a wildcard, but it represents exactly one character. So `?ethane.pdb` could represent `methane.pdb` whereas +`*ethane.pdb` represents both `ethane.pdb` and `methane.pdb`. + +Wildcards can be used in combination with each other. For example, `???ane.pdb` indicates three characters followed by +`ane.pdb`, giving `cubane.pdb ethane.pdb octane.pdb`. + +When the shell sees a wildcard, it expands the wildcard to create a list of matching filenames *before* running the +preceding command. As an exception, if a wildcard expression does not match any file, Bash will pass the expression as +an argument to the command as it is. For example, typing `ls *.pdf` in the `alkanes` directory (which contains only +files with names ending with `.pdb`) results in an error message that there is no file called `*.pdf`. However, +generally commands like `wc` and `ls` see the lists of file names matching these expressions, but not the wildcards +themselves. It is the shell, not the other programs, that expands the wildcards. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## List filenames matching a pattern + +When run in the `alkanes` directory, which `ls` command(s) will produce this output? + +`ethane.pdb methane.pdb` + +1. `ls *t*ane.pdb` +2. `ls *t?ne.*` +3. `ls *t??ne.pdb` +4. `ls ethane.*` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +The solution is `3.` + +`1.` shows all files whose names contain zero or more characters (`*`) followed by the letter `t`, then zero or more +characters (`*`) followed by `ane.pdb`. This gives `ethane.pdb methane.pdb octane.pdb pentane.pdb`. + +`2.` shows all files whose names start with zero or more characters (`*`) followed by the letter `t`, then a single +character (`?`), then `ne.` followed by zero or more characters (`*`). This will give us `octane.pdb` and `pentane.pdb` +but doesn't match anything which ends in `thane.pdb`. + +`3.` fixes the problems of option 2 by matching two characters (`??`) between `t` and `ne`. This is the solution. + +`4.` only shows files starting with `ethane.`. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## More on Wildcards + +Sam has a directory containing calibration data, datasets, and descriptions of the datasets: + +```bash +. +├── 2015-10-23-calibration.txt +├── 2015-10-23-dataset1.txt +├── 2015-10-23-dataset2.txt +├── 2015-10-23-dataset_overview.txt +├── 2015-10-26-calibration.txt +├── 2015-10-26-dataset1.txt +├── 2015-10-26-dataset2.txt +├── 2015-10-26-dataset_overview.txt +├── 2015-11-23-calibration.txt +├── 2015-11-23-dataset1.txt +├── 2015-11-23-dataset2.txt +├── 2015-11-23-dataset_overview.txt +├── backup +│   ├── calibration +│   └── datasets +└── send_to_bob + ├── all_datasets_created_on_a_23rd + └── all_november_files +``` + +Before heading off to another field trip, she wants to back up her data and send some datasets to her colleague Bob. Sam +uses the following commands to get the job done: + +```bash +$ cp *dataset* backup/datasets +$ cp ____calibration____ backup/calibration +$ cp 2015-____-____ send_to_bob/all_november_files/ +$ cp ____ send_to_bob/all_datasets_created_on_a_23rd/ +``` + +Help Sam by filling in the blanks. + +The resulting directory structure should look like this + +```bash +. +├── 2015-10-23-calibration.txt +├── 2015-10-23-dataset1.txt +├── 2015-10-23-dataset2.txt +├── 2015-10-23-dataset_overview.txt +├── 2015-10-26-calibration.txt +├── 2015-10-26-dataset1.txt +├── 2015-10-26-dataset2.txt +├── 2015-10-26-dataset_overview.txt +├── 2015-11-23-calibration.txt +├── 2015-11-23-dataset1.txt +├── 2015-11-23-dataset2.txt +├── 2015-11-23-dataset_overview.txt +├── backup +│   ├── calibration +│   │   ├── 2015-10-23-calibration.txt +│   │   ├── 2015-10-26-calibration.txt +│   │   └── 2015-11-23-calibration.txt +│   └── datasets +│   ├── 2015-10-23-dataset1.txt +│   ├── 2015-10-23-dataset2.txt +│   ├── 2015-10-23-dataset_overview.txt +│   ├── 2015-10-26-dataset1.txt +│   ├── 2015-10-26-dataset2.txt +│   ├── 2015-10-26-dataset_overview.txt +│   ├── 2015-11-23-dataset1.txt +│   ├── 2015-11-23-dataset2.txt +│   └── 2015-11-23-dataset_overview.txt +└── send_to_bob + ├── all_datasets_created_on_a_23rd + │   ├── 2015-10-23-dataset1.txt + │   ├── 2015-10-23-dataset2.txt + │   ├── 2015-10-23-dataset_overview.txt + │   ├── 2015-11-23-dataset1.txt + │   ├── 2015-11-23-dataset2.txt + │   └── 2015-11-23-dataset_overview.txt + └── all_november_files + ├── 2015-11-23-calibration.txt + ├── 2015-11-23-dataset1.txt + ├── 2015-11-23-dataset2.txt + └── 2015-11-23-dataset_overview.txt +``` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +```bash +$ cp *calibration.txt backup/calibration +$ cp 2015-11-* send_to_bob/all_november_files/ +$ cp *-23-dataset* send_to_bob/all_datasets_created_on_a_23rd/ +``` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Organizing Directories and Files + +Jamie is working on a project, and she sees that her files aren't very well organized: + +```bash +$ ls -F +``` + +```output +analyzed/ fructose.dat raw/ sucrose.dat +``` + +The `fructose.dat` and `sucrose.dat` files contain output from her data analysis. What command(s) covered in this lesson +does she need to run so that the commands below will produce the output shown? + +```bash +$ ls -F +``` + +```output +analyzed/ raw/ +``` + +```bash +$ ls analyzed +``` + +```output +fructose.dat sucrose.dat +``` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +```bash +mv *.dat analyzed +``` + +Jamie needs to move her files `fructose.dat` and `sucrose.dat` to the `analyzed` directory. The shell will expand +\*.dat to match all .dat files in the current directory. The `mv` command then moves the list of .dat files to the +'analyzed' directory. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Reproduce a folder structure + +You're starting a new experiment and would like to duplicate the directory structure from your previous experiment so +you can add new data. + +Assume that the previous experiment is in a folder called `2016-05-18`, which contains a `data` folder that in turn +contains folders named `raw` and `processed` that contain data files. The goal is to copy the folder structure of the +`2016-05-18` folder into a folder called `2016-05-20` so that your final directory structure looks like this: + +```output +2016-05-20/ +└── data + ├── processed + └── raw +``` + +Which of the following set of commands would achieve this objective? What would the other commands do? + +```bash +$ mkdir 2016-05-20 +$ mkdir 2016-05-20/data +$ mkdir 2016-05-20/data/processed +$ mkdir 2016-05-20/data/raw +``` + +```bash +$ mkdir 2016-05-20 +$ cd 2016-05-20 +$ mkdir data +$ cd data +$ mkdir raw processed +``` + +```bash +$ mkdir 2016-05-20/data/raw +$ mkdir 2016-05-20/data/processed +``` + +```bash +$ mkdir -p 2016-05-20/data/raw +$ mkdir -p 2016-05-20/data/processed +``` + +```bash +$ mkdir 2016-05-20 +$ cd 2016-05-20 +$ mkdir data +$ mkdir raw processed +``` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +The first two sets of commands achieve this objective. The first set uses relative paths to create the top-level +directory before the subdirectories. + +The third set of commands will give an error because the default behavior of `mkdir` won't create a subdirectory of a +non-existent directory: the intermediate level folders must be created first. + +The fourth set of commands achieve this objective. Remember, the `-p` option, followed by a path of one or more +directories, will cause `mkdir` to create any intermediate subdirectories as required. + +The final set of commands generates the 'raw' and 'processed' directories at the same level as the 'data' directory. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: keypoints + +- `cp [old] [new]` copies a file. +- `mkdir [path]` creates a new directory. +- `mv [old] [new]` moves (renames) a file or directory. +- `rm [path]` removes (deletes) a file. +- `*` matches zero or more characters in a filename, so `*.txt` matches all files ending in `.txt`. +- `?` matches any single character in a filename, so `?.txt` matches `a.txt` but not `any.txt`. +- Use of the Control key may be described in many ways, including `Ctrl-X`, `Control-X`, and `^X`. +- The shell does not have a trash bin: once something is deleted, it's really gone. +- Most files' names are `something.extension`. The extension isn't required, and doesn't guarantee anything, but is + normally used to indicate the type of data in the file. +- Depending on the type of work you do, you may need a more powerful text editor than Nano. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +title: Navigating Files and Directories teaching: 30 exercises: 10 +--- + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: objectives + +- Explain the similarities and differences between a file and a directory. +- Translate an absolute path into a relative path and vice versa. +- Construct absolute and relative paths that identify specific files and directories. +- Use options and arguments to change the behaviour of a shell command. +- Demonstrate the use of tab completion and explain its advantages. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: questions + +- How can I move around on my computer? +- How can I see what files and directories I have? +- How can I specify the location of a file or directory on my computer? + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: instructor + +Introducing and navigating the filesystem in the shell (covered in [Navigating Files and Directories](02-filedir.md) +section) can be confusing. You may have both terminal and GUI file explorer open side by side so learners can see the +content and file structure while they're using terminal to navigate the system. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +The part of the operating system responsible for managing files and directories is called the **file system**. It +organizes our data into files, which hold information, and directories (also called 'folders'), which hold files or +other directories. + +Several commands are frequently used to create, inspect, rename, and delete files and directories. To start exploring +them, we'll go to our open shell window. + +First, let's find out where we are by running a command called `pwd` (which stands for 'print working +directory'). Directories are like *places* — at any time while we are using the shell, we are in exactly one place +called our **current working directory**. Commands mostly read and write files in the current working directory, +i.e. 'here', so knowing where you are before running a command is important. `pwd` shows you where you are: + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle +``` + +Here, the computer's response is `/Users/nelle`, which is Nelle's **home directory**: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Home Directory Variation + +The home directory path will look different on different operating systems. On Linux, it may look like `/home/nelle`, +and on Windows, it will be similar to `C:\Documents and Settings\nelle` or `C:\Users\nelle`. (Note that it may look +slightly different for different versions of Windows.) In future examples, we've used Mac output as the default - Linux +and Windows output may differ slightly but should be generally similar. + +We will also assume that your `pwd` command returns your user's home directory. If `pwd` returns something different, +you may need to navigate there using `cd` or some commands in this lesson will not work as written. See [Exploring +Other Directories](#exploring-other-directories) for more details on the `cd` command. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +To understand what a 'home directory' is, let's have a look at how the file system as a whole is organized. For the +sake of this example, we'll be illustrating the filesystem on our scientist Nelle's computer. After this illustration, +you'll be learning commands to explore your own filesystem, which will be constructed in a similar way, but not be +exactly identical. + +On Nelle's computer, the filesystem looks like this: + +![](fig/filesystem.svg){alt='The file system is made up of a root directory that contains sub-directories titled bin, +data, users, and tmp'} + +The filesystem looks like an upside down tree. The topmost directory is the **root directory** that holds everything +else. We refer to it using a slash character, `/`, on its own; this character is the leading slash in `/Users/nelle`. + +Inside that directory are several other directories: `bin` (which is where some built-in programs are stored), `data` +(for miscellaneous data files), `Users` (where users' personal directories are located), `tmp` (for temporary files that +don't need to be stored long-term), and so on. + +We know that our current working directory `/Users/nelle` is stored inside `/Users` because `/Users` is the first part +of its name. Similarly, we know that `/Users` is stored inside the root directory `/` because its name begins with `/`. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Slashes + +Notice that there are two meanings for the `/` character. When it appears at the front of a file or directory name, it +refers to the root directory. When it appears *inside* a path, it's just a separator. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +Underneath `/Users`, we find one directory for each user with an account on Nelle's machine, her colleagues *imhotep* +and *larry*. + +![](fig/home-directories.svg){alt='Like other directories, home directories are sub-directories underneath "/Users" like +"/Users/imhotep", "/Users/larry" or"/Users/nelle"'} + +The user *imhotep*'s files are stored in `/Users/imhotep`, user *larry*'s in `/Users/larry`, and Nelle's in +`/Users/nelle`. Nelle is the user in our examples here; therefore, we get `/Users/nelle` as our home directory. +Typically, when you open a new command prompt, you will be in your home directory to start. + +Now let's learn the command that will let us see the contents of our own filesystem. We can see what's in our home +directory by running `ls`: + +```bash +$ ls +``` + +```output +Applications Documents Library Music Public +Desktop Downloads Movies Pictures +``` + +(Again, your results may be slightly different depending on your operating system and how you have customized your +filesystem.) + +`ls` prints the names of the files and directories in the current directory. We can make its output more comprehensible +by using the `-F` **option** which tells `ls` to classify the output by adding a marker to file and directory names to +indicate what they are: + +- a trailing `/` indicates that this is a directory +- `@` indicates a link +- `*` indicates an executable + +Depending on your shell's default settings, the shell might also use colors to indicate whether each entry is a file or +directory. + +```bash +$ ls -F +``` + +```output +Applications/ Documents/ Library/ Music/ Public/ +Desktop/ Downloads/ Movies/ Pictures/ +``` + +Here, we can see that the home directory contains only **sub-directories**. Any names in the output that don't have a +classification symbol are **files** in the current working directory. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Clearing your terminal + +If your screen gets too cluttered, you can clear your terminal using the `clear` command. You can still access previous +commands using ↑ and ↓ to move line-by-line, or by scrolling in your terminal. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +### Getting help + +`ls` has lots of other **options**. There are two common ways to find out how to use a command and what options it +accepts --- **depending on your environment, you might find that only one of these ways works:** + +1. We can pass a `--help` option to any command (available on Linux and Git Bash), for example: + + ```bash + $ ls --help + ``` + +2. We can read its manual with `man` (available on Linux and macOS): + + ```bash + $ man ls + ``` + +We'll describe both ways next. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Help for built-in commands + +Some commands are built in to the Bash shell, rather than existing as separate programs on the filesystem. One example +is the `cd` (change directory) command. If you get a message like `No manual entry for cd`, try `help cd` instead. The +`help` command is how you get usage information for [Bash +built-ins](https://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/html_node/Bash-Builtins.html). + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +#### The `--help` option + +Most bash commands and programs that people have written to be run from within bash, support a `--help` option that +displays more information on how to use the command or program. + +```bash +$ ls --help +``` + +```output +Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]... +List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default). +Sort entries alphabetically if neither -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified. + +Mandatory arguments to long options are mandatory for short options, too. + -a, --all do not ignore entries starting with . + -A, --almost-all do not list implied . and .. + --author with -l, print the author of each file + -b, --escape print C-style escapes for nongraphic characters + --block-size=SIZE scale sizes by SIZE before printing them; e.g., + '--block-size=M' prints sizes in units of + 1,048,576 bytes; see SIZE format below + -B, --ignore-backups do not list implied entries ending with ~ + -c with -lt: sort by, and show, ctime (time of last + modification of file status information); + with -l: show ctime and sort by name; + otherwise: sort by ctime, newest first + -C list entries by columns + --color[=WHEN] colorize the output; WHEN can be 'always' (default + if omitted), 'auto', or 'never'; more info below + -d, --directory list directories themselves, not their contents + -D, --dired generate output designed for Emacs' dired mode + -f do not sort, enable -aU, disable -ls --color + -F, --classify append indicator (one of */=>@|) to entries +... ... ... +``` + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Unsupported command-line options + +If you try to use an option that is not supported, `ls` and other commands will usually print an error message similar +to: + +```bash +$ ls -j +``` + +```error +ls: invalid option -- 'j' +Try 'ls --help' for more information. +``` + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +#### The `man` command + +The other way to learn about `ls` is to type + +```bash +$ man ls +``` + +This command will turn your terminal into a page with a description of the `ls` command and its options. + +To navigate through the `man` pages, you may use ↑ and ↓ to move line-by-line, or try B +and Spacebar to skip up and down by a full page. To search for a character or word in the `man` pages, use +/ followed by the character or word you are searching for. Sometimes a search will result in multiple hits. +If so, you can move between hits using N (for moving forward) and Shift\+N (for moving +backward). + +To **quit** the `man` pages, press Q. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Manual pages on the web + +Of course, there is a third way to access help for commands: searching the internet via your web browser. When using +internet search, including the phrase `unix man page` in your search query will help to find relevant results. + +GNU provides links to its [manuals](https://www.gnu.org/manual/manual.html) including the [core GNU +utilities](https://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/manual/coreutils.html), which covers many commands introduced within +this lesson. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Exploring More `ls` Options + +You can also use two options at the same time. What does the command `ls` do when used with the `-l` option? What about +if you use both the `-l` and the `-h` option? + +Some of its output is about properties that we do not cover in this lesson (such as file permissions and ownership), but +the rest should be useful nevertheless. + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +The `-l` option makes `ls` use a **l**ong listing format, showing not only the file/directory names but also additional +information, such as the file size and the time of its last modification. If you use both the `-h` option and the `-l` +option, this makes the file size '**h**uman readable', i.e. displaying something like `5.3K` instead of `5369`. + + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Listing in Reverse Chronological Order + +By default, `ls` lists the contents of a directory in alphabetical order by name. The command `ls -t` lists items by +time of last change instead of alphabetically. The command `ls -r` lists the contents of a directory in reverse order. +Which file is displayed last when you combine the `-t` and `-r` options? Hint: You may need to use the `-l` option to +see the last changed dates. + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +The most recently changed file is listed last when using `-rt`. This can be very useful for finding your most recent +edits or checking to see if a new output file was written. + + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +### Exploring Other Directories + +Not only can we use `ls` on the current working directory, but we can use it to list the contents of a different +directory. Let's take a look at our `Desktop` directory by running `ls -F Desktop`, i.e., the command `ls` with the +`-F` **option** and the [**argument**][Arguments] `Desktop`. The argument `Desktop` tells `ls` that we want a listing +of something other than our current working directory: + +```bash +$ ls -F Desktop +``` + +```output +shell-lesson-data/ +``` + +Note that if a directory named `Desktop` does not exist in your current working directory, this command will return an +error. Typically, a `Desktop` directory exists in your home directory, which we assume is the current working directory +of your bash shell. + +Your output should be a list of all the files and sub-directories in your Desktop directory, including the +`shell-lesson-data` directory you downloaded at the [setup for this lesson](../learners/setup.md). (On most systems, the +contents of the `Desktop` directory in the shell will show up as icons in a graphical user interface behind all the open +windows. See if this is the case for you.) + +Organizing things hierarchically helps us keep track of our work. While it's possible to put hundreds of files in our +home directory just as it's possible to pile hundreds of printed papers on our desk, it's much easier to find things +when they've been organized into sensibly-named subdirectories. + +Now that we know the `shell-lesson-data` directory is located in our Desktop directory, we can do two things. + +First, using the same strategy as before, we can look at its contents by passing a directory name to `ls`: + +```bash +$ ls -F Desktop/shell-lesson-data +``` + +```output +exercise-data/ north-pacific-gyre/ +``` + +Second, we can actually change our location to a different directory, so we are no longer located in our home directory. + +The command to change locations is `cd` followed by a directory name to change our working directory. `cd` stands for +'change directory', which is a bit misleading. The command doesn't change the directory; it changes the shell's current +working directory. In other words it changes the shell's settings for what directory we are in. The `cd` command is +akin to double-clicking a folder in a graphical interface to get into that folder. + +Let's say we want to move into the `exercise-data` directory we saw above. We can use the following series of commands +to get there: + +```bash +$ cd Desktop +$ cd shell-lesson-data +$ cd exercise-data +``` + +These commands will move us from our home directory into our Desktop directory, then into the `shell-lesson-data` +directory, then into the `exercise-data` directory. You will notice that `cd` doesn't print anything. This is normal. +Many shell commands will not output anything to the screen when successfully executed. But if we run `pwd` after it, we +can see that we are now in `/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data`. + +If we run `ls -F` without arguments now, it lists the contents of +`/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data`, because that's where we now are: + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data +``` + +```bash +$ ls -F +``` + +```output +alkanes/ animal-counts/ creatures/ numbers.txt writing/ +``` + +We now know how to go down the directory tree (i.e. how to go into a subdirectory), but how do we go up (i.e. how do we +leave a directory and go into its parent directory)? We might try the following: + +```bash +$ cd shell-lesson-data +``` + +```error +-bash: cd: shell-lesson-data: No such file or directory +``` + +But we get an error! Why is this? + +With our methods so far, `cd` can only see sub-directories inside your current directory. There are different ways to +see directories above your current location; we'll start with the simplest. + +There is a shortcut in the shell to move up one directory level. It works as follows: + +```bash +$ cd .. +``` + +`..` is a special directory name meaning "the directory containing this one", or more succinctly, the **parent** of the +current directory. Sure enough, if we run `pwd` after running `cd ..`, we're back in +`/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data`: + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data +``` + +The special directory `..` doesn't usually show up when we run `ls`. If we want to display it, we can add the `-a` +option to `ls -F`: + +```bash +$ ls -F -a +``` + +```output +./ ../ exercise-data/ north-pacific-gyre/ +``` + +`-a` stands for 'show all' (including hidden files); it forces `ls` to show us file and directory names that begin with +`.`, such as `..` (which, if we're in `/Users/nelle`, refers to the `/Users` directory). As you can see, it also +displays another special directory that's just called `.`, which means 'the current working directory'. It may seem +redundant to have a name for it, but we'll see some uses for it soon. + +Note that in most command line tools, multiple options can be combined with a single `-` and no spaces between the +options; `ls -F -a` is equivalent to `ls -Fa`. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Other Hidden Files + +In addition to the hidden directories `..` and `.`, you may also see a file called `.bash_profile`. This file usually +contains shell configuration settings. You may also see other files and directories beginning with `.`. These are +usually files and directories that are used to configure different programs on your computer. The prefix `.` is used to +prevent these configuration files from cluttering the terminal when a standard `ls` command is used. + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +These three commands are the basic commands for navigating the filesystem on your computer: `pwd`, `ls`, and `cd`. Let's +explore some variations on those commands. What happens if you type `cd` on its own, without giving a directory? + +```bash +$ cd +``` + +How can you check what happened? `pwd` gives us the answer! + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle +``` + +It turns out that `cd` without an argument will return you to your home directory, which is great if you've got lost in +your own filesystem. + +Let's try returning to the `exercise-data` directory from before. Last time, we used three commands, but we can actually +string together the list of directories to move to `exercise-data` in one step: + +```bash +$ cd Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data +``` + +Check that we've moved to the right place by running `pwd` and `ls -F`. + +If we want to move up one level from the data directory, we could use `cd ..`. But there is another way to move to any +directory, regardless of your current location. + +So far, when specifying directory names, or even a directory path (as above), we have been using **relative paths**. +When you use a relative path with a command like `ls` or `cd`, it tries to find that location from where we are, rather +than from the root of the file system. + +However, it is possible to specify the **absolute path** to a directory by including its entire path from the root +directory, which is indicated by a leading slash. The leading `/` tells the computer to follow the path from the root of +the file system, so it always refers to exactly one directory, no matter where we are when we run the command. + +This allows us to move to our `shell-lesson-data` directory from anywhere on the filesystem (including from inside +`exercise-data`). To find the absolute path we're looking for, we can use `pwd` and then extract the piece we need to +move to `shell-lesson-data`. + +```bash +$ pwd +``` + +```output +/Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data +``` + +```bash +$ cd /Users/nelle/Desktop/shell-lesson-data +``` + +Run `pwd` and `ls -F` to ensure that we're in the directory we expect. + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout + +## Two More Shortcuts + +The shell interprets a tilde (`~`) character at the start of a path to mean "the current user's home directory". For +example, if Nelle's home directory is `/Users/nelle`, then `~/data` is equivalent to `/Users/nelle/data`. This only +works if it is the first character in the path; `here/there/~/elsewhere` is *not* `here/there/Users/nelle/elsewhere`. + +Another shortcut is the `-` (dash) character. `cd` will translate `-` into *the previous directory I was in*, which is +faster than having to remember, then type, the full path. This is a *very* efficient way of moving *back and forth +between two directories* -- i.e. if you execute `cd -` twice, you end up back in the starting directory. + +The difference between `cd ..` and `cd -` is that the former brings you *up*, while the latter brings you *back*. + +*** + +Try it! First navigate to `~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data` (you should already be there). + +```bash +$ cd ~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data +``` + +Then `cd` into the `exercise-data/creatures` directory + +```bash +$ cd exercise-data/creatures +``` + +Now if you run + +```bash +$ cd - +``` + +you'll see you're back in `~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data`. Run `cd -` again and you're back in +`~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data/exercise-data/creatures` + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Absolute vs Relative Paths + +Starting from `/Users/nelle/data`, which of the following commands could Nelle use to navigate to her home directory, +which is `/Users/nelle`? + +1. `cd .` +2. `cd /` +3. `cd /home/nelle` +4. `cd ../..` +5. `cd ~` +6. `cd home` +7. `cd ~/data/..` +8. `cd` +9. `cd ..` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +1. No: `.` stands for the current directory. +2. No: `/` stands for the root directory. +3. No: Nelle's home directory is `/Users/nelle`. +4. No: this command goes up two levels, i.e. ends in `/Users`. +5. Yes: `~` stands for the user's home directory, in this case `/Users/nelle`. +6. No: this command would navigate into a directory `home` in the current directory if it exists. +7. Yes: unnecessarily complicated, but correct. +8. Yes: shortcut to go back to the user's home directory. +9. Yes: goes up one level. + + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## Relative Path Resolution + +Using the filesystem diagram below, if `pwd` displays `/Users/thing`, what will `ls -F ../backup` display? + +1. `../backup: No such file or directory` +2. `2012-12-01 2013-01-08 2013-01-27` +3. `2012-12-01/ 2013-01-08/ 2013-01-27/` +4. `original/ pnas_final/ pnas_sub/` + +![](fig/filesystem-challenge.svg){alt='A directory tree below the Users directory where "/Users" contains the +directories "backup" and "thing"; "/Users/backup" contains "original","pnas\_final" and "pnas\_sub"; "/Users/thing" +contains "backup"; and"/Users/thing/backup" contains "2012-12-01", "2013-01-08" and"2013-01-27"'} + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +1. No: there *is* a directory `backup` in `/Users`. +2. No: this is the content of `Users/thing/backup`, but with `..`, we asked for one level further up. +3. No: see previous explanation. +4. Yes: `../backup/` refers to `/Users/backup/`. + + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge + +## `ls` Reading Comprehension + +Using the filesystem diagram below, if `pwd` displays `/Users/backup`, and `-r` tells `ls` to display things in reverse +order, what command(s) will result in the following output: + +```output +pnas_sub/ pnas_final/ original/ +``` + +![](fig/filesystem-challenge.svg){alt='A directory tree below the Users directory where "/Users" contains the +directories "backup" and "thing"; "/Users/backup" contains "original","pnas\_final" and "pnas\_sub"; "/Users/thing" +contains "backup"; and"/Users/thing/backup" contains "2012-12-01", "2013-01-08" and"2013-01-27"'} + +1. `ls pwd` +2. `ls -r -F` +3. `ls -r -F /Users/backup` + +::::::::::::::: solution + +## Solution + +1. No: `pwd` is not the name of a directory. +2. Yes: `ls` without directory argument lists files and directories in the current directory. +3. Yes: uses the absolute path explicitly. + + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +## General Syntax of a Shell Command + +We have now encountered commands, options, and arguments, but it is perhaps useful to formalise some terminology. + +Consider the command below as a general example of a command, which we will dissect into its component parts: + +```bash +$ ls -F / +``` + +![](fig/shell_command_syntax.svg){alt='General syntax of a shell command'} + +`ls` is the **command**, with an **option** `-F` and an **argument** `/`. We've already encountered options which +either start with a single dash (`-`), known as **short options**, or two dashes (`--`), known as **long options**. +[Options] change the behavior of a command and [Arguments] tell the command what to operate on (e.g. files and +directories). Sometimes options and arguments are referred to as **parameters**. A command can be called with more +than one option and more than one argument, but a command doesn't always require an argument or an option. + +You might sometimes see options being referred to as **switches** or **flags**, especially for options that take no +argument. In this lesson we will stick with using the term *option*. + +Each part is separated by spaces. If you omit the space between `ls` and `-F` the shell will look for a command called +`ls-F`, which doesn't exist. Also, capitalization can be important. For example, `ls -s` will display the size of files +and directories alongside the names, while `ls -S` will sort the files and directories by size, as shown below: + +```bash +$ cd ~/Desktop/shell-lesson-data +$ ls -s exercise-data +``` + +```output +total 28 + 4 animal-counts 4 creatures 12 numbers.txt 4 alkanes 4 writing +``` + +Note that the sizes returned by `ls -s` are in *blocks*. As these are defined differently for different operating +systems, you may not obtain the same figures as in the example. + +```bash +$ ls -S exercise-data +``` + +```output +animal-counts creatures alkanes writing numbers.txt +``` + +Putting all that together, our command `ls -F /` above gives us a listing of files and directories in the root directory +`/`. An example of the output you might get from the above command is given below: + +```bash +$ ls -F / +``` + +```output +Applications/ System/ +Library/ Users/ +Network/ Volumes/ +``` + + +::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout +### When to use short or long options +When options exist as both short and long options: + +- Use the short option when typing commands directly into the shell to minimize keystrokes and get your task done + faster. +- Use the long option in scripts to provide clarity. It will be read many times and typed once. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + +### Nelle's Pipeline: Organizing Files + +Knowing this much about files and directories, Nelle is ready to organize the files that the protein assay machine will +create. + +She creates a directory called `north-pacific-gyre` (to remind herself where the data came from), which will contain the +data files from the assay machine and her data processing scripts. + +Each of her physical samples is labelled according to her lab's convention with a unique ten-character ID, such as +'NENE01729A'. This ID is what she used in her collection log to record the location, time, depth, and other +characteristics of the sample, so she decides to use it within the filename of each data file. Since the output of the +assay machine is plain text, she will call her files `NENE01729A.txt`, `NENE01812A.txt`, and so on. All 1520 files will +go into the same directory. + +Now in her current directory `shell-lesson-data`, Nelle can see what files she has using the command: + +```bash +$ ls north-pacific-gyre/ +``` + +This command is a lot to type, but she can let the shell do most of the work through what is called **tab completion**. +If she types: + +```bash +$ ls nor +``` + +and then presses Tab (the tab key on her keyboard), the shell automatically completes the directory name for +her: + +```bash +$ ls north-pacific-gyre/ +``` + +Pressing Tab again does nothing, since there are multiple possibilities; pressing Tab twice brings +up a list of all the files. + +If Nelle then presses G and then presses Tab again, the shell will append 'goo' since all files +that start with 'g' share the first three characters 'goo'. + +```bash +$ ls north-pacific-gyre/goo +``` + +To see all of those files, she can press Tab twice more. + +```bash +ls north-pacific-gyre/goo +goodiff.sh goostats.sh +``` + +This is called **tab completion**, and we will see it in many other tools as we go on. + + + +[Arguments]: https://swcarpentry.github.io/shell-novice/reference.html#argument + + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: keypoints + +- The file system is responsible for managing information on the disk. +- Information is stored in files, which are stored in directories (folders). +- Directories can also store other directories, which then form a directory tree. +- `pwd` prints the user's current working directory. +- `ls [path]` prints a listing of a specific file or directory; `ls` on its own lists the current working directory. +- `cd [path]` changes the current working directory. +- Most commands take options that begin with a single `-`. +- Directory names in a path are separated with `/` on Unix, but `\` on Windows. +- `/` on its own is the root directory of the whole file system. +- An absolute path specifies a location from the root of the file system. +- A relative path specifies a location starting from the current location. +- `.` on its own means 'the current directory'; `..` means 'the directory above the current one'. + +:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: + + + +This chapter is from "[Software Carpentry The Unix Shell][swcarpentry-unix]". It is licensed under the +[CC-BY-4.0][cc-by-4]. + + +[swcarpentry-unix]: https://swcarpentry.github.io/shell-novice/ +[cc-by-4]: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ diff --git a/config.yaml b/config.yaml index 5248792..0d71bd2 100644 --- a/config.yaml +++ b/config.yaml @@ -59,7 +59,10 @@ contact: 'topostats@sheffield.ac.uk' # FIXME # Order of episodes in your lesson episodes: -- introduction.md +- 01-command-line.md +- 02-filedir.md +- 03-create.md +# - introduction.md # Information for Learners learners: diff --git a/fig/filesystem-challenge.odg b/fig/filesystem-challenge.odg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c3bf2526efc6bda4b0504400120eb2dac33019f7 GIT binary patch literal 9835 zcmeHtWmsF=wsx=-7tex1v4(1>;uqnje9OTSq=?HYNvNm;6 z`GXJ{8Tk*wJC6UdKM2j8foyK}c9H6RpxLJwji=0r`P#41dx|8xd&{5?7%}j>S>JUh zv}sWx#fE=tt{_Wf=95~auICc0>I2?5*ljM5ma0qbiD7+z3SfPsaq%A2ce`0?c0c

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+ | + sort -n + | + head -n 1 + wc -l *.pdb + $ + > + lengths + + diff --git a/fig/shell_command_syntax.svg b/fig/shell_command_syntax.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a32b8f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/fig/shell_command_syntax.svg @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ + + + + + + + diff --git a/fig/shell_script_for_loop_flow_chart.svg b/fig/shell_script_for_loop_flow_chart.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..028fb0d --- /dev/null +++ b/fig/shell_script_for_loop_flow_chart.svg @@ -0,0 +1,913 @@ + + + +image/svg+xmlfor filename in *.datdo echo cp $filename original-$filenamedone +Process Flow +Variable value +Process +Stdout +basilisk.dat +echo +cp basilisk.dat original-basilisk.dat +minotaur.dat +unicorn.dat +echo +echo +cp minotaur.dat original-minotaur.dat +cp unicorn.dat original-unicorn.dat +Start +Newvalue? +Yes +No +Run process +End +Phase +Shell script + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/fig/standard-filesystem-hierarchy.svg b/fig/standard-filesystem-hierarchy.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ba798b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/fig/standard-filesystem-hierarchy.svg @@ -0,0 +1,1534 @@ + + + + + + + + + + + + image/svg+xml + + + + + + + + / "root" + + + + + "essential user command binaries" + bashcatchmodcpdateechogrepgunzipgziphostnamekilllesslnlsmkdirmoremountmvnanoopenpingpspwdrmshsutartouchumountuname + /bin + + + + + /dev + "device filesincl. /dev/null" + + + + + /home + "user homedirectories" + + + + + + /proc + "process & kernelinformation files" + + + + + + /lib + "libraries &kernel modules" + + + + + /mnt + "mount files fortemporary filesystems" + + + + + /usr + "read-only user applicationsupport data & binaries" + + + "standard includefiles for 'C' code" + "obj, bin, libfiles for coding& packages" + + /usr/bin + "most usercommands" + + /usr/include + + /usr/lib + + /usr/local + "local software" + + /usr/local/bin/usr/local/lib/usr/local/man/usr/local/sbin/usr/local/share + /usr/share + "static data sharableaccross all architectures" + + /usr/share/man + "manual pages" + + + + + + + /etc + "configuration files for the system" + crontabcupsfontsfstabhost.confhostnamehostshosts.allowhosts.denyinitinit.dissuemachine-idmtabmtools.confnanorcnetworkspasswdprofileprotocolsresolv.confrpcsecurettyservicesshellstimezone + + + + + + /var + "variable data files" + + + /var/cache + "application cache data" + + + + "data modified asprogrammes run" + /var/lib + + + + "lock files to track resources in use" + /var/lock + + + + /var/log + "log files" + + + /var/spool + "tasks waiting tobe processed" + + /var/spool/cron/var/spool/cups/var/spool/mail + + /var/opt + "variable data for installed packages" + + + /var/tmp + "temporary files saved between reboots" + + + + /sbin + "essential systembinaries" + fdiskfsckgettyhaltifconfiginitmkfsmkswaprebootroute + + + + + /opt + "optional softwareapplications" + + + + /root + "home dir. forthe root user" + + + + diff --git a/introduction.md b/introduction.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7065d23..0000000 --- a/introduction.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,114 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Using Markdown" -teaching: 10 -exercises: 2 ---- - -:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: questions - -- How do you write a lesson using Markdown and `{sandpaper}`? - -:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: - -::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: objectives - -- Explain how to use markdown with The Carpentries Workbench -- Demonstrate how to include pieces of code, figures, and nested challenge blocks - -:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: - -## Introduction - -This is a lesson created via The Carpentries Workbench. It is written in -[Pandoc-flavored Markdown](https://pandoc.org/MANUAL.txt) for static files and -[R Markdown][r-markdown] for dynamic files that can render code into output. -Please refer to the [Introduction to The Carpentries -Workbench](https://carpentries.github.io/sandpaper-docs/) for full documentation. - -What you need to know is that there are three sections required for a valid -Carpentries lesson: - - 1. `questions` are displayed at the beginning of the episode to prime the - learner for the content. - 2. `objectives` are the learning objectives for an episode displayed with - the questions. - 3. `keypoints` are displayed at the end of the episode to reinforce the - objectives. - -:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: instructor - -Inline instructor notes can help inform instructors of timing challenges -associated with the lessons. They appear in the "Instructor View" - -:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: - -::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge - -## Challenge 1: Can you do it? - -What is the output of this command? - -```r -paste("This", "new", "lesson", "looks", "good") -``` - -:::::::::::::::::::::::: solution - -## Output - -```output -[1] "This new lesson looks good" -``` - -::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: - - -## Challenge 2: how do you nest solutions within challenge blocks? - -:::::::::::::::::::::::: solution - -You can add a line with at least three colons and a `solution` tag. - -::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: -:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: - -## Figures - -You can use standard markdown for static figures with the following syntax: - -`![optional caption that appears below the figure](figure url){alt='alt text for -accessibility purposes'}` - -![You belong in The Carpentries!](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/carpentries/logo/master/Badge_Carpentries.svg){alt='Blue Carpentries hex person logo with no text.'} - -::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: callout - -Callout sections can highlight information. - -They are sometimes used to emphasise particularly important points -but are also used in some lessons to present "asides": -content that is not central to the narrative of the lesson, -e.g. by providing the answer to a commonly-asked question. - -:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: - - -## Math - -One of our episodes contains $\LaTeX$ equations when describing how to create -dynamic reports with {knitr}, so we now use mathjax to describe this: - -`$\alpha = \dfrac{1}{(1 - \beta)^2}$` becomes: $\alpha = \dfrac{1}{(1 - \beta)^2}$ - -Cool, right? - -::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: keypoints - -- Use `.md` files for episodes when you want static content -- Use `.Rmd` files for episodes when you need to generate output -- Run `sandpaper::check_lesson()` to identify any issues with your lesson -- Run `sandpaper::build_lesson()` to preview your lesson locally - -:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: - -[r-markdown]: https://rmarkdown.rstudio.com/ diff --git a/md5sum.txt b/md5sum.txt index de2300d..79b19ca 100644 --- a/md5sum.txt +++ b/md5sum.txt @@ -1,11 +1,13 @@ "file" "checksum" "built" "date" "CODE_OF_CONDUCT.md" "c93c83c630db2fe2462240bf72552548" "site/built/CODE_OF_CONDUCT.md" "2024-01-08" "LICENSE.md" "b24ebbb41b14ca25cf6b8216dda83e5f" "site/built/LICENSE.md" "2024-01-08" -"config.yaml" "8b5eb93fb1a6714e2dfbcf08e1686b5c" "site/built/config.yaml" "2024-01-12" +"config.yaml" "ef77f9782e72c52401ee4cd60ae36581" "site/built/config.yaml" "2024-01-29" "index.md" "32ded82e3af3920844de9879f05cc873" "site/built/index.md" "2024-01-26" "links.md" "8184cf4149eafbf03ce8da8ff0778c14" "site/built/links.md" "2024-01-08" -"episodes/introduction.md" "6c55d31b41d322729fb3276f8d4371fc" "site/built/introduction.md" "2024-01-08" +"episodes/01-command-line.md" "b0e00df5274eb130f7872a9896b976ff" "site/built/01-command-line.md" "2024-01-29" +"episodes/02-filedir.md" "e64617a09bb50fc08a24213e7d8f4868" "site/built/02-filedir.md" "2024-01-29" +"episodes/03-create.md" "bbea2486b75532c2252d1167039c903c" "site/built/03-create.md" "2024-01-29" "instructors/instructor-notes.md" "69e9a8d25797039f14984f17abc80042" "site/built/instructor-notes.md" "2024-01-26" -"learners/reference.md" "1c7cc4e229304d9806a13f69ca1b8ba4" "site/built/reference.md" "2024-01-08" +"learners/reference.md" "51f5c5ea490496c21406ae9a67860bb7" "site/built/reference.md" "2024-01-29" "learners/setup.md" "8ae366f9ee33e5f83c28d7b4d4765aa8" "site/built/setup.md" "2024-01-26" "profiles/learner-profiles.md" "60b93493cf1da06dfd63255d73854461" "site/built/learner-profiles.md" "2024-01-08" diff --git a/reference.md b/reference.md index ba26b9f..40c72db 100644 --- a/reference.md +++ b/reference.md @@ -4,5 +4,72 @@ title: 'Reference' ## Glossary -This is a placeholder file. Please add content here. +### A ++ **AFM** Atomic Force Microscopy + +### B + +### C + ++ **Conda** a package for managing reproducible virtual environments. + +### D + +### E + +### F + +### G + ++ **Grain** the term used for image molecules. + +### H + +### I + +### J + +### K + +### L + +### M + +### N + +### O + +### P + ++ **Python** a general purpose interpreted programming language. See [Python.org][python]. + +### Q + +### R + +### S + +### T + ++ **TopoStats** software written in Python for batch processing images. + ++ **Tracing** obtaining a single-pixel width outline of the detected molecules. + +### U + +### V + +### W + +### X + +### Y + ++ **YAML** a recursive acronym (YAML Ain't Markup Language) it is ASCII plain text files that is used for configuring + how TopoStats will process images. + +### Z + + +[python]: https://www.python.org